COMM 3332 TEST 3

Pong is released

California entrepreneur Nolan Bushnell hires young engineer Al Alcorn to design a car-driving game, but when it becomes apparent that this is too ambitious for the time, he has Alcorn design a version of Ping Pong instead. The game was tested in bars in Grass Valley and Sunnyvale, California, where it proved very popular. Pong would revolutionize the arcade industry and launch the modern video game era.

Programming Games

Games in which the player write short programs that control agents within a game. These agents then compete and react to situations based on the player's programming. This term should not be used for games which a player must learn to operate a machine, such as in Riven (see Puzzle), nor for games in which the player controls the player‐characters directly. Depending on what the programmed agents do, games may be able to be cross‐listed with other genres. Examples: AI Fleet Commander; AI Wars, CoreWar; CRobots; Omega; RARS (Robot Auto Racing Simulator); Robot Battle

Pencil-and-Paper Games

Games which are adaptations of games usually played by means of pencil and paper (see Adaptation). This term should not be used for drawing or doodling programs (see Utility), or for games like those in the Dungeons & Dragons series, whose adaptations are very different from the version of the game played with pencil and paper. Note: Not necessary to use with Adaptation as this is implied in Pencil‐ and‐Paper Games. Examples: 3‐D Tic‐Tac‐Toe; Effacer: Hangman from the 25th Century; Noughts and Crosses; Tic‐Tac‐Toe; and Hangman which appears as a cartridge in several game systems.

3dfx begins selling Voodoo Graphics chips

The demand for high-quality video cards for personal computers grows throughout the 1990s as game companies create games with more complex audio-visual requirements. Founded by three former Silicon Graphics employees, 3dfx designed chipsets to be used in graphics cards. Early success came in the form of arcade games using the Voodoo system, including hits like San Francisco Rush and Wayne Gretzky's 3D Ice Hockey. A failed attempted partnership with Sega to provide graphics cards for their Dreamcast game console, along with improved 3D graphics cards, led to the decline of 3dfx, which eventually sold all its intellectual property to Nvidia.

Creative Arts releases the first SoundBlaster

The demand for improved graphics and sound for personal computer games encourages companies to build add-on sound cards for the IBM PC, with the SoundBlaster family of sound cards becoming the industry standard. Many of these competing cards were similar, but since the SoundBlaster had an additional game port, within a year it had become the best-selling expansion card for the IBM PC. For more than a decade, SoundBlaster cards were among the top-selling sound cards on the market.

Nvidia releases the GeForce 256

Video applications for personal computers drive demand for increased graphical performance. A new approach, one based on a processor specially designed to manipulate graphics, was initiated and the resulting product was known as a "Graphics Processing Unit," or "GPU." The GeForce 256 is often thought of as the first consumer GPU, and while expensive, it sold extremely well. The GeForce 256 was designed to relieve the pressure on the central processing unit (CPU) by handling graphics calculations, while the CPU processed non-graphics intensive tasks.

And also a number of particularly distinctive ways a game can be marketed or categorized:

30-Day Free Trial (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/ThirtyDayFreeTrial): Software which you're allowed to use for a fixed, limited amount of time without paying for it. Once that time expires, you must send money to continue using it. Allegedly Free Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/AllegedlyFreeGame): A game that you can play for free, but you will have to pay money to access other game areas or get particular abilities and items. Beta Test (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/UsefulNotes/BetaTest): A development version of the game, built to test how the various components of the program interact with one another and the computer. Some developers have an "Open Beta" process, giving access to a pre-release version of the game to the general public (or playtesters selected from a public pool) for more extensive testing. Downloadable Content (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/DownloadableContent): Additional, optional content provided by the developer via digital distribution and purchased separately from the main game. Episodic Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/EpisodicGame): A game that is divided into separate episodes, and allows for cheaper prices, shorter wait times, and shorter development times. Expansion Pack (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/ExpansionPack): Additional content released after the original game that is purchased separately and (usually) requires the original game to run. Freemium (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/Freemium): A game that you can play for free, but if you pay premium then you'll get full access to features that you couldn't get for free and remove advertisements. Freeware Games (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/FreewareGames): A game that can be downloaded and distributed legally for free. Game Mod (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/GameMod): Third-party modifications applied to an existing game. Can range from cosmetic improvements to additional fan-created content to full-on total conversions that only share an underlying game engine. Game Mod Index (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/GameModIndex): This is where you'll find Game Mods listed in one place. H-Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/HGame): A game that features sex or heavy fanservice. Indie Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/IndieGame): A game that is developed without the backing of a publishing company, thus making it independently developed. Licensed Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/LicensedGame): A game based on an existing property, usually a movie, TV series or comic book. License-Added Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/LicenseAddedGame): A specific type of Licensed Game in which the license is added to a new version of an existing video game franchise. Microtransactions (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/Microtransactions): A game that has individual, one-off payments for accessing additional content in a game. Mission-Pack Sequel (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/MissionPackSequel): A sequel with so few changes from its predecessor that it feels more like an Expansion Pack than a "true" sequel. Obvious Beta (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/ObviousBeta): An unfinished game (often egregiously (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/Egregious) so) marketed as a finished one, for whatever reason. Perpetual Beta (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/PerpetualBeta): A game which undergoes a long process of bugfixes, tweaks, and rebalancing even after its official release. So named because the developers seem to be "outsourcing" their beta testing to the player base without telling them the game's not really finished. Shareware (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/Shareware): A game that can be played to a certain extent without purchasing it. Buying the game will allow the player to play it to completion, instantly picking up exactly where they left off upon purchase without the need to install anything. Shovelware (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/UsefulNotes/Shovelware): Software that is normally sold in bundles of several products, but it can refer to lowest-common-denominator software in general. Unlicensed Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/UnlicensedGame): A playable Shoddy Knockoff Product (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php /Main/ShoddyKnockoffProduct). Video Game Long-Runners (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php /Main/VideoGameLongRunners): A franchise that has at least six games in its main series and spans ten years. Web Games (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/WebGames): A game is that is played over the web via the web browser.

These are the genres a Videogame can be classified as:

Action-Adventure (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/ActionAdventure): A game that combines parts from Adventure Games and Action Games together. Metroidvania (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/Metroidvania): A game that combines parts from Adventure Action Games and Platform Games together. Features emphasis on exploring an interconnected environment and obtaining skills necessary to reach new areas of said environment. Stealth-Based Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/StealthBasedGame): A game in which the player character must hide and sneak through the level while avoiding notice from much more powerful enemies that the player character cannot take head-on.Action Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/ActionGame): A game that is primarily about physical challenges, such as combat and obstacle crossing. Platform Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/PlatformGame) (Platformer): A game in which jumping is an important action for navigating the environment. Leaping and climbing between platforms of varying heights and over or onto enemy characters forms a large part of the gameplay. Cinematic Platform Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php /Main/CinematicPlatformGame): A Platform Game that portrays itself more realistically. Elimination Platformer (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/EliminationPlatformer): A game that requires players to use the concept of jumping from one platform to another to clear the entire level of enemies. Puzzle Platformer (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/PuzzlePlatformer): A game that combines parts from Platform Games and Puzzle Games together. Run-and-Gun (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/RunAndGun): A Platformer that borrows elements from the Shoot 'em Up (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php /Main/ShootEmUp) genre. Beat 'em Up (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/BeatEmUp): A Sub-genre of Action Game with the player character fighting primarily with punches and kicks against against large hordes of relatively weaker (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php /Main/Mooks) enemies. Hack and Slash (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/HackAndSlash): A Beat 'em Up (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/BeatEmUp) where the player character primarily wields close range melee weaponry, like a sword or axe. Stylish Action (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/StylishAction): A Beat 'em Up (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/BeatEmUp) or Hack and Slash (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/HackAndSlash) based around fighting enemies as stylishly and/or efficiently as possible. Fighting Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/FightingGame): An Action Game that is primarily about one-on-one fights between two (or rarely more) equally skilled opponents. Mascot Fighter (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/MascotFighter): Ultimate Showdown Of Ultimate Destiny is heavily featured. Platform Fighter (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/PlatformFighter): A fighting game combined with platform game elements; has great emphasis on maneuverability on dynamic stages. First-Person Shooter (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/FirstPersonShooter) (FPS): A game in which the perspective is through the eyes of the player character, and the action revolves around shooting. Hero Shooter (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/HeroShooter): A Sub-genre of FPS in which each character has different abilities and weapons. Light Gun Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/LightGunGame): A game in which the player has a pointing device that resembles a gun and points it at the screen to shoot on-screen enemies. Rail Shooter (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/RailShooter): A game in which the computer controls most of your movement and you control the shots. Shoot 'em Up (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/ShootEmUp) (Shmups): A fixed- scrolling shooting game that is not three-dimensional. Bullet Hell (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/BulletHell): A vertically scrolling shooter that has every single enemy fire hundreds or thousands of projectiles on-screen at once at the player character, testing their dodging skills. Horizontal Scrolling Shooter (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php /Main/HorizontalScrollingShooter): A Shoot Em Up game that has a horizontal Auto- Scrolling Level (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/AutoScrollingLevel), that is, to the left or right. Vertical Scrolling Shooter (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php /Main/VerticalScrollingShooter): A Shoot Em Up game that has a vertical Auto Scrolling Level, that is, up or down. Tactical Shooter (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/TacticalShooter): A First/Third- person shooter that simulates realistic combat, encouraging use of real-life combat tactics. Key gameplay mechanics include realistically damaging bullets, Squad Controls, Subsystem Damage, cover mechanics, situational awareness aids, mission planning, et cetera. Third-Person Shooter (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/ThirdPersonShooter) (3PS/TPS): A 3D game that has the camera looking behind the player character or over their shoulder, and involves the use guns and similar weapons. Vehicular Combat (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/VehicularCombat): A game that has the player control a normally armed motor vehicle and must destroy all enemies. Adventure Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/AdventureGame): A game that is about puzzle-solving, exploration, and narrative, and a relative (or total) absence of randomized combat. Environmental Narrative Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php /Main/EnvironmentalNarrativeGame): A story-driven adventure game which emphasizes narrative and exploring a physical location, with very little in the way of interactivity or gameplay challenge. Also known by other labels including "walking simulator", "story exploration game" and "interactive stories". Full Motion Video (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/FullMotionVideo) (Interactive Movie (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/InteractiveMovie)): A game that is based around video clips, and the player must press buttons at the right time, choose the right sequence of clips, or play other games using the video as a backdrop. Interactive Fiction (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/InteractiveFiction): An Adventure Game in which the interaction is almost entirely text-based. Point-and-Click Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/PointAndClickGame): A game in which player interacts with the environment by moving the mouse cursor over areas of the screen and clicking on them. Room Escape Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/RoomEscapeGame): A simplistic type of Point-and-Click Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php /Main/PointAndClickGame) consisting solely of puzzles to escape a room or series of rooms. Romance Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/RomanceGame): A game in which the primary goal is to establish a romantic relationship between the Player Character and one or more of the NPCs. Dating Sim (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/DatingSim): A game in which the player courts at least one potential lover, and the player must keep track of every character's feelings about them and giving out presents, which will feel like a Role Playing Game. Visual Novel (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/VisualNovel): Even though people equate this with "Dating Sim", they are not the same. Unlike Dating Sims, Visual Novels are more like Adventure Games that allow you to choose your own adventure and get different endings based off of your choices. Breaking Out (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/BreakingOut): A game in which a paddle at the bottom of the screen bounces a ball to destroy blocks, and missing the ball results in the player losing a life. Card Battle Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/CardBattleGame): A game in which players brings their own deck of cards to play. Casual Video Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/CasualVideoGame): A game that is easy to learn and relatively simple by design. Endless Running Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php /Main/EndlessRunningGame): A game about enduring an endless sequence of obstacles as long as possible. Exergaming (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/Exergaming): A game that encourages the player to exercise and to get into shape. Hidden Object Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/HiddenObjectGame): A game in which there is a photorealistic cluttered scene and the player must find and click on a series of objects in it. Match-Three Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/MatchThreeGame): A game in which the player must match three objects of similar color/shape/species to eliminate said objects from the playing field. Minigame Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/MinigameGame): A game that has a series of puzzles, challenges and games with very different requirements for defeating them. Party Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/PartyGame): A Minigame Game in which two to four players compete against each other in a boardgame-like environment. Digging Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/DiggingGame): A game in which the player digs through terrain while minding falling objects. Digital Pinball Tables (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/DigitalPinballTables): Computerized pinball games, whether replicas of Physical Pinball Tables (http://tvtropes.org /pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/PhysicalPinballTables) or original boards with features that can only exist in software. Edutainment Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/EdutainmentGame): A game that educates players as well as entertains them. Escort Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/EscortGame): A game about escorting someone. Idle Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/IdleGame): A genre of game defined by its gameplay, the primary feature of which is that the easiest way to win is to leave the game running by itself for long periods of time. Mad Marble Maze (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/MadMarbleMaze): A game in which the player rolls a round object of some kind from the beginning to the end of a level. Maze Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/MazeGame) : A game that takes place in a maze, and the player must either get from one side of the maze to the other, or clear it of every item that won't kill the player. Multiplayer Online Battle Arena (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php /Main/MultiplayerOnlineBattleArena) (MOBA): A game that has teams of players competing with each other, typically using the point-and-click interface of a Real Time Strategy; but, unlike RTS games, players control only one Hero Unit instead of a military-industrial complex. Pop Up Video Games (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/PopUpVideoGames): A game in which clicking on background items results in cute animations. Programming Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/ProgrammingGame): A game in which the player has little to no direct control over the game's events, and must set up the solution, then hit a "go" switch to activate the solution and see if it accomplishes the task correctly. Puzzle Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/PuzzleGame): A game that requires mental skill as well as, or instead of, dexterity and quick reflexes. Bizarre Puzzle Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/BizarrePuzzleGame): A Puzzle Game that is so weird and mind-defying that trying to label it with a genre is a puzzle in and of itself. Teamwork Puzzle Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php /Main/TeamworkPuzzleGame): A game in which the player controls a group of characters, and progress frequently depends on puzzles making use of this fact. Falling Blocks (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/FallingBlocks): A game in which blocks fall from the top of the screen, requiring the player to move and flip them so that they'll be arranged in a way to make them disappear, and if the blocks reach the top of the screen then the game ends. Racing Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/RacingGame): A game in which the player drives a vehicle of some kind and races against either other players or time. Mascot Racer (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/MascotRacer): Colorful characters use colorful weapons in their races. Rising Up The Food Chain Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php /Main/RisingUpTheFoodChainGame): A game in which the player must eat creatures smaller than himself and become bigger, which allows him to eat more creatures. Rhythm Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/RhythmGame): A game that will flash commands, and the player has to input the same, synchronized to a beat or melody. Role-Playing Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/RolePlayingGame) (RPG) — see also Tabletop Games (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/TabletopGames) (Tabletop RPG): A game in which the player controls a character or party of characters in a statistically abstracted way. Action RPG (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/ActionRPG): A game that combines parts from Role Playing Games and Action Adventure Games together. Either a sub-genre of the Role-playing Game or a genre modifier, depending on who you ask. Eastern RPG (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/EasternRPG): A usually Japanese game that tends to have a linear plot and a party of pre-defined characters written into said plot. Multi-User Dungeon (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/MultiUserDungeon) (MUD (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/MUD)) and MOO: An Interactive Fiction that allows multiple (perhaps thousands) players to play at the same time. Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php /Main/MassivelyMultiplayerOnlineRolePlayingGame) (MMORPG): A game that has hundreds of players interacting with each other in the same world in real-time, which completing quests and leveling up. MUCK (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/MUCK): A Multi-User Text-Oriented Game that emphasizes roleplaying and player intervention. MUSH (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/MUSH) (Multi User Shared Hallucination (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/MultiUserSharedHallucination)): A MUD that is just a series of rooms, with players given the bare minimum of interaction systems and let loose to create and manage their own roleplaying. Roguelike (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/Roguelike): A game that features Dungeon Crawling (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/DungeonCrawling) with randomly-generated environments randomly stocked from a huge list of monsters and items, Final Death (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/FinalDeath), Anti-Grinding (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/AntiGrinding) and is Nintendo Hard Strategy RPG (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/StrategyRPG) (SRPG): A game that is a Role Playing Game, but it plays like a Turn Based Strategy or Real Time Strategy. Western RPG (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/WesternRPG): A North American or European game that features a customizable featureless protagonist. Simulation Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/SimulationGame) (Sim): A game that simulates parts of a reality, fictional or real. Construction and Management Games (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php /Main/ConstructionAndManagementGames): This type of game focuses on elements like gathering and management of resources, construction, expansion, research and exploration. Driving Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/DrivingGame): A game in which the player drives a vehicle of some kind. Racing Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki /pmwiki.php/Main/RacingGame) and Vehicular Combat (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki /pmwiki.php/Main/VehicularCombat) are sub-genres where competition with other drivers becomes a major focus. Immersive Sim (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/ImmersiveSim): A game that simulates a consistent lived-in world, facilitates Emergent Gameplay (http://tvtropes.org /pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/EmergentGameplay), and rewards creative problem solving. Raising Sim (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/RaisingSim): A game in which schedules for a game to process are applied, which in turn affects characters in the game, who then develop 'on their own' without constant user interference. Virtual Pet (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/VirtualPet): A game where the player interacts with a digital pet, with the goal of caring for it like a real one. Sports Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/SportsGame): A game that simulates playing a traditional physical sport. Wrestling Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/WrestlingGame): A game that simulates Professional Wrestling, with grapples, holds and throws. Strategy Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/StrategyGame): A game in which the player's strategical and/or tactical thinking is required in order to achieve victory. 4X (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/FourX) (4X): A game that has four simple goals, which are eXplore, eXpand, eXploit and eXterminate. Sub-genre of a Strategy Game. Artillery Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/ArtilleryGame): A game that tasks the player with successfully aiming at an opponent with a ballistics trajectory under various conditions. Real-Time Strategy (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/RealTimeStrategy) (RTS): A game that focuses on construction and control of a fighting force in battle that takes place in real-time. Space-Management Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php /Main/SpaceManagementGame): A game in which the player must figure out how to make the most out of as little space as possible. Time Management Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php /Main/TimeManagementGame): A game in which the player must perform task such as serving food and changing baby's diapers as fast as possible. Tower Defense (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/TowerDefense): A game in which the player defends a building from monsters using other buildings, sometimes with a unit or two as back-up. Turn-Based Strategy (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/TurnBasedStrategy) (TBS): A game that is about abstract mechanics of efficiently waging war, exploiting resources and controlling huge groups of combatants all at once. Turn-Based Tactics (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/TurnBasedTactics): A game in which the player must control individual soldiers or vehicles. And lastly, Miscellaneous Games (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php /Main/MiscellaneousGames): A page that contains games that nobody could identify the genre of. It really should be cleaned out.

Terminator 2: Judgment Day opens

Director James Cameron's sequel to his 1984 hit The Terminator, features groundbreaking special effects done by Industrial Light & Magic. Made for a record $100 million, it was the most expensive movie ever made at the time. Most of this cost was due to the expense of computer-generated special effects (such as image morphing) throughout the film. Terminator 2 is one of many films that critique civilization's frequent blind trust in technology.

Driving

Games based primarily on driving skills, such as steering, maneuverability, speed control, and fuel conservation. This term should not be used for games in which racing or the winning of a race is the main objective (see Racing), nor for games which are essentially obstacle courses in which a player's main objective is to hit or avoid touching a series of objects or characters (see Obstacle Course), unless driving skills are essential to play and to the winning of the game. In most cases, Driving games involve vehicles, whereas Obstacle Course games generally do not. Scoring in Driving games is often based on how fast a particular course is completed, rather than whether or not an opponent is beat in a race, and these games are often single‐player games. Examples: Dodge 'Em (with Dodging); Indy 500 (with Racing); Night Driver; Pole Position (with Racing); Red Planet (with Racing); Street Racer (with Dodging and Racing)

Strategy

Games emphasizing the use of strategy as opposed to fast action or the use of quick reflexes, which are usually not necessary for success in these games. Note: See also management simulation games like M.U.L.E. and Spaceward Ho!, as well as many Board Games, Card Games, and Combat games. Examples: Ataxx (with Abstract); Checkers (with Board Games), Chess (with Board Games); Monopoly (with Board Games); M.U.L.E. (with Management Simulation); Othello (with Board Games); Spaceward Ho! (with Management Simulation); Stellar Track

Rhythm and Dance

Games in which gameplay requires players to keep time with a musical rhythm. These games may employ a variety of controllers beyond the usual video game hardware, including controllers simulating drums (as in DrumMania), turntables (as in Beatmania), guitars (as in Guitar Freaks), or even maracas (as in Samba de Amigo). Examples: Beatmania; Bust‐a‐Groove; Dance Dance Revolution; Guitar Freaks; PaRappa the Rapper; Pop 'n' Music; Samba de Amigo; Space Channel 5; Um Jammer Lammy; Vib‐Ribbon (with Obstacle Course)

Target

Games in which the primary objective involves aiming and shooting at targets which are not moving or in motion. Occasionally the targets may be harming the player‐ character's property (as in Wabbit). This term should not be used for games in which the player‐character can be fired upon by opponents (see Combat, and Shoot 'Em Up), or games do not involve shooting (see Catching and Collecting), nor for games in which the objects or characters actively elude the player‐character. Examples: Air‐Sea Battle; Carnival; Human Cannonball; Marksman/Trapshooting; Shooting Gallery; Skeet Shoot (with Sports); Wabbit

Capturing

Games in which the primary objective involves the capturing of objects orcharacters that move away from and try to evade the player‐character. This may involve stopping the object or character (as in Gopher or Keystone Kapers), or closing off their access to an escape route (as in Surround or in the light cycle section of the arcade game Tron). This term should not be used for games in which objects or characters do not move (see Collecting) or do not actively try to avoid the player‐character (see Catching), nor should it be used for Strategy games (such as Chess and Checkers) involving the capturing of pieces which are controlled by the player, but which are not player‐characters directly representing the player in the game. Note: Not necessary to cross‐list with Chase as this is implied in Capturing. Many games with more than one player can be cross‐listed with Escape, as game play often involves player‐characters alternately trying to capture one another and escape from one another. Capturing objectives also occur briefly in some games; for example, in Pac‐man after eating a power pill when the ghosts can be chased and eaten, or the capturing of criminals in Superman. Examples: Gopher; Hole Hunter; Keystone Kapers; Surround (with Escape); Take the Money and Run; Texas Chainsaw Massacre; the light cycle game in Tron

Catching

Games in which the primary objective involves the catching of objects or characters that do not actively try to evade the player‐character. If the objects or characters are in motion, it is usually along a predetermined path and independent of the movements of the player‐character. In some cases the player‐character can affect the motion of the objects or characters (such as in Stampede, where the player‐ character can nudge the cattle forward), but at no time do the objects or characters try to actively avoid the player‐character. This term should not be used for games in which objects or characters do not move (see Collecting) or games in which they actively try to avoid the player‐character (see Capturing). Nor should the term be used for games that require timing in order to use moving objects, such as the moving logs in Frogger, or the swinging vines in Pitfall!, nor for Sports games with balls which are thrown, bounced, or caught, as these objects are used and reused but not "caught" and removed from the game. Examples: Alpha Beam with Ernie (with Educational); Big Bird's Egg Catch; Circus Atari, Fishing Derby; Lost Luggage; Stampede; Quantum; and games 21 through 27 in Street Racer

Collecting

Games in which the primary objective involves the collecting of objects that do not move (such as Pac‐Man or Mousetrap), or the surrounding of areas (such as Qix or Amidar). Often scoring in these games is determined by the number of objects collected or areas bounded. "Collecting" here can mean simply running over or hitting objects which then disappear (as the dots in Pac‐Man, or the balloons in Prop Cycle). This term should not be used for games in which objects or characters sought by the player‐character are in motion (see Catching) or games in which they actively try to avoid the player‐character (see Capturing). Nor should the term be used for games that require the use of objects (such as keys, currency, or weaponry) which are only indirectly used in the attainment of the game's objective. Some games involve the collecting of pieces of an object which can be assembled once all the pieces are found, such as the bridge in Superman or the urn in Haunted House, although these games often have objectives that involve more than simply collecting, and so should not be considered as belonging to this genre. Examples: Amidar (with Abstract); Mousetrap (with Maze and Escape); Pac‐man (with Maze and Escape); Spy Vs Spy (with Combat and Maze); Prop Cycle (with Flying); Qix (with Abstract)

Table-Top Games

Games involving adaptations of existing table‐top games requiring physical skill or action (such as pool or pinball). This term should not be used for games involving little or no physical skill or action (see Board Games and Card Games), nor should it be used for games which cannot be played on a table‐top of some sort (see Sports). For games which resemble pinball games, see Pinball. Note: Not necessary to cross‐list with Adaptation, as this is implied in Table‐Top Games. Examples: Battle Ping Pong; Electronic Table Soccer!; Parlour Games; Pocket Billiards!; Pong (with Sports); Sure Shot Pool; Trick Shot; Virtual Pool

Fighting

Games involving characters who fight usually hand‐to‐hand, in one‐to‐one combat situations without the use of firearms or projectiles. In most of these games, the fighters are represented as humans or anthropomorphic characters. This term should not be used for games which involve shooting or vehicles (see Combat and Shoot 'Em Up), or for games which include fighting, like Ice Hockey, but which have other objectives (see Sports). Note: Many Fighting games can also be cross‐listed with Sports. For related games, see also Combat. Examples: Avengers; Body Slam; Boxing (with Sports); games in the Mortal Kombat series; Soul Edge; games in the Tekken series; Wrestle War

Educational

Games which are designed to teach, and in which the main objective involves the learning of a lesson. Rather than being structured as a straightforward set of lessons or exercises, these programs are structured like games, with such elements as scoring, timed performances, or incentives given for correct answers. The degree to which these programs can be considered games varies greatly. Note: Not necessary to cross‐list with Utility, as this is implied in Educational. Examples: Alpha Beam with Ernie (with Catching); Basic Math; Mario's Early Years: Fun With Numbers; Mario Teaches Typing; Math Blaster: Episode 1; Math Grand Prix; Morse; Number Games; Playschool Math; Spelling Games; Word Games

Interactive Movie

Games which are made up of branching video clips or other moving images, the branching of which is decided by a player's actions. Players are often called to make decisions at points in the game where the action stalls or loops, or during action sequences that allow player input which can stop or change the course of action while the video clip is running. While the player may be given limited freedom of movement or action, revelation of the story is still largely linear in structure, with little or no variation possible in its overall sequence of events. This term should not be used for games which place a controllable player‐character over backgrounds which are video clips, like Rebel Assault, nor should the term be used to refer to games like Myst which allow a player to wander and explore its "world" freely, but still limit outcomes and possible narrative paths to a series of video sequences and linear progression through a relatively predetermined narrative. Examples: Dragon's Lair; Space Ace; Gadget; Johnny Mnemonic; Star Trek Borg

Quiz

Games which in which the main objective is the successful answering of questions. Scoring is usually based on either how many questions are answered correctly, or on the amount of money players have after betting on their answers. Some of these games are adaptations of board games or quiz shows from television. Note: Games in which the player can place a bet on their answers should be cross‐listed with Gambling. Examples: $25,000 Pyramid (with Adaptation); Fax; Jeopardy (with Adaptation); NFL Football Trivia Challenge '94/'95; Name That Tune (with Adaptation); You Don't Know Jack (with Gambling); Sex Trivia; Trivial Pursuit (with Adaptation); Trivia Whiz; Triv‐Quiz; Video Trivia; Wizz Quiz

Pinball

Games which simulate the play of a pinball game. Although these games could be considered as Table‐Top Games, there is a tradition of video pinball games and a wide variety of them to warrant categorizing them in a genre of their own. Note: Not necessary to cross‐list with Table‐Top Games as that is implied in Pinball. Examples: Arcade Pinball; Astrocade Pinball; Electronic Pinball; Extreme Pinball; Flipper Game; Galactic Pinball; Kirby's Pinball Land; Midnight Magic; Pachinko!; Pinball; Pinball Challenge; Pinball Dreams; Pinball Fantasies; Pinball Jam; Pinball Quest; Pinball Wizard; Power Rangers Pinball; Pro Pinball; Real Pinball; Sonic Spinball; Spinball; Super Pinball: Behind the Mask; Super Sushi Pinball; Thunderball!; True Pinball; Video Pinball

Nintendo releases the Game Boy handheld game console

Handheld electronic games had been popular for more than a decade by the time Nintendo introduces the Game Boy. The system used removable game cartridges to play on its 2.9-inch black and white screen. Game Boy's popularity was helped by its major release title, the puzzle game Tetris. Over nearly twenty years, more than one hundred million Game Boys were sold, making it one of the all-time, top-selling game systems.

Solving the Mystery of the Missing Girl Games

I never intended to get into the interactive gaming field. But after 11 years of making films, primarily documentaries, I had an itch to try something different. So in the mid-90s I packed my bags and moved from Washington, D.C., to Seattle to hunt for a job creating interactive media. My film industry colleagues thought I was nuts. "What exactly is interactive media, anyway?" they asked. My first gig out West was with Microsoft as a producer of Web content. It was a great first step, but it didn't exactly feed my passion for storytelling. Through an acquaintance, I became aware of a small company that developed interactive entertainment for girls, Her Interactive. The company had just secured the license to create Nancy Drew products. As a young adult I had read all the Nancy Drew books, and the opportunity to bring the mysteries to life on the PC was a dream come true. I joined the company as the creative director, moved on to a producer role and ultimately became president. Early on I realized we were doing something different. Most games at the time were designed by males, for males. Barbie was about the only form of interactive entertainment there was. We were rebels with a cause. What I didn't anticipate was that neither the distribution channel nor the industry had girl games on their radar. They believed that females were computer-phobic and didn't like video games. To me, that spelled "opportunity." Other industries had successfully targeted books, music, and films to females. So why not video games? Our research confirmed that the interest was there. We learned how to tap into it by seeking female perspectives on everything we did, from playing style and mechanics to marketing. Our games speak to a different experience and value system. Since many of the women and girls in our studies had limited experience playing video games, their fresh insights helped us improve existing game play conventions. And although we initially targeted girls ages 10-15, we found women were having so much fun that we expanded our audience to casual gamers ages 10-80. Even with the research to back us up, distributors still didn't understand that female gamers could be a lucrative market. After the last door was shut on us, we turned to alternative distribution channels. We approached Amazon.com and finally found a voice and a path to get Her Interactive games out there. Our success there pried the doors open. Since then we have partnered with Atari and DreamCatcher to get Nancy Drew into retail stores. The interactive entertainment industry is risk averse. Like Hollywood, it takes a formula that works, like sex and violence, and it uses it over and over again. Most games on the market are targeted to boys and men. At Her Interactive we always believed that the market was much bigger. The industry has only recently changed its thinking and is now targeting female gamers. Today's buying and playing market is almost half female, a monumental change from the early days of gaming. In 2003, Nancy Drew was the top adventure game franchise, according to market research firm The NPD Group. I attribute Her Interactive's success to identifying, seizing and serving a market when most others were in denial that it existed. I'm thrilled that the market is opening up. The interactive entertainment industry is still in its infancy and it's similar to the early days of the film industry. In time, we will segment the market to include as many genres as there are preferences, and genres will begin to overlap and merge. The digital economy is changing the way we interact, the way we do business and the way we play. The rules are changing and creativity is the equalizer.

Microsoft enters gaming arena with Xbox

In 1998, members of Microsoft's multi-media DirectX team reconfigured old Dell laptops to create a Window-based video game console. They brought the idea to Microsoft management, which approved the idea of a home game console based on Microsoft's Direct X graphics technology. The Xbox (originally DirectX Box) used standard PC parts, including a built-in hard drive. Seen as a major risk for a software company, the Xbox console surprisingly sold out its initial North American production run. In 2002, Microsoft launched Xbox Live, an online service that allowed competitive gameplay and chat. The Xbox was hailed for its high-quality graphics. Graphics acceleration was provided by an nVidia-Microsoft co-designed Graphical Processing Unit (GPU) which gave the Xbox the high-performance graphics usually associated with much more powerful processors.

Iconography versus Interactivity

In his essay "The Idea of Genre in the American Cinema", Ed Buscombe lists three areas in which genre elements may appear in film: iconography, structure and theme.3 While iconography and theme may be applicable to narrative‐based video games, other games like Tetris and Ataxx are abstract to the point where little or no narrative exists, and some games, like Video Pinball and Scrabble are patterned after relatively nonnarrative activities, and do not contain much in the way of diegetic worlds populated by characters. While the ideas of iconography and theme may be appropriate tools for analyzing Hollywood films as well as many video games, another area, interactivity, is an essential part of every game's structure and a more appropriate way of examining and defining video game genres. Just as different forms of dance (foxtrot, waltz, ballet, jazz) are defined by how the dancers move rather than how they look, an examination of the variety and range of video games reveals the inadequacy of classification by iconography of even narrative‐based games. While some video games can be classified in a manner similar to that of films (we might say that Outlaw is a Western, Space Invaders science fiction, and Combat a war game), classification by iconography ignores the fundamental differences and similarities which are to be found in the player's experience of the game. Outlaw and Combat, both early games for the Atari 2600, are very similar in that both simply feature player‐characters maneuvering and shooting at each other in a field of obstacles on a single, bounded screen of graphics, with cowboys in one game and tanks in the other. In a similar vein, Activision's Chopper Command for the Atari 2600 is essentially a version of Defender with helicopters replacing the spaceships. Conversely, an iconographic analysis of Space Invaders, Spaceward Ho!, Defender, and Star Wars, as well as many other games, would consider them all "science fiction" even though they vary widely in player experience. As narrative games grow more complex and cinematic, iconographic and thematic generic classifications from film will be able to be applied more usefully, but interactivity will always be an important factor in the way the games are experienced. Genres based on interactivity also avoid some of the problems found in literary and film genres. In "Genre and Critical Methodology", Andrew Tudor points out that in relying on theme for the determination of genre, one is confronted with the difficulties in isolating a film's (or rather, film author's) intentions.4 In a video game, there is almost always a definite objective that the player strives to complete (or find and complete, as in the case of Myst), and in doing so very specific interactions are used. Thus the intention, of the player‐character at least, is often clear, and can be analyzed as a part of the game. The game's objective is a motivational force for the player, and this, combined with the various forms of interactivity present in the game, are useful places to start in building a set of video game genres. The object of the game can be multiple or divided into steps, placing the game in more than one genre, just as a film's theme and iconography can place a film in multiple genres (the film Blade Runner, for example, fits both science fiction and hard‐boiled detective genres). The main objective in Pac‐Man by which a player gains points and advances levels, for example, is the eating of the yellow dots. In order to do so successfully, the player‐character must avoid the pursuing ghosts, and also navigate a maze. Thus while Pac‐Man may be primarily classified (according to the terms below) as a "Collecting" game, we may also classify it as an "Escape" or "Maze" game, albeit secondarily. By beginning with the interaction required by the game's primary objective, we can start to divide the wide variety of video games into a series of interactive genres.

Chase

See Catching, Capturing, Driving, Escape, Flying, and Racing

ILM produces The Genesis Effect for Star Trek II - The Wrath of Khan

Star Trek II - The Wrath of Khan, features one of the most groundbreaking segments in the history of early computer graphics, The Genesis Effect. Portraying the rebirth of a barren planet, the computer graphics group of Lucasfilm created the sequence, basing it partly on the simulation of satellite fly-bys done by Jim Blinn for NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. The team, directed by Alvy Ray Smith, produced the effect using Lucasfilm's DEC VAX computer and an Evans and Sutherland Picture System. The sequence, considered to be one of the major milestones in computer animation, lasts just over a minute, and took two person-years of work to complete.

1. The availability of video games has led to an epidemic of youth violence.

According to federal crime statistics, the rate of juvenile violent crime in the United States is at a 30-year low. Researchers find that people serving time for violent crimes typically consume less media before committing their crimes than the average person in the general population. It's true that young offenders who have committed school shootings in America have also been game players. But young people in general are more likely to be gamers — 90 percent of boys and 40 percent of girls play. The overwhelming majority of kids who play do NOT commit antisocial acts. According to a 2001 U.S. Surgeon General's report, the strongest risk factors for school shootings centered on mental stability and the quality of home life, not media exposure. The moral panic over violent video games is doubly harmful. It has led adult authorities to be more suspicious and hostile to many kids who already feel cut off from the system. It also misdirects energy away from eliminating the actual causes of youth violence and allows problems to continue to fester.

World of Warcraft comes on-line

After ten years as a series of strategy games, Blizzard Entertainment launches World of Warcraft, a Massive Multiplayer Online Role Playing Game (MMORPG) version of their popular Warcraft franchise. Centered on the fantasy world of Azeroth, Warcraft allows players to choose an avatar to go "questing." Players form guilds and raiding parties, as well as form strong social, and even romantic, connections through the game's built-in chat function. World of Warcraft has been dominant in the MMORPG market since its release.

Alexander Douglas writes OXO for EDSAC

Alexander Douglas was a Cambridge University PhD candidate when he designed one of the earliest computer games, a version of Tic-Tac-Toe (known in Britain as 'Naughts and Crosses'), called OXO. Played on Cambridge's EDSAC computer, OXO allowed a player to choose to start or to allow the machine to make the first move. Using a rotary telephone dial to enter their moves, the EDSAC would display the game board on a 35 x 15 dot cathode ray tube. Few outside of Cambridge ever played OXO.

Doom is released

An immersive first-person shooter-style game, Doom becomes popular on many different platforms. Initially distributed via USENET newsgroups, Doom attracted a massive following. Doom players were also among the first to customize the game's levels and appearance though 'modding.' Some criticized the level of violence portrayed in Doom, and it was cited as a prime reason for US Congressional hearings on video game violence in 1995. Doom spawned several sequels and a 2005 film.

This is for non-gameplay related genres that include story, characters, and appearance.

Art Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/ArtGame): A game that has Doing It for the Art (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/DoingItForTheArt) as its motto. Cute 'em Up (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/CuteEmUp): A Shoot Em Up that casts the enemies as cute things such as kittens, candy, fairies, and so on. Deconstruction Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/DeconstructionGame): A game that deconstructs (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/Deconstruction) a common gameplay element or plot device. Fantasy Video Games (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/FantasyVideoGames): A game that features magic. Horror Video Games (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/HorrorVideoGames): A game that exploits the fears of players to cause anxiety, fear, and ultimately thrills. Mecha Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/MechaGame): A game that focuses on Humongous Mecha (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/HumongousMecha) for combat. Mons Series (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/MonsSeries): A game involving the use of different creatures to battle. Parody Video Games (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/ParodyVideoGames): A game that parodies other games. Science-Fiction Video Games (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php /Main/ScienceFictionVideoGames): A game that explores a concept that does not exist at the present time, but it someday might.

What Women Want

As a female gamer, I'm a stranger in a strange land. I play in a male-created virtual space. Male video game characters embody the fantasy of what men want to be. Female characters represent the fantasy women men want. But I have my own desires, and most games fall far short of fulfilling them. Characters like Tomb Raider's Lara Croft allow women gamers to get tough and "play the lead." While their presence is a positive step toward female inclusion, there's something about the gargantuan breasts and the tiny clothes that leave real women cold. Believe me, women gamers feel frustrated and excluded. I couldn't wait to load and play Tomb Raider when it first came out, but when I saw Lara, I just couldn't take the game seriously. The giant twin pyramids mounted onto her chest look like something she could use to impale her enemies. In many ways her kick-butt presence is a triumph, but the designers' decision to sexualize her to the point of deformity angered me. I couldn't get past her proportions, so I put the game away. I'm waiting to see if Lara (or her designers) will evolve in future versions of the game. My appreciation for video games as an art form outweighs my disappointment in the makers. I love gaming, and I often enjoy playing with my husband, Bill. But I'm always secretly searching for games that will make me feel like I belong. One recent evening Bill fired up the Super Nintendo game Super Metroid. I was intrigued. The main character wore an elaborate, weapon-loaded space suit. Even though the graphics weren't spectacular, I was thrilled to find it was a true sci-fi marvel. Bill looked over at me with a smirk. "She's cool isn't she?" he asked. I was confused. "Who is cool?" "The main character, Samus Aran," Bill said. "The one in the suit — she's a woman." I couldn't believe it. This character was powerful, versatile, physically tough and female. I watched cheerfully for the next hour and a half as Bill flawlessly played and beat the game. The reward? Samus removed her suit and revealed herself to be a small, pixilated woman in a bikini. I was sad and mad at the denigration of my new video game superhero. But I decided I wasn't going to allow this to completely invalidate everything good that Samus represented. As new additions to the Metroid series have emerged, Samus has developed into the kind of female force I always hoped for in video games. Her suits have become more elaborate, her power more complex. Also, new games lack the "rewarding" images of Samus sans suit. Samus embodies the potential for diverse female representation and inclusion in video games. Give us more games with characters like Samus — she's what women want.

Angry Birds becomes top-selling mobile game

As touchscreen-enabled tablets and smartphones proliferate, mobile games became top-sellers. In Angry Birds, players slingshot wingless birds of various kinds towards towers inhabited by green pigs in an effort to knock them to the ground. Selling for just 99 cents from an online store, Angry Birds and its sequels have had more than two billion downloads.

There are several modifiers that can be applied to the genre of a game, as a twist on the standard formula. These include:

Asymmetric Multiplayer (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/AsymmetricMultiplayer): A multiplayer mode in which different players have totally different roles and capabilities. Competitive Multiplayer (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/CompetitiveMultiplayer): A multiplayer mode in which players compete against each other as players or teams. Co-Op Multiplayer (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/CoOpMultiplayer): A multiplayer mode in the main game in which every player is on the same team and playing against the computer. Gameplay Roulette (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/GameplayRoulette): A scenario in which games within a franchise switch from one Video Game Genre to another in an attempt to continue appealing to fans. Isometric Projection (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/IsometricProjection): A graphical projection that squishes the vertical axes, thus forcing perpendicular angles to look wider and more three-dimensional. Massive Multiplayer Crossover (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php /Main/MassiveMultiplayerCrossover): A Crossover with at least three different continuities. Meta Multiplayer (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/MetaMultiplayer): A multiplayer mode in which players are playing their own game at a time, but other players are doing this as well. Minigame (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/Minigame): A separate game present inside the main game. May or may not be relevant to progressing through the main game itself. Museum Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/MuseumGame): A game that is primarily about paying tribute to or heavily referencing a franchise or company's past. Music Player Game (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/MusicPlayerGame): A game in which the levels are generated procedurally from the music you feed it, typically the more intensive and loud the music, the more action you are going to see. Physics Based (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/WreakingHavok): A game that is primarily about the developers showing off applications of physics. Real Time (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/RealTime): When one minute of gameplay equals one minute in game time. Retraux Games (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/RetrauxGames): Games using intentionally outdated graphics for a nostalgic effect. RPG Elements (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/RPGElements): A game that isn't a Role Playing Game, but the player character is gaining experience points and levels like in an RPG. Side View (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/SideView): A perspective that views all objects from the side and nowhere else. Survival Sandbox (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/SurvivalSandbox): A game where the primary objective is to survive for as long as possible in a hostile environment. 3/4 View (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/ThreeQuartersView): A perspective that is a tilted bird's eye view perspective in which both the top and front of an object is seen at the same time, and the vertical axis indicates both height and depth. Top-Down View (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/TopDownView): A perspective that views all objects straight and nowhere else. Turn-Based: When the player and the computer take turns in making moves. Turn-Based Combat (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/TurnBasedCombat): A game that isn't an all-out turn-based strategy/tactics but switches to turns whenever combat starts. Unexpected Gameplay Change (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php /Main/UnexpectedGameplayChange): When the genre in a game suddenly changes to a different genre with little warning. 3D (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/VideoGame3DLeap): When a video game series goes from having two-dimensional sprites to having three-dimensional polygons. Wide Open Sandbox (http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/WideOpenSandbox): When the massive open world and optional material outweigh the actual, goal-oriented gameplay.

Atari launches the Video Computer System game console

Atari releases its Video Computer System (VCS) later renamed the Atari 2600. The VCS was the first widely successful video game system, selling more than twenty million units throughout the 1980s. The VCS used the 8-bit MOS 6507 microprocessor and was designed to be connected to a home television set. When the last of Atari's 8-bit game consoles were made in 1990, more than 900 game titles had been released.

Higinbotham develops Tennis-For-Two at Brookhaven National Labs

Brookhaven National Laboratory in Long Island, New York holds an annual "Visitor's Day" for families and area residents. William Higinbotham, looking for a way to entertain visitors, conceived of a simple electronic game that could be played using the lab's Donner Model 30 analog computer connected to an oscilloscope display. Working with David Potter, Higinbotham's creation allowed two players to play a game of 'tennis' on the oscilloscope screen, with simple physics for the ball, and even a sound whenever the ball was contacted. Tennis-for-Two was only used for two years before being salvaged for parts. It only became widely known following Higinbotham's testimony in a trial over the video game Pong.

Diagnostic

Cartridges designed to test the functioning of a system. While they are not games themselves, these cartridges have the same appearance as game cartridges and are sometimes collected and traded as game cartridges, and they are often included in listings of cartridges. Note: Not necessary to cross‐list with Utility, as that is implied in Diagnostic. Examples: Diagnostic Cartridge (Identification number FDS100144) for the Atari 5200 system; Diagnostic Cartridge (Identification number CB101196) for the Atari 7800 system, Final Test Cartridge (Coleco ADAM), Super Controller Test Cartridge (Coleco ADAM)

Utility

Cartridges or programs which have a purpose or functional beyond that of entertainment, although they may be structured in a manner similar to games (such as Mario Teaches Typing) or contain elements of entertainment. While they are often not games themselves, some of these programs have the same appearance as game cartridges and are sometimes collected and traded as game cartridges, and they are usually included in listings of cartridges. Note: See also Demo, Diagnostic, Educational, and Simulation. Examples: Basic Programming; Beginning Algebra; Beginning Math; Computer Programmer; Diagnostic Cartridge (Identification number FDS100144) for the Atari 5200 system (with Diagnostic); Home Finance; Infogenius French Language Translator; Mario Teaches Typing; Music Box Demo (with Demo); Number Games; Speed Reading; Spelling Games; Touch Typing, Word Games

Demo

Cartridges, discs, or downloads designed to demonstrate games or a game system. Such cartridges were primarily used in store displays to demonstrate games. While they may not contain complete games themselves, these cartridges have the same appearance as game cartridges and are sometimes collected and traded as game cartridges, and they are often included in listings of cartridges. As discs or downloads, Demos allow a player to try out a game for free without buying the full‐sized game. Note: Not necessary to cross‐list with Utility, as that is implied in Demo. Examples: ADAM Demo Cartridge, Dealer Demo (Bally Astrocade), Demonstration Cartridge (RCA Studio II), Music Box Demo (Coleco ADAM)

2. Scientific evidence links violent game play with youth aggression.

Claims like this are based on the work of researchers who represent one relatively narrow school of research, "media effects." This research includes some 300 studies of media violence. But most of those studies are inconclusive and many have been criticized on methodological grounds. In these studies, media images are removed from any narrative context. Subjects are asked to engage with content that they would not normally consume and may not understand. Finally, the laboratory context is radically different from the environments where games would normally be played. Most studies found a correlation, not a causal relationship, which means the research could simply show that aggressive people like aggressive entertainment. That's why the vague term "links" is used here. If there is a consensus emerging around this research, it is that violent video games may be one risk factor - when coupled with other more immediate, real-world influences — which can contribute to anti-social behavior. But no research has found that video games are a primary factor or that violent video game play could turn an otherwise normal person into a killer.

8. Video game play is desensitizing.

Classic studies of play behavior among primates suggest that apes make basic distinctions between play fighting and actual combat. In some circumstances, they seem to take pleasure wrestling and tousling with each other. In others, they might rip each other apart in mortal combat. Game designer and play theorist Eric Zimmerman describes the ways we understand play as distinctive from reality as entering the "magic circle." The same action — say, sweeping a floor — may take on different meanings in play (as in playing house) than in reality (housework). Play allows kids to express feelings and impulses that have to be carefully held in check in their real-world interactions. Media reformers argue that playing violent video games can cause a lack of empathy for real-world victims. Yet, a child who responds to a video game the same way he or she responds to a real-world tragedy could be showing symptoms of being severely emotionally disturbed. Here's where the media effects research, which often uses punching rubber dolls as a marker of real-world aggression, becomes problematic. The kid who is punching a toy designed for this purpose is still within the "magic circle" of play and understands her actions on those terms. Such research shows us only that violent play leads to more violent play.

Grand Theft Auto is released

Created by David Jones and Mike Dailly, Grand Theft Auto is set in Liberty City, a fictional American metropolis designed after New York City. The game used a free- form structure, allowing players to do anything they wanted in the city, but also rewarding players with points for creating havoc such as running down pedestrians and completing missions. Subsequent Grand Theft Auto releases featured increased amounts of sex, drugs, and violence, leading to calls for its outright banning. The game was a huge success and was ported to many different systems.

Fantasy game Myst is released

Developed by brothers Robyn and Ryan Miller, Myst becomes one of the best-known games of the 1990s. Distributed by Broderbund for the Macintosh, Myst took the player on an adventure as The Stranger, using a magical book to track the time traveling character Atrus through the Ages of Myst. The game required players to solve puzzles and find clues to discover the nature of the island of Myst. Myst is often credited with greatly increasing the sales of CD-ROM drives for computers. The game became the best-selling personal computer game of all-time - a distinction it would hold until 2002.

James Cameron's The Abyss is released

Director James Cameron's films The Terminator and Aliens were major science fiction successes. His follow-up film, The Abyss, stands as one of the most significant science fiction films of the 1980s. Telling the story of an oil rig team and their encounter with aliens, The Abyss featured impressive graphics for the time, but also introduced a new tool to the effects supervisor's tool chest, Photoshop. Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) used Photoshop extensively while doing the post-production work on The Abyss, including being used in the creation of the film's most famous effect - the Alien Pseudopod. The Abyss won the Academy Award for Best Special Effects in 1990.

Sony releases the PlayStation in North America

Electronics giant Sony enters the home gaming market with the release of the PlayStation console in Japan in 1994 and in the US a few months later. Originally a disk-based gaming system, it originally started as a collaboration between Sony and console manufacturer Nintendo to create a CD-ROM-based version of their Super Nintendo gaming system. Sony continued the game system project, eventually settling on a system that would support games, as well as audio CD playback. The PlayStation was a great success, selling more than a hundred million units, setting the stage for the Sony to become a dominant player in the home gaming market.

Portal is introduced

Featuring complicated puzzles, a science fiction setting, and a passive-aggressive robot named GlaDOS, Portal is designed by Valve Entertainment. Players control Chell, who used an Aperture Handheld Portal Device to solve puzzles set forth by GlaDOS, who promised a non-existent cake when they are all completed. Portal spawned a highly anticipated sequel, as well as a fan base that created real world interpretations of many of the devices shown in the game.

La Faim (Hunger) debuts

Filmmaker Peter Foldes, an international figure in animation since the 1950s, begins collaborating with Canada's National Research Council in 1969. Working with computer scientist Nestor Burtnyk, Foldes directed this ten-minute film dealing with the idea of food inequality. Using the animation concept of key frame animation, where an animator would produce the most important frames and assistants would fill in the gaps, Burtnyk designed a program in which the computer filled in the gaps, producing an effect that made the images seem to glide from one to another. La Faim would win many international awards, including a special Jury Prize at the 1974 Cannes Film Festival, and an Academy Award nomination.

5. Because games are used to train soldiers to kill, they have the same impact on the kids who play them.

Former military psychologist and moral reformer David Grossman argues that because the military uses games in training (including, he claims, training soldiers to shoot and kill), the generation of young people who play such games are similarly being brutalized and conditioned to be aggressive in their everyday social interactions. Grossman's model only works if: we remove training and education from a meaningful cultural context. we assume learners have no conscious goals and that they show no resistance to what they are being taught. we assume that they unwittingly apply what they learn in a fantasy environment to real world spaces. The military uses games as part of a specific curriculum, with clearly defined goals, in a context where students actively want to learn and have a need for the information being transmitted. There are consequences for not mastering those skills. That being said, a growing body of research does suggest that games can enhance learning. In his recent book, What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and Literacy, James Gee describes game players as active problem solvers who do not see mistakes as errors, but as opportunities for improvement. Players search for newer, better solutions to problems and challenges, he says. And they are encouraged to constantly form and test hypotheses. This research points to a fundamentally different model of how and what players learn from games.

SIGGRAPH is founded

Founded in 1969 by Andy Van Dam, the Association for Computer Machinery Special Interest Group on Computer Graphics (SIGGRAPH) has become one of the most influential groups in computing. Starting in 1974, the annual SIGGRAPH conference attracted graphics professionals and provided an important meeting ground for discussion and presentations on the state-of-the-art, with many companies and researchers debuting new releases or techniques. It continues to attract computer graphics professionals from around the world to its annual conference.

Adaptation

Games based on activities adapted from another medium or gaming activity, such as sports, table‐top games, board games, card games, or games whose action closely follows a narrative from a work existing in another medium, such as a book, short story, comic book, graphic novel, or play. This involves such questions as how the original work is changed to allow for interactivity and the completion of an objective, or in the case of adapted games, how the original activity changes as a result of being adapted. This term should not be used for games which use the same characters as existing works in another medium but make no attempt to even loosely follow plots or imitate activities found in those works. Home video games and computer games may also be adaptations of arcade video games, in which case they are usually reduced in graphic detail, complexity, or speed when compared with the original. In a few cases, arcade games, such as Computer Space (1971), are adaptations of mainframe computer games. This term should only be applied to Simulation games when they are adapted from games or gaming activities in other media. Note: See Sports, Table‐Top Games, Board Games, Card Games, Pencil‐ and‐Paper Games, and Simulation. Examples: Adapted from card games: Casino; Eric's Ultimate Solitaire; Ken Uston Blackjack/Poker. Adapted from cartoons: Spy Vs Spy; The Simpsons. Adapted from comic books: Spiderman, X‐Men, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles. Adapted from film: Tron; Star Wars; Krull; Muppet Treasure Island. Adapted from pencil‐and‐paper games: Hangman; Tic Tac Toe. Adapted from sports: American Football; Atari Baseball; Hot Shots Tennis. Adapted from table‐top games: Pong; Sure Shot Pool; Virtual Pool. Adapted from television game shows: Family Feud; Jeopardy; Joker's Wild; Password; The Price is Right; Tic‐Tac‐Dough; $25,000 Pyramid; Wheel of Fortune

Role-Playing

Games in which players create or take on a character represented by various statistics, which may even include a developed persona. The character's description may include specifics such as species, race, gender, and occupation, and may also include various abilities, such as strength and dexterity, to limited degrees usually represented numerically. The games can be single‐player, such as Ultima III: Exodus (1983), or multiple‐player games such as those which are networked. This term should not be used for games like Adventure or Raiders of the Lost Ark in which identity is not emphasized or important, nor where characters are not represented statistically. Note: Many networked games, including MUDs (Multi‐User Dimensions), MOOs (MUD, Object‐Oriented), and MUSHs (Multi‐User Shared Hallucination), fall into this category, although the degree to which they can be considered games may vary depending on the players and system operators, and whether or not objectives are set for the players and competition occurs. Examples: Anvil of Dawn; Diablo; Dragon Lore 2; Fallout; Mageslayer; Phantasy Star; Sacred Pools; Games from the Ultima series or Dungeons & Dragons series. Networked games include: Interstate '76; Ivory Tower; JediMUD; Northern Lights; OutlawMOO; PernMUSH; RiftMUSH; Rivers of MUD; Sunflower; Unsafe Haven; VikingMUD; Zodiac.

Management Simulation

Games in which players must balance the use of limited resources to build or expand some kind of community, institution, or empire, while dealing with internal forces within (such as the crime and pollution in SimCity), or external forces such as those of nature or chance (such as natural disasters and monsters in SimCity, or planets that require various amounts of terraforming as in Spaceward Ho!), and often competition from other players as well. Single‐player games are often open‐ended, where the community or institution grows and developed over time and continues changing, while multiple‐player games usually have the objective of dominating all of the other players, at which point the game ends. In some cases, these games can take on an educational functional as well, for example, games found in museum displays which simulate supply and demand or other economic principles. Note: See also Educational and Utility. Examples: Aerobiz; Caesar II; Sid Meier's Civilization; M.U.L.E.; Monopoly; Railroad Tycoon; SimAnt; SimCity; SimFarm; SimTower; Spaceward Ho!

Obstacle Course

Games in which the main objective involves the traversing of a difficult path or one beset with obstacles, through which movement is essentially linear, often involving running, jumping, and avoiding dangers. This term should not be used for games which do not require more than simply steering down a clear path (see Driving) or avoiding objects or characters without a linear progression of movement (see Dodging), nor should it be used for games which involve chasing or being chased (see Chase), or shooting at opponents or getting shot at (see Combat and Shoot 'Em Up), nor for games with complex objectives (see Adventure), nor for games involving more than traversing a path of obstacles (see Platform). Note: While Obstacle Courses are generally linear in design as far as the player‐ character's advancement through them is concerned, this degree of linearity can vary somewhat; for example, in games allowing a character to backtrack, or choose an alternate route. Examples: Boot Camp; Clown Downtown; Freeway (with Dodging); Frogger (with Dodging); Pitfall!; Jungle Hunt

Racing

Games in which the objective involves the winning of a race, or the covering of more ground than an opponent (as in Slot Racers). Often these games involve driving skills and can also be cross‐listed with Driving. One‐player games can be considered Racing if there are other computer‐controlled cars or vehicles competing on the race track, however if they are not competitive and act only as obstacles, use Driving. Note: See also Driving. Not necessary to cross‐list with Sports as this is implied in Racing. Although most of these games involve driving skills and can be cross‐ listed with Driving, some of them, like 1000 Miles, do not. Examples: 1000 Miles (with Card Games); Daytona U.S.A. (with Driving); High Velocity (with Driving); Indy 500 (with Driving); Mario Kart 64 (with Driving); Math Grand Prix (with Educational); Pole Position (with Driving); Red Planet (with Driving); Slot Racers (with Dodging); Street Racer (with Dodging and Driving); Super GT (with Driving)

Maze

Games in which the objective requires the successful navigation of a maze. What can be called a maze is, of course, a matter of degree, though it is usually possible to discern whether a configuration of rooms or hallways was intended to deliberately cause difficulties in navigation (consider, for example, the difference in complexity between the mazes found in Berzerk, Pac‐Man, and Doom). Mazes may appear in an overhead view (as in Pac‐Man), a side view (as in Lode Runner), or first‐ person perspective (as in Doom) or hidden from view (as in certain games in Maze Craze). In some cases, the player‐character can alter the maze, such as opening or closing passageways (as in Mousetrap), or even digging holes or passageways (as in Lode Runner or Dig Dug). Some mazes, such as those found in Lode Runner, focus less on navigation and more on how to gain access to certain portions of the screen in order to achieve certain results or obtain objects. Often the player‐character must navigate the maze under the pressure of pursuers, although this is not always the case. Mazes are also often imbedded within other games, such as the Blue Labyrinth in Adventure, or the underground maze of the Selenetic Age in Myst. Examples: Descent (with Flying and Shoot 'Em Up); Dig Dug; Doom (with Shoot 'Em Up); K. C. Munchkin (with Collecting and Escape); Lode Runner (with Platform); Maze Craze; Mousetrap (with Collecting and Escape); Pac‐man (with Collecting and Escape); Tunnel Runner; Tunnels of Doom (with Adventure); Ms. Pac‐Man (with Collecting and Escape); Spy Vs Spy (with Collecting and Combat); Take the Money and Run

Puzzle

Games in which the primary conflict is not so much between the player‐character and other characters, but rather the figuring out of a solution, which often involves solving enigmas, navigation, learning how to use different tools, and the manipulating or reconfiguring of objects. Most often there is a visual or sonic element to the puzzles as well, or at least some verbal description of them. This term should not be used for games which only involve the answering of questions (see Quiz). Many Text Adventures also contain Puzzles, and use text to describe their sights and sounds Examples: 7th Guest; Atari Video Cube; Block Out (with Abstract); Dice Puzzle; Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (with Text Adventure); Jigsaw; Myst (with Adventure); Rubik's Cube (with Adaptation); Sokoban; Suspended Animation (with Text Adventure); Tetris (with Abstract)

Dodging

Games in which the primary objective is to avoid projectiles or other moving objects. Scoring is often determined by the number of objects successfully dodged, or by the crossing of a field of moving objects that must be dodged (as in Freeway or Frogger). This term should not be used for games in which players avoid getting shot at and are able to shoot (see Combat and Shoot 'Em Up). In many games like Asteroids or Space Invaders avoidance of objects or projectiles is important for the player to remain in the game, but points are not awarded for merely avoiding them, and players usually have the option of shooting at obstacles, which is not the case in Dodging games. Examples: Dodge 'Em (with Driving), Freeway (with Obstacle Course); Frogger (with Obstacle Course); Journey Escape; and some games in Street Racer (with Driving and Racing)

Platform

Games in which the primary objective requires movement through a series of levels, by way of running, climbing, jumping, and other means of locomotion. Characters and settings are seen in side view as opposed to top view, thus creating a graphical sense of "up" and "down" as is implied in "Platform". These games often also can involve the avoidance of dropped or falling objects, conflict with (or navigation around) computer‐controlled characters, and often some character, object, or reward at the top of the climb which provides narrative motivation. This term should not be used for games which do not involve ascending heights or advancement through a series of levels (see Adventure), nor for games which involve little more than traversing a path of obstacles (see Obstacle Course). Note: For related games, see also Adventure and Obstacle Course. Examples: Crazy Climber; Donkey Kong; Donkey Kong Jr.; Lode Runner (with Maze); Spiderman (Atari 2600); Super Mario Bros. (with Collecting); Warioland; Yoshi's Island

Flying

Games involving flying skills, such as steering, altitude control, takeoff and landing, maneuverability, speed control, and fuel conservation. This term should not be used for games in which shooting an opponent is the main objective (see Combat and Shoot 'Em Up), unless flying skills are essential to game play and to the winning of the game. Flying games can involve airplanes, birds, or spaceships, and movement can take place in the sky (as in A‐10 Attack and Prop Cycle), through caverns (as in Descent), or in outer space (as in Starmaster and Star Ship). Note: See also Combat, Shoot 'Em Up, Sports, and Training Simulation. Examples: A‐10 Attack (with Training Simulation); Descent (with Maze and Shoot 'Em Up); F/A‐18 Hornet 3.0 (with Training Simulation); Flight Unlimited (with Training Simulation);Prop Cycle (with Collecting); Solaris; Starmaster (with Shoot 'Em Up)

Shoot 'Em Up (or Shooter)

Games involving shooting at, and often destroying, a series of opponents or objects. As opposed to Combat games which feature one‐on‐one battles with opponents of roughly equal attributes and means, Shoot 'Em Up games usually feature multiple opponents (the "'Em" is short for "them") attacking at once (as in Space Invaders or Galaga) or multiple objects which can be destroyed (as in Centipede), which are often potentially harmful to the player‐character (as in Asteroids). In many cases, the player‐character and opponents of the player‐ character have unequal attributes and means, and do not even resemble one another (as in Yar's Revenge), and the games usually require quick reflexes. Do not use this term for games like Stellar Track, in which the player‐character and opponents fire at each other, but in such a way that quick reflexes are not necessary (see Strategy). There are three types of Shoot 'Em Up games which are common: in one, the player‐character moves horizontally back and forth at the bottom of the screen shooting upward while opponents moving around above shoot downward (as in Space Invaders); in the second, the character moves freely about the screen, encountering opponents from all sides (as in Berserk or Robotron: 2084), and the third features a first‐person perspective (as in Doom). This term should not be used for fighting games which do not involve shooting (see Fighting), nor for games in which opponents are fairly evenly matched (see Combat), nor for games in which none of the objects the player‐character fires upon can harm the player‐character (see Target). In a few cases, the player‐character is primarily defending rather than attacking, as in Atlantis, Commando Raid, Missile Command, and Missile Defense 3‐D. Examples: Asteroids; Berzerk; Centipede; Doom; Duckshot; Galaga; Millipede; Missile Command, Robotron: 2084; Space Invaders; Yar's Revenge; Zaxxon

Training Simulation

Games or programs which attempt to simulate a realistic situation, for the purpose of training, and usually the development of some physical skill such as steering (as in driving and flight simulators). This term should not be used for simulations which focus on management (see Management Simulation) or the employment of strategy (see Strategy). These games can range from realistic simulations used by institutions, such as those used to train astronauts, tank drivers, or airline pilots, to simplified gamelike approximations of them used mainly for entertainment, such as Police Trainer or A‐10 Attack. Note: Not necessary to cross‐list with Utility or Simulation, as that is implied in Training Simulation. Examples: A‐10 Attack; Comanche 3 (with Flying); F/A‐18 Hornet 3.0 (with Flying); Flight Unlimited (with Flying); Police Trainer; military and airline flight simulators; and driving simulations used in driver education.

Card Games

Games which are adaptations of existing card games, or games which are essentially like card games in that they are primarily card‐based (such as various solitaire computer games). While most Card Games use the standard four‐suit deck, some games use specialized cards (such as 1000 Miles, a shareware game which is an adaptation of Parker Brothers' Milles Bornes racing card game). This term should not be used for Trivia Games which are primarily question‐and‐answer games. Note: Not necessary to cross‐list with Adaptation, as that is implied in Card Games. Many card games which involve betting can also be cross‐listed with Gambling. Examples: 1000 Miles (with Racing); Blackjack (with Gambling); Casino (with Gambling); Eric's Ultimate Solitaire; Ken Uston Blackjack/Poker (with Gambling); Montana; Video Poker (with Gambling)

Sports

Games which are adaptations of existing sports or variations of them. Note: No need to cross‐list with Adaptation as this is implied in Sports. See also Driving, Fighting, Obstacle Course, Racing, and Table‐Top Games. Examples: American Football; Atari Baseball; Bowling; Boxing (with Fighting); Fishing Derby (with Catching); Hot Shots Tennis; Golf; Human Cannonball (with Target); Ice Hockey; Madden Football 97; Miniature Golf; NHL Hockey 97; Pong (with Table‐Top Games); Skeet Shoot (with Target); Track & Field; Summer Games; Video Olympics; RealSports Soccer; RealSports Tennis; RealSports Volleyball; SimGolf; Sky Diver; Tsuppori Sumo Wrestling; World Series Baseball '98

Board Games

Games which are an adaptation of existing board games (see Adaptation) or games which are similar to board games in their design and play even if they did not previously exist as board games, like Fooblitzky and Jones in the Fast Lane. Games of this genre include either classic board games like Chess, Checkers, or Backgammon, or trademarked ones such as Scrabble or Monopoly. This term should not be used for games adapted from games such as pool or table tennis, in which physical skills are involved (see Table‐Top Games), nor for games adapted from games which require only paper and a pencil to play, such as Hangman or Tic‐Tac‐Toe (see Pencil‐and‐Paper Games), nor for games adapted from games which are primarily card‐based and do not use a board (see Card Games). Three games made by Philips/Magnavox, Conquest of the World, Quest for the Rings, and The Great Wall Street Fortune Hunt, required a board game to be used along with the video game itself. Note: Most Board Games, though not all, can be cross‐listed with Adaptation, and many can also be cross‐listed with Strategy. Examples: Backgammon; Battleship; Clue; Conquest of the World; Fooblitzky; The Great Wall Street Fortune Hunt; Jones in the Fast Lane; Monopoly; Othello; Quest for the Rings; Scrabble; Stratego; Video Checkers; Video Chess

Adventure

Games which are set in a "world" usually made up of multiple, connected rooms or screens, involving an objective which is more complex than simply catching, shooting, capturing, or escaping, although completion of the objective may involve several or all of these. Objectives usually must be completed in several steps, for example, finding keys and unlocking doors to other areas to retrieve objects needed elsewhere in the game. Characters are usually able to carry objects, such as weapons, keys, tools, and so on. Settings often evoke a particular historical time period and place, such as the middle ages or Arthurian England, or are thematically related to content‐based genres such as Science Fiction, Fantasy, or Espionage. This term should not be used for games in which screens are only encountered in one‐way linear fashion, like the "levels" in Donkey Kong, or for games like Pitfall! which are essentially limited to running, jumping, and avoiding dangers (see Obstacle Course). Nor should the term be used to refer to games like Dragon's Lair, Gadget, or Star Trek: Borg, which do not allow a player to wander and explore its "world" freely, but strictly limit outcomes and possible narrative paths to a series of video sequences and linear progression through a predetermined narrative (see Interactive Movies). Note: For adventure games which are primarily text‐based, see Text Adventure. For related games similar in theme to adventure games, see also Obstacle Course and Interactive Movies. Examples: Adventure (for the Atari 2600); E.T. The Extraterrestrial (with Adaptation); Haunted House, Krull (with Adaptation); Myst (with Puzzle); Raiders of the Lost Ark (with Adaptation); Spy Vs Spy (with Adaptation); Superman (with Adaptation); games in the Tomb Raider series; Venture; games from the Daggerfall series; games from the Ultima series

Abstract

Games which have nonrepresentational graphics and often involve an objective which is not oriented or organized as a narrative. Often the objective involves construction or visiting or filling every part of the screen (as in Tetris, Qix, Pipe Dream, or Q*bert), or destruction or emptying of the screen (as in Breakout or Pac‐Man). Characters appearing in abstract games may be anthropomorphic in design (such as Q*bert), but usually do not attempt to represent real world animals or people or their behaviors. Abstraction is, of course, a matter of degree, though it is usually possible to discern whether or not the game was intended to be deliberately representational. For example, despite their simple, blocky graphics, early Atari 2600 games such as Basketball or Street Racer attempt to represent people and race cars, which is reflected not only in their design but in their interaction within the game. Nor should the term be used for games which are adaptations of games existing in different media, such as Checkers or Othello, which are abstract in design and play, but which are nonetheless adaptations and thus representations of games from other media. Examples: Arkanoid; Amidar (with Collecting); Ataxx; Block Out (with Puzzle); Breakout; Marble Madness; Pac‐Man (with Collecting, Escape, and Maze); Pipe Dream; Q*bert; Qix (with Collecting); Super Breakout; Tempest (with Shoot 'Em Up); Tetris (with Puzzle)

Gambling

Games which involve the betting of a stake, which increases or decreases the player's total assets in the following round. These games usually involve multiple rounds of betting, allowing a player's stakes or money to grow or diminish over time. This term should not be used for games in which betting does not occur, or for games in which wins and losses do not carry over into the following round. Note: See also Card Games and Table‐Top Games. Examples: Blackjack (with Card Games); Casino (with Card Games); Slot Machine; Video Poker (with Card Games); You Don't Know Jack (with Quiz)

Artificial Life

Games which involve the growth and/or maintenance of digital creatures of some sort, which can "die" without the proper care by the player. Often growth and the "happiness" or "contentedness" of the characters are the goals of the game. (Whether or not all such programs constitute "games" is debatable.) The term should not be used for games which deal with the allocation of resources or games which are primarily concerned with management (see Management Simulation). Examples: AquaZone; Babyz; Catz; Creatures; Dogz; The Little Computer People; The Sims (with Management Simulation)

Combat

Games which involve two or more players, or one player and a computer‐controlled player, shooting some form of projectiles at each other, and in which all players are provided with similar means for a fairly balanced fight. These games usually emphasize maneuverability and sometimes the outwitting of the opponent. This term should not be used for Shoot 'Em Up games in which the two sides are clearly unequal or not evenly balanced, nor for Fighting games which do not involve shooting. Although these games may range in the appearance of their content, for example, cowboys in Outlaw, tanks or planes in Combat, or paddles in Warlords, the basic play of the game, shoot the opponent while avoiding getting shot, remains essentially the same. Note: For related games, see Fighting and Shoot 'Em Up. Examples: Battletech; Battlezone; Combat; Dactyl Nightmare; Outlaw; Spy Vs Spy (with Collecting and Maze); Warlords

Text Adventure

Games which rely primarily on text for the player interface, and often for the description of the game's "world" and the action which takes place there as well. Some games may use images, but these are usually noninteractive illustrations which are not central to the play of the game. Games range from allowing free movement throughout the game's "world" (usually by commands such as "north", "south", "east", "west", "up", and "down") with a variety of options for interaction, to more linear, branching narratives. Players often are able to carry objects which are kept track of by an inventory function, and are able to converse with computer‐ controlled player‐characters through a very limited vocabulary. Although some games may incorporate text‐based informational screens (as in Stellar Track), rely on text for description (such as the books in the library in Myst), or even use text as a graphic element (such as Rogue), this term should only be used for games in which the "world" of the game is primarily experienced through text which describes the world of the game and the events occurring in it. Note: Not necessary to cross‐list with Adventure since that is implied in Text Adventure. Multiple player Text Adventures which are networked are considered to be Role‐Playing games (see Role‐Playing). Almost all Text Adventures can also be cross‐listed with Puzzle. Examples: The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy; Planetfall; Leather Goddesses of Phobos; Suspended; Zork.

Escape

Games whose main objective involves escaping pursuers or getting out of some form of enclosure. Games can be open‐ended, with the game ending when a player escapes from an enclosure or enters a place safe from the pursuers, or closed, in which a player escapes pursuers for as long as possible but always succumbs in the end (as in Pac‐Man). This term should not be used for games in which the player‐ character battles the opponent instead of fleeing (see Combat and Shoot 'Em Up), nor for games like Adventure or Haunted House in which the player‐character is only occasionally pursued by characters. Examples: Pac‐Man (with Collecting and Maze); Maze Craze (with Maze); Mousetrap (with Collecting and Maze); Ms. Pac‐Man (with Collecting and Maze); Surround (with Capturing)

Nvidia releases Cuda GPU

Graphic Processing Units (GPUs) have become an important part of multimedia computing and graphics processing. Computer Unified Device Architecture (CUDA) was a concept that allowed for GPUs to do some of the functions usually reserved for the Central Processing Unit (CPU), allowing devices and software to take advantage of the multi-threaded processing techniques and scalability of GPUs. While many saw wide applications in the games industry, uses in many scientific disciplines such as in computational biology and cryptography were also significant.

4. Almost no girls play computer games.

Historically, the video game market has been predominantly male. However, the percentage of women playing games has steadily increased over the past decade. Women now slightly outnumber men playing Web-based games. Spurred by the belief that games were an important gateway into other kinds of digital literacy, efforts were made in the mid-90s to build games that appealed to girls. More recent games such as The Sims were huge crossover successes that attracted many women who had never played games before. Given the historic imbalance in the game market (and among people working inside the game industry), the presence of sexist stereotyping in games is hardly surprising. Yet it's also important to note that female game characters are often portrayed as powerful and independent. In his book Killing Monsters, Gerard Jones argues that young girls often build upon these representations of strong women warriors as a means of building up their self confidence in confronting challenges in their everyday lives.

DAC-1 computer aided design program is released

In 1959, General Motors Research Laboratories appoints a special research team to investigate the use of computers in designing automobiles. In 1960, IBM joined the project, producing the first commercially available Computer Aided Design program, known as DAC-1. Out of that project came the IBM 2250 display terminal as well as many advances in computer timesharing and the use of a single processor by two or more terminals.

Arnie Katz, Joyce Worley-Katz, and Bill Kunkle form first video game magazine, Electronic Games

In 1981, Joyce Worley Katz, Arnie Katz, and Bill Kunkel co-found Electronic Games, the first video game magazine in the United States. Initially intended as an annual publication, early success led to it becoming a monthly within a year of the first issue. The Video Game Crash of 1983 led to Electronic Games renaming itself Computer Entertainment, before finally ceasing publication with its May 1985 issue.

JPEG standard finalized

In 1986, a group of international standards organizations spun-off the Joint Photographic Expert Group (JPEG) to create a set of standards for digital images. By 1992, the group had determined a set of rules for what became the jpeg (or .jpg) format. Jpeg compression allows for a trade-off between photo quality and file size. Jpeg is one of the most popular image formats, and is the format most widely used by digital cameras.

BEFLIX developed at Bell Labs

In the early 1960s, Bell Labs is at the forefront of research into computer arts and graphics. Researcher Ken Knowlton, using the Lab's IBM 7094 mainframe computer, developed a specialized language for computer animation called BEFLIX. The language allowed Knowlton and collaborators, such as Stan Vanderbeek and Lillian Schwartz, to create 252 by 184 pixel images and animations using 8 shades of gray, which could be captured to film using a Stromberg-Carlson 4020 microfilm recorder. Some of these films are considered landmark works, such as Man and his World, which showed at the 1967 World's Fair in Montreal.

Ralph Baer designs the Brown Box

In the summer of 1966, Sanders Associates' television engineer Ralph Baer begins experimenting with using a television to play games. His first design, called the Brown Box, allowed users to play several different games on a standard television set, including table tennis game (presaging Atari's Pong), without requiring a computer, microprocessor, or software. The Brown Box also had a light gun accessory for playing shooting games.

Plants vs. Zombies is released

Initially conceived as a game that would walk the line between gritty and sickeningly cute, programmer George Fan develops Plants vs. Zombies for PopCap Games. Influenced by 'tower defense games' where players attempt to repel attackers, Plants vs. Zombies gave players a chance to turn back an invasion of the Undead using cartoon household plants. The game was ported to many different systems, including the iPad, Steam, and PlayStation 3.

Minecraft is introduced

Initially developed by Swedish game designer Markus "Notch" Persson, Minecraft allows players to build towers and play challenges. The game, which could be played in either survival or creative mode, has received many awards from the international gaming press. An enormous variety of physical systems and machines can also be built in the Minecraft environment, taking the game far beyond its intended use as a simple entertainment platform into a flexible and creative building system for modeling real-world processes or things. Users have built entire computers, cities, and even planets out of Minecraft components.

EverQuest is released

Inspired by Dungeons & Dragons, as well as text-based on-line Multi-User Domains (MUDs), computer game programmer John Smedley develops EverQuest, a fantasy- themed Massively Multi-player Online Role-Playing Game, or MMORPG. While beaten to market by rival Ultima On-line, EverQuest attracted nearly half-a-million players worldwide. EverQuest was also a critical success, winning awards ranging from the 1999 GameSpot Game of the Year, to a Technical and Engineering Emmy Award.

The Collapse Of Visceral's Ambitious Star Wars Game

It seemed like a surefire hit: a Star Wars take on Uncharted, published by Electronic Arts and developed by the longrunning studio Visceral Games. But nothing is sure in the video game industry, and on October 17, 2017, when employees of Visceral were told that the company would be closing, some who had worked for the studio found themselves unsurprised. In many people's eyes, doom was inevitable. Visceral Games, based in San Francisco, had been an odd fit at EA for several years now. First founded in 1998 as EA Redwood Shores, the studio developed a mishmash of assorted games in the 2000s before finally finding an identity with a horror-action- adventure series called Dead Space. After three Dead Space games (and a couple of spin-offs), the company went on to make the first-person shooter Battlefield Hardline, which came out in 2015. Around the same time, under the iconic writer and director Amy Hennig, who was best known for helming the first three Uncharted games, Visceral launched a project called Ragtag. This was meant to be EA's entry into the action-adventure market—a linear Star Wars story set between the episode IV and V movies that would compete with the likes of Uncharted and Tomb Raider. In the weeks leading up to the studio's closure, the staff of Visceral Games had crunched hard, working long hours to make a demo for Ragtag that they hoped might impress EA. Alongside the Canada-based studio EA Vancouver, Visceral's employees made a set of high-octane demos in which Ragtag's main characters would get chased by an AT-ST walker, get into a shootout on the desert planet Tatooine, and embark on a rescue mission within the dungeons of Jabba's palace. One person who worked on the game described these demos as a "sampler platter," something that would show EA's executives what Visceral's vision of Uncharted Star Wars could become. The demos weren't enough. Former Visceral employees don't know when EA made the decision to shut down their studio, but on October 17, 2017, it became official. Visceral, which employed around 80 people, was no more. Staff say they were given three weeks to put together portfolios and look for other employment, both in and outside of EA. This news immediately led to a glut of opinions and editorials about the death of single-player video games. Visceral, best known for making a linear action-adventure game series called Dead Space, did not fit into EA's focus on "games as a service," a common phrase referring to games designed to be playable, and to generate money, long after they've launched. EA's statement made the same implications, stating about Ragtag: In its current form, it was shaping up to be a story-based, linear adventure game. Throughout the development process, we have been testing the game concept with players, listening to the feedback about what and how they want to play, and closely tracking fundamental shifts in the marketplace. It has become clear that to deliver an experience that players will want to come back to and enjoy for a long time to come, we needed to pivot the design. But the story behind Ragtag is more complicated than critics and pundits have assumed, and the project was more troubled than EA has admitted publicly. Among game developers, it's been an open secret for months that Visceral's game was in danger. The studio had been bleeding staff for years, and recruiters across the video game industry exchanged whispers about Visceral employees who were looking for new work, according to several people who have shared these rumors with me over the past couple of years. Over the past week I've talked to nearly a dozen former Visceral employees who worked on Ragtag, all of whom spoke anonymously because they did not want to risk damaging their careers. I've also spoken to several other developers who are tangentially connected to Visceral. They all share similar stories. Ragtag was a project sunk by many factors, including a lack of resources, a vision that was too ambitious for its budget, a difficult game engine, a director who clashed with staff, a studio located in one of the most expensive cities in the world, a reputation for toxicity, multiple conflicts between Visceral and EA, and what can only be described as the curse of Star Wars. Some say that EA was never quite committed to Ragtag, in large part because it represented the type of game that the publisher has mostly abandoned: a single- player, "play it once" game that would need to sell millions just to break even. Yet Visceral's problems had deeper roots. "It felt like we were always under the threat of closure," said one former employee. "It was a really unhealthy place." Art from Dead Space, by Visceral Games In the course of reporting this story and learning about the struggles of Ragtag, we wound up with a lot of questions for EA. When presented with some of these questions, the company chose not to answer them one-by-one, but instead to provide a statement by executive vice president Patrick Söderlund that provided a general sense of his philosophy on game development. "Making games is hard," he said. "That's not new, but it bears saying again because if anything, it's getting more complex. But that's what gets us up in the morning, we love it. We have amazingly talented people making games, and very powerful tools... but expectations are going up at an even faster rate. We see it when we talk to players. We see it in our own games, in the feedback people give us, and how they play. We see it from what other games people love...and which ones they don't. There are a ton of factors." EA also disputes the notion that it killed Ragtag for being single-player. "This truly isn't about the death of single-player games—I love single-player, by the way—or story and character-driven games," said Söderlund. "Storytelling has always been part of who we are, and single-player games will of course continue. This also isn't about needing a game that monetizes in a certain way. Those are both important topics, but that's not what this is. At the end of the day, this was a creative decision. Our job is to give people a deep enough experience and story, and it's also to push the boundaries forward. We just didn't think we were getting it quite right." Söderlund, like many close to this project, has his own perspective on what happened. To many who worked at Visceral Games in its last few years of operation, it seemed like they were on borrowed time. It was a near-certainty that this time would run out. If you wanted to pinpoint the exact moment that Visceral Games became doomed, you'd need to go back to the beginning of 2013. On February 5 of that year, Visceral released what would turn out to be its last Dead Space game, Dead Space 3. The third Dead Space disappointed many fans, and it was a commercial flop for EA, failing to hit the company's lofty sales expectations. "Dead Space 3 came in below our forecast," an EA executive said during an earnings call in May 2013. The company did not give out specific numbers, but by some estimates, a Dead Space game would have needed to sell five million copies just to break even. It became clear then that EA no longer had much appetite to make expensive games that people would only play once. Rather than allowing Visceral to make a fourth Dead Space, EA entrusted the studio with a new game in its huge Battlefield franchise, which was mainly popular because of its multiplayer component. The idea of moving from third-person action games to a first-person shooter was unappealing to many at Visceral, but management saw it as the only way to keep their studio afloat, according to two people familiar with the company's thinking. Shortly after the February release of Dead Space 3, Visceral split up into two teams. One larger team began preproduction on what would eventually become Battlefield Hardline (2015), a first-person shooter about cops in Miami. A second, smaller team started working on an open-world pirate game, code-named Jamaica. Then, 30 miles north of Visceral, the video game world shifted. On April 3, 2013, Disney shut down LucasArts, canceling the highly anticipated Star Wars 1313 and firing all of the studio's staff. That same week, as I reported in my recent book Blood, Sweat, and Pixels, a contingent of LucasArts leads went to Visceral to pitch them on hiring key employees and taking over production of Star Wars 1313. Visceral GM Steve Papoutsis turned them down, instead offering to hire some ex-LucasArts staff for Visceral's own projects. A month later, in May 2013, the picture became clearer as EA announced that it had struck a deal with Disney, snagging the exclusive rights to release Star Wars games on consoles (not counting "casual" games, like the Lego series). In that announcement, EA said that it would develop Star Wars games in three studios: BioWare (Star Wars: The Old Republic), DICE (Star Wars Battlefront), and Visceral, whose project remained a mystery. This was bad news for the pirate game. EA, nervous about the upcoming Assassin's Creed: Black Flag that was coming from rival publisher Ubisoft in late 2013 and eager to take advantage of the Star Wars deal, canceled Jamaica in favor of a new Star Wars game. Visceral called this project Yuma, after the Arizona desert where Jabba's Palace had been filmed in Star Wars VI: Return of the Jedi. The team decided to keep the pirates, but bring them to outer space, pitching Yuma as a "space scoundrel" game in which players could explore the galaxy as a Han Solo-like rogue. "It was going to be some hybrid between a linear action shooter, where if you're on the ground it's Tomb Raider-like, but then in space it's gonna be Black Flag," said one person who worked on the project. Added a second: "You flew your Millennium Falcon-esque ship around, boarded other ships, raided pirates, got booty, and that kind of thing." As cool as it may have sounded, Yuma was ill-fated from the start. Battlefield Hardline was going through too many problems, and throughout 2014, progress on Yuma slowed to a crawl as Visceral asked all of its employees to help out on the cop game. Switching from third-person action-adventure games to a first-person shooter had been a rough adjustment for many people at Visceral, sources said, and a lot of them still didn't actually want to make Hardline. Morale had sunk at the studio by then, and Visceral was already losing key artists and engineers who weren't interested in working on the game. "EA does internal health surveys," said one person who worked on the game. "Throughout most of Hardline's production, Visceral had the worst team health survey at EA, for like two years running."Battlefield Hardline, the final game released by Visceral Games At least they had Amy Hennig. Hennig, a well-known director with a sailor's mouth and a head for storytelling, had joined Visceral while it was midway through Battlefield Hardline. She had worked in video games since the 1980s but was known best for Uncharted, the explosive action-adventure series she had helmed until an ugly quarrel with others at her studio, Naughty Dog, in early 2014 that led to her leaving in the middle of production on Uncharted 4. Fans and industry observers spent weeks speculating about what she might do next, and in April 2014, she announced that she was joining EA and Visceral to make a Star Wars game. At first, Hennig didn't get to work on Star Wars for very long. She was pulled on to Battlefield Hardline for a few months to help with scripts and cutscenes, according to three sources. When she did start figuring out her next project, at the end of 2014, it became clear that Yuma wasn't going to happen. Hennig wasn't interested in making an open-world space game; she wanted to write a linear action-adventure game, like Uncharted. They'd keep the idea of scoundrels in space, but for this new project, Hennig wanted to tell a heist story. Star Wars meets Ocean's Eleven. Soon it had a new codename: Ragtag. Everyone I asked about Ragtag's story was unanimous about one thing: They all thought it was awesome. The lead protagonist was Dodger, described as a "cracked mirror version" of Han Solo, and over the course of the game he'd battle alongside a band of fellow misfits like Robie, a gunslinger and Dodger's partner in crime; Oona, the daughter of a mob boss; and Buck, the veteran leader and mentor of the crew. Set between the original Star Wars and The Empire Strikes Back, Ragtag would focus on the impact of Alderaan's destruction and tell a story about criminal families, scoundrels, and action-packed heists. "This was the coolest shit I've ever seen," said one person who saw the story. "[Hennig] had total buy-in from the start on that. Everybody was buzzing." In order to distinguish Ragtag from Uncharted, a point that EA's executives felt strongly about, Hennig and her team came up with some lofty ideas for gameplay. You'd play as multiple members of the team, and each would have their own AI minds and abilities when you weren't controlling them. There were no Jedi powers, but one big theme was "sabotage"—you'd be able to manipulate the environment to distract and divert enemies in non-violent ways. These ideas were incredibly ambitious. "Picture the Death Star, and they all have jobs," said a person who worked on the game. "One Stormtrooper was on a command unit, moving boxes around. Some guys would be droids. It was supposed to be set up so it was all real, and it felt like they had jobs to do. We wanted to tap into emotions, so you could mess with Stormtroopers' emotions. Go into a room, turn the lights off. He goes back in and turns them back on. Then you turn them off again. At a certain point he starts getting spooked, acting irrationally, and bringing friends in." "This was the coolest shit I've ever seen. [Hennig] had total buy-in from the start on that. Everybody was buzzing." On March 17, 2015, an exhausted team at Visceral Games finally shipped Battlefield Hardline. A few weeks later, EA let go of Visceral's polarizing general manager, Steve Papoutsis, as well as some other executives and producers. The studio's new GM, Scott Probst (son of board chairman Larry Probst), then announced plans to flatten Visceral's structure. Instead of operating as a hierarchy, with a GM on top and then various layers of management underneath them, the studio would minimize management and give as much say as possible to creative leads. It was inspired by Hennig's old studio, Naughty Dog, which is known for having no producers. "It was awesome—really empowering—it was going to be a really creative environment to start working in," said one person who was there. "It made us think we were really going to solve all these problems." Then the company again split in two. Half of the staff went on to do the expansion packs for Battlefield Hardline, which had been mandated by EA, while the other half moved to Ragtag. This caused some friction, according to two people who worked on that Hardline downloadable content. One person said it felt like the Ragtag team were the "chosen ones." Said a second: "It was made very clear that the development team MVPs were the ones creating Star Wars magic while us lowly mortals slaved away on Hardline DLC." It would take a lot more people to create that Star Wars magic, though. By one estimate, the Ragtag team only had around 30 people as they entered pre-production in mid-2015. The plan was for the Hardline DLC team to join them later, but even that would be too small—Visceral had fewer than 100 employees. When Hennig and her team looked at comparable games—Uncharted 4, Tomb Raider, etc.—they'd see production staffs in the 200s. One of the big issues was where they lived. Expenses in San Francisco were so high, between salaries and rent and costs of living, that by one source's estimate each employee could cost over $16,000 a month. (That number, which includes salary and other expenses, dwarfs the widely accepted average estimate of $10,000 a month.) Compared to EA's studios in cities like Vancouver, Montreal, and Austin—all of which offered tax benefits to video game companies—Visceral was way too pricey to maintain a staff as large as they needed. "Visceral was the most expensive studio that EA had," said one person who worked there. "Even during Dead Space 3 and then Hardline, we would always joke, 'I don't understand why [EA] still has a studio here.' Financially, it made no sense." EA had a somewhat elegant solution for this staffing problem. During the first year of preproduction, as the Ragtag team wrote, designed, and prototyped, Hennig would work with newly hired producer Jade Raymond to build a studio in Montreal, where game development costs significantly less thanks to a lower cost of living and tax benefits provided by the Quebec government. This studio, called EA Motive, would add another 70 people to Ragtag, helping out both with the single-player campaign and a multiplayer "second mode" that EA had demanded. (At that point, per four sources, the second mode was going to be a space combat game that was sort of like a scaled-down version of Yuma.) By the time they were ready for production in 2016 the Ragtag team was meant to be roughly 160 people, according to a source. Getting the game out for their scheduled release in May 2018 would be challenging, but doable, if everything went according to plan. Of course, it wouldn't be Star Wars if everything went according to plan. Before entering development on a big-budget game, the people in charge will often put together a list of risks they've flagged—problems that they anticipate might emerge over the course of production. In an ideal world, developers will identify and solve these problems before they even pop up. Of course, most game productions don't live in an ideal world. And Ragtag had a lot of flags. There was the engine, Frostbite, which had never been used to make a third-person action-adventure game. In the video game world, an "engine" is a collection of code that is reused across games, often including basic, boring features like physics simulators, graphics renderers, and animation systems. For the past half-decade, EA has mandated that all of its studios use the Frostbite engine, which was designed by the EA studio DICE in Sweden to make Battlefield games. 8 of 19 11/27/2017, 1:45 PM The Collapse Of Visceral's Ambitious Star Wars Game https://kotaku.com/the-collapse-of-viscerals-ambitious-star-wars-game-... Frostbite had been challenging enough for Visceral during Hardline's development, and that was a Battlefield game. For Ragtag, Visceral would have to build key features from scratch. Like BioWare on Dragon Age and Mass Effect, Visceral found itself trying to make a third-person game on an engine built for first-person shooters. "It was missing a lot of tools, a lot of stuff that was in Uncharted 1," said a former employee. "It was going to be a year, or a year and a half's work just to get the engine to do things that are assumed and taken for granted." Uncharted 1, written and directed by Amy Hennig, was one of Sony's premier games on the PlayStation 3. Another red flag was Star Wars—or, more specifically, the fact that Star Wars was owned by a different company. Visceral staff say that the creative cabal at Star Wars owner Lucasfilm treated them well, giving them flexibility and freedom, but one of the drawbacks to working with another company's franchise was that they had to get approval for everything. On an Uncharted game, for example, one of Nathan Drake's costumes might go through a few rounds of iteration at Naughty Dog, then be finalized in a week. "With Star Wars you could be talking months—potentially years," said one Visceral staffer. "Oh, would Dodger really look like this? What would his weapon look like? Potentially years of that. Would he carry this? Would that really work in the Star Wars universe? With Uncharted, they can build any world they come up with, because it's their world. With Star Wars you have to have that back and forth... People think, 'Oh it must be so cool to work on Star Wars.' It actually kind of sucks." Ragtag's scope was a glaring red flag. All of those ideas surrounding multiple protagonists and sabotaging Stormtroopers sounded wonderful in theory, but some high-level staff at Visceral were concerned that they didn't have the time or budget to pull everything off. In video game development, it's standard for a team to come up with wild, ambitious ideas in preproduction and then narrow the scope later, but to some who worked at Visceral, Ragtag seemed less like a set of great ambitions and more like a fever dream. As one team member told me, throughout 2015 it started feeling unlikely that Visceral could even pull off one fully fleshed-out companion (think: Ellie from The Last of Us), let alone the five or six that they wanted to implement. "We started getting design ideas and figuring out structure, and it was gonna be bigger than Uncharted 4," said a Ragtag developer. "It wasn't gonna add up." Perhaps the biggest red flag was the tension between Visceral and EA. Game developers and publishers have always butted heads—creatives vs. money guys; you know the drill—but on Ragtag there were two particular arguments that remained contentious from 2014 all the way until the studio shut down. Argument #1: How much Star Wars should there be? With Ragtag, Hennig and crew were planning on making a gritty game about scoundrels and criminals. They had Lucasfilm's blessing to tell a story about new characters, with no Sith or midichlorians or members of the Skywalker clan. But when EA's executives thought of Star Wars, they thought of robed Jedi using powers of the Force, not mob families. Two former Visceral staff recall EA looking at Ragtag and asking where Chewbacca was. "EA would get obsessed with market research and start asking people what's important to them about Star Wars," said a former staff member. "You'd get, 'Oh, the Force, lightsabers, the usual Jedi continuum.' They're hyper focused on that stuff, and it'd be a topic of conversation in every pitch meeting." Chewbacca makes an appearance in DICE's Star Wars Battlefront Argument #2: What, exactly, was the game they were making? Several Visceral employees recalled getting constant questions from EA executives like Jade Raymond about what Ragtag's big innovation was. The thought was that in order to compete with the likes of Uncharted 4, Visceral's game needed to have a strong hook. To many on the team, that premise seemed absurd. They were starting from scratch on a brand new game, the first game like this that most of them had made, and EA wanted them to compete with Naughty Dog? Visceral hadn't even made their own version of Uncharted 1, yet their game was supposed to be better than Uncharted 4? According to one source, EA was pressuring Visceral to hit a 90 or higher on Metacritic, the video game review aggregator that big publishers rely upon as a rubricfor quality. But the Ragtag team knew that even under the best circumstances that would be impossible. Other similar games across the industry, like Assassin's Creed and Watch Dogs and even the first Uncharted, were viewed as first steps, games that could be used as stepping stones to reach the heights of something like Uncharted 2. Reaching 90+ Metacritic on Ragtag seemed unattainable. "We didn't have the foundation; we don't have 13-14 years building on a single engine, doing this specific game like Naughty Dog did," said a former Visceral staffer. "When you look at that, you can't just assume you're gonna leapfrog Uncharted 4. It's impossible. Especially considering we knew from the get-go our budget would be less, and we definitely knew that our manpower would be less." Of course, one pivotal person on the team did have experience making games like Uncharted: Amy Hennig. When Hennig joined Visceral, she had been midway through production on Uncharted 4, and before that, she'd spent nearly a decade with Nathan Drake as creative director of the first three Uncharted games. No name was more associated with Uncharted than Hennig's, and few people in the world had as much experience making linear action-adventure games. People at Visceral say they were hopeful that Hennig would mentor them and help them make something awesome. Then the problems started. Throughout 2015 and then the rest of development, Hennig began clashing with others at Visceral, particularly the design team, according to all of the staff who spoke to me for this story. Designers described Hennig as a brilliant writer and story-teller who was spread too thin on Ragtag. Because she wanted to direct every aspect of the game, and many decisions had to run through her, it became difficult for Visceral staff to get her attention. She would work long hours and weekends, but she also spent a great deal of time flying down to Los Angeles to record with actors. Some told anecdotes about waiting weeks or months just to get her approval on something they'd done, only to find out that it didn't meet her standards. When reached by Kotaku, Hennig said she was not authorized to comment without approval from EA. Some have suggested that she was put in a difficult position. As one former Visceral employee pointed out, Hennig may have had a hard time trusting a team that had no experience working on games like Uncharted, which made her feel compelled to have her hands in everything. Visceral's flattened structure was brand new, and its employees were not accustomed to having this much autonomy, which may have been frustrating to Hennig. "You're not gonna make a Naughty Dog-like game without people who are behaving in a way that's nimble and autonomous and initiative-taking," said one person close to the studio. All of these tensions led to a slow, difficult 2015 for Ragtag, but there was hope at Visceral that progress would improve once they got more people. And they'd get more people once EA had established its new studio in Montreal, Motive, which was specifically hiring for development on Ragtag and even briefly started helping out on the project in small ways, according to three people familiar with goings-on there. Then Star Wars Battlefront came out and changed everything. Star Wars is never easy. On November 17, 2015, EA released the much-anticipated Star Wars Battlefront, the first Star Wars game to be released after LucasArts' demise. Battlefront was a massive success, shipping 13 million copies by the end of 2015, but fans and reviewers criticized it for lacking content, and most crucially, for not including the single-player campaign that people had wanted to see from a new Star Wars game. It's not clear when or why EA's executives decided to pivot, and EA declined to specify, but by the beginning of 2016, Motive was no longer going to help Visceral. Staff who had been interviewing to work on Amy Hennig's Star Wars game were told that they no longer had positions there, according to two sources. Instead, EA put the young studio in charge of the single-player campaign for Battlefront II, scheduled for fall 2017. That meant Ragtag was screwed. Throughout 2015 the team had consisted of around 30 people, with another 40 or so planned to join once they'd shipped the DLC for Battlefield Hardline. But in order to make an Uncharted-style game of the size and scope that EA wanted, Visceral would need many more developers. "We didn't have a plan to make this game without a 160-person team," said one former Visceral employee. The San Francisco-based studio was forbidden from hiring the number of staff it needed, according to three sources. "EA didn't allow us any more resources," said one. "At that point it was hard to even consider doing anything other than the campaign. Effectively the second [multiplayer] mode went away at that point." Star Wars Battlefront, released in 2015, was widely criticized for lacking content and not having a single-player campaign. It's easy to see why a risk-averse publisher like EA wouldn't want to spend more money on a company in San Francisco, as opposed to its studios in the tax-friendly hubs of Vancouver and Montreal. "The differences are insane," said a former Visceral employee. "People in Montreal and Vancouver are a third of the cost of people in the Bay Area." Video game development is risky and complicated, and there is no shortage of stories from game-makers who felt like their projects were doomed before proceeding to release fantastic games. Maybe, some thought, Ragtag could follow a similar trajectory. Or maybe it couldn't. Morale was not great at Visceral Games at the beginning of 2016, and it was only getting worse. In May 2016, EA laid off roughly a dozen Visceral staffers, and throughout the year, more people left the studio for other jobs. Progress remained as sluggish as it had been the previous year, due to the same problems that had been plaguing the Ragtag team from the start. Frostbite still made everything more difficult, EA kept questioning Visceral's decisions, and Hennig continued to clash with others on the team. "The people at Visceral were used to working a certain way," said one staffer, "while Amy was used to working a certain way." At Naughty Dog, Hennig had always worked in tandem with a second director whose job was to manage gameplay. On the brilliant Uncharted 2, that role was filled by Bruce Straley. According to three people familiar with the situation, Hennig said she didn't feel like she had anyone who could fill that role on Ragtag. As a result, sources said, Hennig took control of every aspect of the project, from story to gameplay to level design. "Amy is amazing with story, tone, a lot of stuff," said one person who worked on the team. "But she's not a level designer, so if you're a gameplay person, you would not be as into Amy controlling everything. Whereas if you're a story person, you'd be like, 'Sure, man, lead the way.'"At least three former Visceral employees told me they left the studio because they felt frustrated by Hennig's direction. Said another person who worked with Hennig: "Amy's phenomenally smart, fiercely smart, talented, incredibly good at cutscenes. But she was balanced by other talented individuals at Naughty Dog... This was a team she hadn't worked with before. I felt like she didn't really trust us." Because Visceral had such a hard time hiring new staff, some pivotal roles on the project remained unfilled. Throughout 2016 Ragtag still didn't have a dedicated art director, for example, whose job would be to supervise the art department and ensure they were all sticking to vision. Instead they had to rely upon an art director at Lucasfilm, who by one account was "incredibly talented but overstretched." With gaps like that, it's not hard to see why Hennig might have been frustrated. (Later, the studio would bring in a new art director from EA's office in Los Angeles.) Hennig also wasn't used to working with a corporation like Electronic Arts. Despite being owned by electronics giant Sony, Naughty Dog had been able to operate autonomously, in large part because they were widely perceived as the corporation's prestige video game studio. At EA, however, things were different. "She was giving these massive presentations on the story, themes," said one person who worked on Ragtag. "EA executives are like, 'FIFA Ultimate Team makes a billion dollars a year.' Where's your version of that?" The team had accomplished a few cool things so far. They'd built a traversal system for Dodger and his partners, and at least graphically, their work was looking great. At E3 2016, Visceral showed off a short clip from Ragtag, part of a larger demo that the team had been developing. The demo looked phenomenal, sources said—Hennig had insisted on getting the best technology possible, and they were working both with Lucasfilm's ILM and Sony's studio in San Diego to create gorgeous lighting and effects. In the clip, we see the protagonist Dodger exit the cantina on Tatooine, brushing his arm against the door as he leaves. You might not even have noticed the way Dodger touched that door, but for Visceral, that simple animation was months in the making. They spent hours and hours of development time just working on the way in which Dodger would touch the door. This was a frustrating experience for some members of the team, who felt like they didn't have enough core features in place to be spending so much time on a demo. That demo may have looked good, but people who worked on it said you couldn't play very much. "Dodger couldn't even shoot his gun and we're fine-tuning where his hand placement needed to be," said one Ragtag developer. "We don't have a single environment for Dodger to exist in... How do you build a system if you don't know what your average area is gonna be?" Working with a big publisher often means embracing poor game development practices just to impress fans and executives, which is what Visceral had done, according to people who worked on that demo. "If you looked at it objectively, you'd be like, 'There's nothing here,'" said one. "Dodger can do like three things. But it was cut in a specific way that looked interesting, and visually it was really nice looking." Having such a good-looking demo helped keep Ragtag going throughout 2016. Visceral still had a staffing problem, though. More people were trickling out of the studio, and EA still didn't want to hire more developers in San Francisco. "We'd been having a pretty steady loss of people, but by 2017 the trickle sped up," said one person who worked on the game. "We lost our animators, [our] tech department, the engineering leads all left, the artists filtered out. It become obvious by the start of 2017 that Ragtag wasn't going to get done unless major changes happened." So at the end of 2016, EA came up with a new plan. Up at EA Vancouver, the publisher had just canceled a Plants vs. Zombies game and had a team free to help out on Ragtag, according to people who were on the team then. This new group would join development at the beginning of 2017 and add some muscle to Visceral. By now the project had been delayed to December 2018, which gave both studios a solid two years to finish. Finally, there was reason to be optimistic again. Wasn't there? Back in 2015, after shipping Battlefield Hardline, Visceral had flattened its structure in an attempt to boost morale and do things more nimbly. When EA Vancouver came along, that idea went out the window, according to a former employee. Suddenly there were producers and development directors and other layers of management that Visceral had been attempting to avoid. People at EA Vancouver were happy with their processes—they liked having a managerial structure—but almost immediately, this led to a clash of cultures. While at first the staff of Visceral were optimistic about the extra manpower, it soon became clear that EA hadn't just brought in Vancouver to assist on the project. It appeared that EA wanted Vancouver to take over the project, according to three people involved with the game. Suddenly, Ragtag had a new executive producer, lead designer, game director, and many other lead roles—all of whom were in Vancouver. "Visceral is pissed, obviously, because all of a sudden this other studio comes on and gets to call the shots," said one former staffer. "There were so many meetings where people at Visceral were so mad about this." One person who worked on the game said EA Vancouver was "horrified" by how little progress Visceral had made on Ragtag. Some on the team theorized that EA was trying to wrest control of Ragtag away from Hennig, but the merger just made a messy situation messier. There were even more clashes, as EA Vancouver would propose ideas for gadgets similar to those in Rocksteady's hit Batman Arkham games that the characters could use in addition to shooting and climbing. Hennig pushed back against these ideas, according to two people who worked on the game. She didn't want to turn Dodger into the gadget guy. Uncharted 4, released in 2016, was seen as a bar that Visceral wanted to hit with Ragtag Tension aside, with the extra people, it finally felt to the Ragtag team like they were making some progress. Throughout 2017, developers at both Visceral and EA Vancouver worked hard on that "sampler platter" that they hoped would both serve as a target for their own team and show EA's executives what they were capable of doing. There was the AT-ST chase, the Tatooine shootout, the descent into Jabba's palace. But both teams were also battling over fundamental features, like the coversystem, which two sources said became a point of contention over the entire development of Ragtag. Different people who worked on the game have varying opinions on just how much the team actually accomplished throughout 2017—and Visceral staff were still regularly quitting—but some say that they were more optimistic this year than in the last two, although Ragtag's scope remained more ambitious than anyone thought they could handle. "A lot of things started turning around," said a source, "but I think there was a little bit of a too-little, too-late aspect to it. I don't think it mattered." At EA, video game projects go through a set of milestones that the publisher calls gates—opportunities for EA's executives to come see what a studio has been doing. Failing a gate could lead to delays, resource shifts, or even cancellations. By April 2017, Ragtag was up to Gate 3. EA executive vice president Patrick Söderlund gave them the greenlight, two sources said, but said he wanted to do another check-in after six months, calling it Gate 3.5. For years, four sources said, Söderlund and Jade Raymond had been asking about what Ragtag's innovation would be. "What was this game's 'gravity gun'?" they would ask, a reference to Half-Life's iconic weapon. And while the team had come up with lots of ideas—sabotage mechanics, a rotating cast of companions, and so on— executing those ideas had proven difficult. By the middle of 2017, people who saw the game say it resembled Uncharted too much for EA's liking. "The three levels we made for the 3.5 gate, every single one of those levels you could hold up a video of Uncharted beside it," said one former Visceral employee, "and you could literally say, 'OK, this part is like this part from Uncharted. This level is like this level from Uncharted.'" The team crunched hard on those demos for Gate 3.5, which landed in the middle of October. There's confusion on the exact timing here—and EA declined to get into specifics—but in the days after coming to see Gate 3.5, EA's executives made it official. After nearly two decades, Visceral's time in the video game industry was coming to an end. Amy Hennig's project would be canceled, too. "Decisions like this are never easy," said Söderlund as part of his statement to Kotaku. "In fact, they are really, really hard. They are also not fast - that's a mistake some people often make. You know how much work people have put into it, how much creativity has been poured out. We will always look at every way we can keep working on the ideas, and we did a lot of that here. We supported the team and their creative process, and we tried a lot of things. We cut scope. We added things, too. We rethought, redesigned, reimagined. But at some point, you have to be honest with yourselves, and realize that we're not going to be able to get to where we want to be. And that becomes a very tough call to make." While there are dozens of perspectives on whether or not EA's decision to axe the studio was justified, many who worked at the studio say they couldn't see this ending any other way. "Honestly, it was a mercy killing," said one former Visceral employee. "It had nothing to do with whether it was gonna be single player. I don't think it had anything to do with that. That game never could've been good and come out." Looking back at the last few years of Visceral, people who worked for the studio have a lot of opinions. They have a lot of fingers to point: at EA, at Patrick Söderlund, at Amy Hennig, at themselves. One common theme, conveyed to me by at least three different people, was that changes should have been made years ago. "I think EA gave us too much leeway," said one. "If anything, EA should've probably canceled this project earlier. I think Söderlund and them were too nice, gave us too many opportunities." Perhaps it was inevitable that, in 2017, a game like Ragtag wouldn't be possible at a publisher like EA. It was too big, too expensive, and too risky. Seeing it to completion might have cost $100 million, by one person's estimate, which was a huge investment for a game that people might play just once and then trade into GameStop, costing EA a sale. "Ultimately, the idea of doing a game of this scope, this expense, this fidelity, at this studio never made sense," said a former Visceral staffer. Posited another: "The only way we could've made this work was to say, 'Hey everybody, Ragtag's not gonna make money. But we're going to add a ton of features to Frostbite that'll make [EA Motive's] big adventure game possible, and amortize the costs over the future. Think of this as an investment product.'" Star Wars Battlefront II, featuring EA Motive's single-player campaign, will be out in November 2017 Those who remained at Visceral on October 17, 2017 certainly did not come into work expecting to hear that EA was shutting down the studio. They knew it'd be a tough road to finish Ragtag in the next year, and they knew it'd mean lots of crunch, but they thought the task ahead was feasible. After all, this was Star Wars. How could it fail? "I woke up that day thinking it was a perfectly normal Tuesday," said one person on the team. "I went into work, and we had a mandatory all-hands meeting at 11:30am. That was when they told us. It came out of nowhere. I had no idea that anything like that was going to happen." Since the closure, EA has given Visceral's staff the opportunity to look for other positions within the publisher, which many have taken. Some have found new jobs at other studios across the industry, and a Twitter hashtag last week helped people connect to new gigs. Meanwhile, EA Vancouver is essentially starting from scratch on their own Star Wars game, as the publisher announced when it said Visceral was closing. In some ways things are coming full circle. Back in 2014, EA canceled the open-world Star Wars game Yuma to make a linear action-adventure; now, in 2017, EA has canceled its linear action-adventure to make an open world Star Wars game. There's no official word on Hennig's next move. "There's a reality in this that great creative pursuits are inevitably challenging," said Patrick Söderlund in EA's statement. "Sometimes you have a huge hit. Sometimes you have failures. Sometimes you need to shift your thinking. I've been a part of them all. This was not where we wanted to find ourselves. We're going to go back to work, use a lot of the great work that we have, and go make something that we think Star Wars fans are going to love." With Ragtag, Amy Hennig and Visceral set out to make something that fans wanted—a proper single-player Star Wars game the likes of which we haven't seen for nearly a decade. Like 1313 before it, things didn't work out. It's starting to look like a pattern that will require Star Wars fans to do something they're asked to do a lot: Wait. Maybe things'll finally work out next time. Correction (9:59pm): An original version of this story stated that revenue of Uncharted was less important to Naughty Dog than selling PlayStation consoles, which Naughty Dog has disputed. We've since removed that line.

Spacewar! debuts

MIT receives a DEC PDP-1 computer in the fall of 1961. While there were some demonstration programs, Steve "Slug" Russell thought a game would make a better presentation. Along with Martin "Shag" Graetz and Wayne Wiitanen, he designes a space battle game based on the Lensman series of novels by E.E. "Doc" Smith called Spacewar! Two ships, one called the 'Wedge' and the other the 'Needle,' would fly around a star-filled background. Peter Samson provided a program called Expensive Planetarium that generated an accurate star-filled background. The game would later be distributed through DECUS, the Digital Equipment Corporation users group, ensuring it would become widespread in the technical and university computing communities.

Eve OnLine is released

Massive Multi-player Online Role-Playing Games (MMORPG) begins to blossom with the advent of faster computers with ever-better graphics. Eve Online allows players to assume command of a spaceship, form alliances, and combat against other players, or the environment. It represented a new concept where skills were gained in real-time, even when a player was not logged into the game. By 2013, more than half-a-million users were regularly playing.

Microsoft introduces Xbox One

Microsoft had not released a new version of the Xbox for almost eight years when it introduces the Xbox One. The Kinect movement-based user interface, and streaming entertainment options such as Xbox Music and Xbox Video, were a significant part of the new system. Games were offered via Blu-ray discs, or by download from Microsoft's Xbox Live service, though unlike most consoles, it offered no backward compatibility for earlier Xbox games.

A cognitive, communicative revolution?

Much hype has been produced about the ability of new technology to instigate new ways of thought and communication. Take hypertext, which was supposed to give us writing skills that adhered much closer to the way our brains worked, a more "natural" way of textual communication. So far, however, the World Wide Web, the must successful hypertext system by far, has only produced a better distribution mechanism, and very few texts actually use the nonlinear possibilities of the technology. Games, however, are often simulations; they are not static labyrinths like hypertexts or literary fictions. The simulation aspect is crucial: it is radically different alternative to narratives as a cognitive and communicative structure. Simulations are bottom up; they are complex systems based on logical rules. Games are both object and process; they can't be read as texts or listened to as music, they must be played. Playing is integral, not coincidental like the appreciative reader or listener. The creative involvement is a necessary ingredient in the uses of games. The complex nature of simulations is such that a result can't be predicted beforehand; it can vary greatly depending on the player's luck, skill and creativity. In multi-player games, social skills are needed, or must be developed. Anyone who has spent some time in a multi-player game knows that. Yet much of the industry and the academic commentators see the need for "narrative" structures in order to understand games and make games "better." In this issue, the debate about narratives' and narratology's relevance to game studies is clearly visible. This is a debate that shows the very early stage we are still in, where the struggle of controlling and shaping the theoretical paradigms has just started. We expect the debate to continue, here and elsewhere, but hope that future contributions will address the points already made, and not simply make the same claims over and over again. That is what an academic journal is for.

7. Video game play is socially isolating

Much video game play is social. Almost 60 percent of frequent gamers play with friends. Thirty-three percent play with siblings and 25 percent play with spouses or parents. Even games designed for single players are often played socially, with one person giving advice to another holding a joystick. A growing number of games are designed for multiple players — for either cooperative play in the same space or online play with distributed players. Sociologist Talmadge Wright has logged many hours observing online communities interact with and react to violent video games, concluding that meta-gaming (conversation about game content) provides a context for thinking about rules and rule-breaking. In this way there are really two games taking place simultaneously: one, the explicit conflict and combat on the screen; the other, the implicit cooperation and comradeship between the players. Two players may be fighting to death on screen and growing closer as friends off screen. Social expectations are reaffirmed through the social contract governing play, even as they are symbolically cast aside within the transgressive fantasies represented onscreen.

Nintendo Wii comes to market

Nintendo's Wii game system does not merely introduce new games and controllers, but new ways of interacting with game systems. The Wii Remote combined advanced gesture recognition into gaming, using accelerometer and optical sensor technologies to interact with the user. These advances allowed for games to incorporate a wide range of player physical movements. Several games came their own with specialized controllers, including Wii Fit, Wii Tennis and Wii Boxing. The Wii console also allowed access to online services providing games, news, and entertainment offerings. It has sold more than a hundred million units worldwide.

6. Video games are not a meaningful form of expression.

On April 19, 2002, U.S. District Judge Stephen N. Limbaugh Sr. ruled that video games do not convey ideas and thus enjoy no constitutional protection. As evidence, Saint Louis County presented the judge with videotaped excerpts from four games, all within a narrow range of genres, and all the subject of previous controversy. Overturning a similar decision in Indianapolis, Federal Court of Appeals Judge Richard Posner noted: "Violence has always been and remains a central interest of humankind and a recurrent, even obsessive theme of culture both high and low. It engages the interest of children from an early age, as anyone familiar with the classic fairy tales collected by Grimm, Andersen, and Perrault are aware." Posner adds, "To shield children right up to the age of 18 from exposure to violent descriptions and images would not only be quixotic, but deforming; it would leave them unequipped to cope with the world as we know it." Many early games were little more than shooting galleries where players were encouraged to blast everything that moved. Many current games are designed to be ethical testing grounds. They allow players to navigate an expansive and open-ended world, make their own choices and witness their consequences. The Sims designer Will Wright argues that games are perhaps the only medium that allows us to experience guilt over the actions of fictional characters. In a movie, one can always pull back and condemn the character or the artist when they cross certain social boundaries. But in playing a game, we choose what happens to the characters. In the right circumstances, we can be encouraged to examine our own values by seeing how we behave within virtual space.

First computer scanned image on SEAC

One of the earliest applications of computers to image creation and processing starts with the work of Robert Kirsch on the Standards Eastern Automatic Computer (SEAC) in 1957. Working with the SEAC team, Kirsch designed a rotating drum scanner, allowing him to digitize an image of his young son, Walden. The image, a five-by-five centimeter black-and-white shot, was the first image to be scanned into a computer. In 2003, Life Magazine noted it as one of the "100 Photographs that changed the world."

Lucasfilm produces The Road to Point Reyes

One of the most significant static images in the history of computer graphics, The Road to Point Reyes is one of Lucasfilm's most important early projects. Begun in 1983, Rob Cook directed the image and conceived the scene, while Alvy Ray Smith, Loren Carpenter, Tom Porter, Bill Reeves, and David Salesin provided various elements including shading, hidden surface routines, and fractals. The single image, which Smith has described as a 'one-frame Movie,' took a month to render, and was eventually displayed at The Computer Museum in Boston.

Pixar is founded

Pixar was originally called the Special Effects Computer Group at Lucasfilm (launched in 1979). The group created the computer-animated segments of films such as Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan and Young Sherlock Holmes. In 1986, Apple Computer co-founder Steve Jobs paid 10 million dollars to Lucasfilm to purchase the Group and renamed it Pixar. Over the next decade, Pixar made highly successful (and Oscar-winning) animated films. It was bought by Disney in 2006.

Simulation

See Management Simulation and Training Simulation

Star Wars (Death Star Briefing)

Set in a Galaxy far, far away, Star Wars combined old-fashioned science fiction storytelling with cutting-edge special effects provided by Industrial Light & Magic. One effect, the Death Star briefing, featured a wire-frame version of the space station, one of the first uses of wire-frame animation in a major motion picture.

SGI releases Maya

Silicon Graphics Incorporated (SGI) initially develops Maya as a next generation 3D animation tool, basing it on code from previous systems created by Wavefront and Alias. Maya quickly found adoption by video game and graphics industries, especially in film and television. Maya was the basis for three separate Academy Awards for Technical Achievement between 2003 and 2008.

Nintendo releases the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) in the U.S.

Since 1983, the American electronic game market had been depressed due to a glut of poorly performing games and consoles. That same year, Nintendo released its Famicom gaming system in Japan. Renamed the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) when it was released in North America, the NES started to reverse the fortunes of the American game industry. The system launched with eighteen available titles, and was largely responsible for turning Mario the Plumber into one of the most enduring characters in the history of video games.

SuperPaint is completed

SuperPaint is probably the first digital computer drawing system to use a frame buffer—a special high-speed memory—and the ancestor of all modern paint programs. It could create sophisticated animations, in up to 16.7 million colors, had adjustable paintbrushes, video magnification, and used a graphics tablet for drawing. It was designed by Richard Shoup and others at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC). Its designers won a technical Academy Award in 1998 for their invention.

Nimrod on display at Festival of Britain

The Festival of Britain was designed as a nationwide display of British Arts, Technology and Culture following the widespread destruction of World War II. As a part of the festivities, computer company Ferranti provided a display for the Festival's activities in South Kensington (London). John Bennett, an Australian employee living in Britain, suggested building a machine to play NIM, a simple game where players take turns removing matches from piles in an attempt to be the last person to remove a match. An electromechanical device to play the game had been on display at the 1939 World's Fair in New York. Engineer Raymond Stuart-Williams turned Bennet's design into an actual machine that debuted at the Festival on April 12th, 1951. Ferranti took Nimrod to the Berlin International Show later in 1951, but dismantled it afterwards.

Sony releases the PlayStation 2

The PlayStation 2 (PS2) represents a significant change in the concept of game consoles. The PS2 allowed for DVDs to be played as well as game disks, making it more of an entertainment console than a game console. Many consumers bought the PS2 for its DVD player alone, since the PS2 was cheaper than stand-alone DVD players. In turn, this greatly increased consumer adoption of the DVD format. Over more than ten years in active production, the PlayStation 2 has sold more than a hundred and fifty million units, making it one of the most successful game systems ever released.

Sony releases PlayStation 4

The PlayStation 4 (PS4) is seen as a bold new step for Sony in the game market. Sony chose AMD's x86-64 Accelerated Processing Unit to serve as both central processing unit and graphics processing unit, built together onto on a single chip. Interactivity was at the forefront of the design for the PS4, including PlayStation Now, a cloud- based gaming service that could stream video from the internet, and a controller featuring a share button, allowing players to view each others' game play.

Video Toaster is introduced by NewTek

The Video Toaster is a video editing and production system for the Amiga personal computers and includes custom hardware and software. Much more affordable than any other computer-based video editing system, the Video Toaster was not only for home use. It was popular, for example, with public access stations and was even good enough to be used for broadcast television shows like Home Improvement.

Computer Space is released

The cult success of Steve Russell's SpaceWar! and other early space battle games led Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney to design Computer Space, one of the earliest electronic arcade games. Using no microprocessor, RAM, or ROM, Computer Space was a simple technical design that still allowed for complex gameplay, so complex that many noted there was a steep learning curve involved in playing. While Computer Space did not sell well, it was featured in films like Jaws and Soylent Green.

Interactive Genres for Classifying Video Games

The following list of genres based on interactivity can be used in conjunction with the existing taxonomy of iconographically or thematically based genres (like those of film) when attempting to categorize video games. The genres below take into consideration the dominant characteristics of the interactive experience and the games' goals and objectives, and the nature of the game's player‐character and player controls. Also, certain genres listed here (Diagnostic, Demo, Educational, Puzzle, Simulation, and Utility) contain programs which are arguably not "games", but since they appear as cartridges or discs in a form similar to game cartridges and discs (and are treated as such by many game collectors), and because they sometimes contain gamelike elements (such as Mario Teaches Typing), they have been included here for the sake of completeness. In the culture surrounding the video game, certain generic terms such as the "Shoot 'Em Up" are already established and in use among players, and these terms and distinctions are reflected in the proposed list of terms below. Some of these genres overlap commonly‐used genres of moving imagery (such as Adaptation, Adventure, Chase), while others, such as Escape, Maze, or Shoot 'Em Up, are specific to video games and reflect the interactive nature of the medium. These genre terms regard the nature of interactivity in the game itself rather than ask whether the game is single‐player, multiple‐player, or designed to be playable over a network. Due to the different types of action and objectives that can occur in a single game, games can often be cross‐listed in two or more genres. Also, some games, like M*A*S*H or Rebel Assault, feature different sequences or scenarios each of which can be categorized into different genres. Video games used as examples here include arcade video games, home video games, home computer games, and in a few cases, networked games. The format of this list is patterned after the Library of Congress Moving Imagery Genre‐Form Guide compiled by Brian Taves (chair), Judi Hoffman, and Karen Lund, whose work was the inspiration and model for this list. Genres covered in this list: Abstract, Adaptation, Adventure, Artificial Life, Board Games, Capturing, Card Games, Catching, Chase, Collecting, Combat, Demo, Diagnostic, Dodging, Driving, Educational, Escape, Fighting, Flying, Gambling, Interactive Movie, Management Simulation, Maze, Obstacle Course, Pencil‐and‐Paper Games, Pinball, Platform, Programming Games, Puzzle, Quiz, Racing, Role‐Playing, Rhythm and Dance, Shoot 'Em Up, Simulation, Sports, Strategy, Table‐Top Games, Target, Text Adventure, Training Simulation, and Utility.

Creating a New Discipline

The greatest challenge to computer game studies will no doubt come from within the academic world. Making room for a new field usually means reducing the resources of the existing ones, and the existing fields will also often respond by trying to contain the new area as a subfield. Games are not a kind of cinema, or literature, but colonising attempts from both these fields have already happened, and no doubt will happen again. And again, until computer game studies emerges as a clearly self-sustained academic field. To make things more confusing, the current pseudo-field of "new media" (primarily a strategy to claim computer-based communication for visual media studies), wants to subsume computer games as one of its objects. There are many problems with this strategy, as there is with the whole concept of "new media," and most dramatically the fact that computer games are not one medium, but many different media. From a computerized toy like Furby to the game Drug Wars on the Palm Pilot, not to mention massively multi-player games like Everquest, or the recent Anarchy Online, which was tested by 40.000 simultaneous playtesters, the extensive media differences within the field of computer games makes a traditional medium perspective almost useless. We end up with what media theorist Liv Hausken has termed media blindness: how a failure to see the specific media differences leads to a "media-neutral" media theory that is anything but neutral. This is clearly a danger when looking at games as cinema or stories, but also when making general claims about games, as though they all belonged to the same media format and shared the same characteristics. Computer games are perhaps the richest cultural genre we have yet seen, and this challenges our search for a suitable methodological approach. We all enter this field from somewhere else, from anthropology, sociology, narratology, semiotics, film studies, etc, and the political and ideological baggage we bring from our old field inevitably determines and motivates our approaches. And even more importantly, do we stay or do we go back? Do we want a separate field named computer game studies, or do we want to claim the field for our old discipline? This is a common dilemma for any scholar in a new field; take for example digital culture studies. Today, every modern culture is also digital, so every sector of the humanities and social sciences must see the digital as part of their own territory. Hence, a separate field of digital culture is difficult to construct, and probably (after the existing fields warmed to its importance), completely unnecessary. The digital theorists will finally have found interest and acceptance back at the old discipline, and so the fellowship offered by interdisciplinary communities (such as the Internet Research Association) while still valuable, is no longer crucial when building a career. In computer games, this is different. The old field of game studies barely exists (see Jesper Juul's review in this issue), and seems in no shape to give the computer game scholars a safe haven. Some would argue that the obvious place for game studies is in a media department, but given the strong focus there on mass media and the visual aesthetics, the fundamentally unique aspects of the games could easily be lost. Today we have the possibility to build a new field. We have a billion dollar industry with almost no basic research, we have the most fascinating cultural material to appear in a very long time, and we have the chance of uniting aesthetic, cultural and technical design aspects in a single discipline. This will not be a painless process, and many mistakes will be made along the way. But if we are successful, we can actually contribute both constructively and critically, and make a difference outside the academy. I am not too optimistic about influencing a multibillion industry. But in the long run, who knows? Of course, games should also be studied within existing fields and departments, such as Media Studies, Sociology, and English, to name a few. But games are too important to be left to these fields. (And they did have thirty years in which they did nothing!) Like architecture, which contains but cannot be reduced to art history, game studies should contain media studies, aesthetics, sociology etc. But it should exist as an independent academic structure, because it cannot be reduced to any of the above. These are interesting times. You are all invited!

Genre and the Video Game

The idea of categorization by genre, and the notion that there are certain conventions present in each genre, has been used in the study of literature and film and has proven to be a useful way of looking at both. The idea of genre has not been without difficulties, such as the defining of what exactly constitutes a genre, overlaps between genres, and the fact that genres are always in flux as long as new works are being produced. And genre study differs from one medium to the next. Thomas Schatz, in his book Hollywood Genres, outlines some of the distinctions between literary genre study and film genre study. He also notes that genre study in the past often focussed on subject matter and neglected the role of the audience. He writes: Genre study may be more "productive" if we complement the narrow critical focus of traditional genre analysis with a broader sociocultural perspective. Thus, we may consider a genre film not only as some filmmaker's artistic expression, but further as the cooperation between artists and audience in celebrating their collective values and ideals. In fact, many qualities traditionally viewed as artistic shortcomings—the psychologically static hero, for instance, or the predictability of the plot—assume a significantly different value when examined as components of a genre's ritualistic narrative system.1 One could easily substitute "video game" for "film" in the above quote; video games' heroes are certainly more static than film ones, and plots are often even more predictable. And most of all, the interactive experience of playing a video game is even more of a "cooperation between artists and audiences", who go beyond "celebrating collective values" by applying those values to the activity found in game play itself. Video game genre study differs markedly from literary or film genre study due to the direct and active participation of the audience, through the surrogate player‐ character who acts within the game's diegetic world, taking part in the central conflict of the game's narrative. In regard to narrative, Schatz describes the general plot structure of the genre film as: establishment (via various narrative and iconographic cues) of the generic community with its inherent dramatic conflicts; animation of those conflicts through the actions and attitudes of the genre's constellation of characters; ntensification of the conflict by means of conventional situations and dramatic confrontations until the conflict reaches crisis proportions; resolution of the crisis in a fashion which eliminates the physical and/or ideological threat and thereby celebrates the (temporarily) well‐ordered community.2 Apart from the fact the video games often do not have happy endings (games usually end with a player‐character's death), Schatz's four terms describe the action of most video games. If a film genre represents a "range of experience" for the audience as Schatz argues, video games fit the description even more closely. In some ways, player participation is arguably the central determinant in describing and classifying video games, moreso even than iconography.

Entertainment Software Rating Board

The release of violent video games such as Mortal Kombat, Night Trap, and Doom leads to a set of congressional hearings in 1992. While several companies, including Sega and 3DO, had individual, voluntary ratings systems for their games, there was no industry-wide system in place. As a measure to pre-empt the possibility of a governmental rating board being created, several of the largest game providers created the ESRB to give ratings to video games. These ratings, ranging from Early Childhood to Adults Only, are given to games as a guideline for parents and consumers, similar to those given to films by the MPAA. These ratings have led to some controversy ranging from the appropriateness of the categories themselves to the effect they have on commerce as many stores refuse to stock Adult Only games.

Computer Game Studies, Year One

Welcome to the first issue of the first academic, peer-reviewed journal dedicated to computer game studies. This is a noteworthy occasion, and perhaps the most remarkable aspect is that such a journal has not been started before. As we know, there have been computer games for almost as long as there have been computers: SpaceWar, arguably the first modern game, turns forty this year, and commercially the genre has existed for three decades. So why not something like this before? 2001 can be seen as the Year One of Computer Game Studies as an emerging, viable, international, academic field. This year has seen the first international scholarly conference on computer games, in Copenhagen in March, and several others will follow. 01-02 may also be the academic year when regular graduate programs in computer game studies are offered for the first time in universities. And it might be the first time scholars and academics take computer games seriously, as a cultural field whose value is hard to overestimate. To some of us, computer games are already a phenomenon of greater cultural importance than, say movies, or perhaps even sports. Seen from 2001, the potential cultural role(s) of computer games in the future is practically unfathomable. It seems clear that these games, especially multi-player games, combine the aesthetic and the social in a way the old mass media, such as theatre, movies, TV shows and novels never could. The old mass media created mass audiences, who shared values and sustained markets, but the mass media communities remained imagined (in Benedict Anderson's sense), with little or no direct communication between participants. Clearly, multi-player games are not like that. In games like MUD1, Ultima online, or Quake Arena, the aesthetic and the social are integrated parts, and this could be regarded as the greatest innovation in audience structure since the invention of the choir, thousands of years ago. To see computer games as merely the newest self-reinvention of Hollywood, as some do, is to disregard those socio-aesthetic aspects and also to force outdated paradigms onto a new cultural object. True, there is a considerable Hollywoodisation of the games industry at the moment, that started with the "interactive movies" failures of the early nineties, but there is also a world wide, non-commercial, collective games movement that has a better infrastructure than any amateur movement before it. Hollywood, like the record industry, is all about distribution, and now there is a distribution mechanism that rivals booth: the volume 1, issue 1 July 2001 Internet. Even Bill Gates III failed to swallow up the Internet, and there is much less reason to believe that Hollywood will succeed. From the closed ecosystem of Nintendo to the open source games communities on the Net; game studies must study both; it would be a mistake to assume that the "Nintendo-Hollywood" industrial complex will rule, and eliminate the alternative. As a cultural studies strategy, this would be like preparing to fight the previous war.

3. Children are the primary market for video games.

While most American kids do play video games, the center of the video game market has shifted older as the first generation of gamers continues to play into adulthood. Already 62 percent of the console market and 66 percent of the PC market is age 18 or older. The game industry caters to adult tastes. Meanwhile, a sizable number of parents ignore game ratings because they assume that games are for kids. One quarter of children ages 11 to 16 identify an M-Rated (Mature Content) game as among their favorites. Clearly, more should be done to restrict advertising and marketing that targets young consumers with mature content, and to educate parents about the media choices they are facing. But parents need to share some of the responsibility for making decisions about what is appropriate for their children. The news on this front is not all bad. The Federal Trade Commission has found that 83 percent of game purchases for underage consumers are made by parents or by parents and children together.

The Sims is released

While most games see a player working towards an end-game scenario, The Sims allows players to create a home, get a job, and form relationships in a free-form world. Designed by a team at Maxis led by Wil Wright, The Sims took concepts from Wright's previous game Sim City. Characters controlled by the player were customizable, and spoke an artificial language called Simlish. The Sims became exceptionally popular with women, who accounted for more than sixty percent of players.