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Soft" to "hard" evidence:

From hypothetical illustrations and opinions to facts and statistics

Complexity:

From simple to more complex material

Specificity:

From specific information to general overview or from general overview to specific information

Five functions of an introduction:

Gaining an audiences attention 2. Introduce the topic 3. Give the audience a reason to listen 4. Establish your credibility 5. Preview your main ideas

Memorized:

Giving a presentation word for word from memory without using notes

Government documents:

Government agencies at all levels publish information on almost every conceivable subject, as well as keeping records of most official proceedings.

Initial previews:

Help your audience members anticipate and remember the main ideas of your presentation.

Systematic desensitization:

Helps one learn to manage anxiety through a combination of general relaxation techniques and visualization of successful and calm preparation and delivery of a presentation.

Preparation outline:

Helps presenters ensure that their main ideas are clearly related to their central idea and are logically and adequately supported. In addition, the preparation outline serves as an early rehearsal outline and is usually the outline handed in as part of a class requirement.

) Relate new information to old:

Helps your audience associate your new idea with something that is familiar to them.

Cause and effect organization:

Identifying a situation and then discussing the resulting effects (cause-effect) Presenting a situation and then exploring its causes (effect-cause)

Four functions of a conclusion:

Summarize the presentation 2. Reemphasize the central idea 3. Motivate the audience to respond 4. Provide closure

1. The eight steps of the audience-centered model of the public speaking process:

1) Select a narrow topic 2) Identify purpose 3) Develop central idea 4) Generate main ideas 5) Gathering supporting material 6) Organize presentation 7) Rehearse presentation 8) Deliver presentation

The six criteria for evaluation internet sites:

1. Accountability 2. Accuracy 3. Objectivity 4. Date 5. Usability 6. Sensitivity to diversity

The six types of supporting material:

1. Illustrations: Offer an example of or tell a story about an idea, issue, or problem a speaker is discussing. 2. Descriptions and explanations: Description- Provides detailed images allow an audience to see, hear, smell, touch, or taste whatever you are describing. Explanation- Helps an audience understand conditions, events, or processes. 3. Definitions: Should be offered of all technical or little-known terms in a presentation. 4. Analogies: Demonstrates how unfamiliar ideas, things, and situations are similar to something the audience already understands. 5. Statistics: Numeral data. Represents hundreds or thousands of illustrations, helping a speaker express the significance or magnitude of a situation. 6. Opinions: Can add authority, drama, and style to a presentation.

Specific Purpose:

A concise statement of what your listeners should be able to do by the time you finish your presentation.

Attitude:

A learned predisposition to respond favorably or unfavorably to something.

Use word pictures:

A lively description that helps your listeners form a mental image by appealing to one or more of their five senses.

Strategies for making a presentation memorable

A) Build in redundancy B) Use adult learning principles C) Reinforce key ideas verbally D) Reinforce key ideas nonverbally

Reference resources:

A) Encyclopedias B) Dictionaries C) Directories D) Atlases E) Almanacs F) Yearbooks G) Books of quotations H) Biographical dictionaries

Impromptu:

Delivering a presentation without advance preparation

Proof/Logos

Evidence plus reasoning

Methods that help speakers manage their anxiety:

A) Know how to develop a presentation: Just knowing what you need to do to develop an effective presentation can boost your confidence in being able to do it B) Be prepared: Following the recommended steps for preparing a speech. Selecting an appropriate topic and researching that topic thoroughly. Most important, rehearsing the presentation. C) Focus on your audience: The more you know about your audience and how they are likely to respond to your message, the more comfortable you will feel about delivering that message. D) Focus on your message: This keeps you from thinking too much about how nervous you are. E) Give yourself a mental pep talk: Rather than allowing yourself to dwell on how worried or afraid you are, make a conscious effort to think positively. F) Use deep-breathing exercises: These simple strategies will increase your oxygen intake and slow your heart rate, making you feel calmer and more in control G) Take advantage of opportunities to speak: Past successes build confidence. H) Seek professional help

Types of presentation aids:

A) Objects B) Models C) People D) Drawings E) Photographs F) Maps G) Charts H) Graphs I) DVDs, videotapes and streaming video J) CDs and MP3 files K) Computer-generated presentation aids

Types of informative presentations:

A) Presentations about objects: Present information about tangible things B) Presentations about procedures: Review how something works or describe a process C) Presentations about people: Describe either a famous person of a personal acquaintance D) Presentations about events: Describe an actual event E) Presentations about ideas: Present abstract information or information about principles, concepts, theories, or issues

Guidelines for using presentation aids:

A) Rehearse with your presentation aids B) Maintain eye contact with your audience, not with your presentation aids C) Explain your presentation aids D) Time the display of your presentation aids to coincide with your discussion on them E) Do not pass objects, pictures, or other small items among audience members. F) Use handout effectively G) Use small children and animals with caution H) Use technology thoughtfully

Guidelines for preparing presentation aids:

A) Select the right presentation aids B) Make your presentation aids easy to see C) Keep your presentation aids simple D) Polish your presentation aids

Vivid words:

Add color and interest to your language. Ex. Saying the word sprout rather than grow.

Proposition of policy:

Advocated a specific action-changing a regulation, procedure, or behavior.

Motivated sequence:

Alan H. Monroe's five-step plan for organizing a persuasive message: attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action.

Use attention-catching supporting material:

An analogy, model, picture, or vivid description

Trustworthiness:

An aspect of a speaker's credibility that reflect whether the speaker is perceived as believable or honest.

Dynamism:

An aspect of a speaker's credibility that reflect whether the speaker is perceived as energetic. Charisma:

Competence:

An aspect of a speaker's credibility that reflects whether the speaker is perceived as informed, skilled, and knowledgable.

Credibility:

An audiences perception of a speaker's competence, trustworthiness, and dynamism.

Value:

An enduring conception of right or wrong, good or bad.

Concrete words:

Appeal to one of the five senses and clearly communicate an image.Ex. Saying the word Poodle rather than dog.

Pace your information flow:

Arrange your supporting material so that you present an even flow of information, rather then bunch up a number of significant details around one point.

Spatial:

Arranging items according to their location, position, or direction.

Deductive:

Ex. All professors at this college have advanced degrees. Tom Bryson is a professor at this college. Therefore, Tom Bryson has an advanced degree.

Inductive:

Ex. Dell, Gateway, and IBM computers are reliable. Therefore, PCs are reliable.

Casual:

Ex. The number of people with undergraduate degrees has risen steadily since 1960. This increasing number has caused a glut in the job market of people with degrees.

Eye contact:

Eye contact with your audience lets them know that you are interested in them and ready to talk to them.

Establish a motive for your audience to listen to you:

Ask questions

Personification:

Attributing human qualities to nonhuman things or ideas

Chronological:

Based on time or sequential order, according to when each step or event occurred or should occur.

Relate to your listener's interest:

Being aware of information that your audience can use

Propositions of value:

Call for the listener to judge the worth or importance of something.

Fear appeals:

Change an audience's minds or beliefs by scaring them into compliance.

Propositions of fact:

Claims that something is or is not the case or that something did or did not happen.

. Examples that reflect the guidelines of selecting and narrowing a speech topic:

Considering the audience:,Occasion:, Personal interests and experiences:, Statements of a speech:

Omission:

Leaving nonessential words out of a phrase or sentence

Simile:

Making a comparison using like or as

Metaphor:

Making an implied comparison

Primacy:

Most convincing or least controversial material first

Recency:

Most important material last

Newspapers:

Offer the most detailed coverage available of current events. Newspapers today exist in three formats: 1. Traditional newspapers 2. On microfilm 3. Online

Refutation:

Organization according to objections your listeners may have to your ideas and arguments.

Cause and effect:

Organization by discussing a situation and its causes, or a situation and its effects.

Problem and solution:

Organized by discussing first a problem and then its various solutions.

Create interesting presentation aids:

Pictures, graphs, posters, and computer-generated graphics can help you gain and maintain audience member's attention, as well as increase their retention of the information you present.

Facial Expression:

Plays a key role in expressing your thoughts, emotions, and attitudes.

Dissonance:

Presenting information that is inconsistent with an audience's thoughts or feelings.

Speaking notes:

Provide all the information a presenter will need to make their presentation and they have planned, without being so detailed that you will be tempted to read rather than speak to your audience.

Summaries:

Provides an additional opportunity for the audience to grasp a speaker's most important ideas.

Manuscript:

Reading a presentation from a written text

Deductive reasoning:

Reasoning from a general statement or principle to reach a specific conclusion.

Inductive reasoning:

Reasoning that arrives at a general conclusion from specific instances or examples.

Periodicals:

Refers both to magazines and to professional journals.

Casual reasoning:

Relating two or more events in such a way as to conclude that one or more of the events caused the others.

Alliteration:

Repeating a consonant sound

Inversion:

Reversing the normal order of words in a phrase of sentence

Charisma:

Talent, charm, and attractiveness.

Articulation:

Should be clear and distinct

Volume:

Should be loud enough that you can be easily heard and should be purposefully varied.

Rate:

Should be neither too fast nor too slow and can be varied to add interest and emphasize key ideas.

Movement:

Should be purposeful and adapted to the audience's cultural expectations.

Gestures:

Should be relaxed, definite, varied, and appropriate to your audience and the speaking situation.

Pitch:

Should be varied so that the inflection in your voice helps to sustain your audience's interest.

Appearance:

Should conform to what the audience expects

Posture:

Should feel natural and be appropriate to your topic, your audience, and your occasion.

Transitions:

Signals to an audience that a speaker is moving from one idea to the next.

Extemporaneous:

Speaking from a written or memorized outline without having memorized the exact wording of the presentation

Specific Purpose Statement vs. Central Idea of A Speech

Specific Purpose: Indicated what you want your audience to know or do by the end of your presentation. Guides you as you prepare for your presentation. Central Idea: Makes a definitive point about your topic. Guides the audience as they listen to the presentation.

) Needs:

The better you understand what your listeners need, the better you can adapt to them and the greater the chances that you can persuade them to change an attitude, belief, or value or get them to take some action.

General Purpose:

The broad reason for giving your presentation: to inform, to persuade, of to entertain.

Ethos:

The credibility or ethical character of a speaker.

Periodical indexes:

The equivalent of card catalogs in helping you locate information you need.

Persuasive speaking:

The process of attempting to change or reinforce attitudes, beliefs, values, or behavior.

persuasion:

The process of attempting to change or reinforce attitudes, beliefs, values, or behavior.

Simplify ideas:

The simpler your ideas and phrases, the greater the chance your audience will remember them.

Belief:

The way in which we structure our perception of reality-our sense of what is true or false.

The significance of being an audience-centered public speaker:

They are inherently sensitive to the diversity of their audiences. While guarding against generalizations that might be offensive, they acknowledge that cultural, ethnic, and other traditions affect the way people process messages.

Suggestions for developing speaking notes: 7. Suggestions for developing speaking notes: 7. Suggestions for developing speaking notes:

Use note cards B) Include your introduction and conclusion in abbreviated form C) Include supporting material and signposts D) DO NOT include your purpose statement E) Use standard outline form F) Include delivery cues

Unbiased words:

Used to avoid offending people of either gender of from racial, cultural, or religious groups. Ex. Saying the words member of congress rather than congressman.

Simple words:

Used to be understood readily Ex. Any word that is easily understood by the general public

Correct words:

Used to enhance credibility Ex. Saying "Neither the people nor the president knows how to solve the problem" instead of "Neither the people no the president knows how to solve the problem"

Problem/Solution:

Used to explore how best to solve a problem or to advocate a particular solution

Informative speaking:

Used to share information with others to enhance their knowledge or understanding of the information, concepts, and ideas your present.

Repetition:

Using a key word or phrase more than once

Antithesis:

Using a two-part parallel structure in which the second part contrasts in meaning with the first

Parallelism:

Using two or more clauses or sentences with the same grammatical structure

Positive appeals:

Verbal messages promising that good things will happen if the speaker's advice is followed.

Performance visualization:

Viewing a videotape of a successful, effective speaker; becoming familiar enough with the videotaped presentation that you can imagine it; and eventually visualizing yourself as the speaker.

Suspension

Withholding the key words in a phrase or sentence until the end

Full-Text Databases:

You have access not only bibliographical information but also the texts of the articles themselves

Use Humor:

a) Use humor to make a point b) Make yourself the butt of the joke c) Use humorous quotations d) Use cartoons

Principle Five: Appropriately adapt messages to others.

• Adapt the structure and flow of your presentation to your listeners to enhance message clarity • Adapt your examples and illustrations to your listeners to help gain and maintain interest and attention. • Develop a motivation for your audience to listen to you.

Principle Five: Appropriately adapt messages to others.

• Although audiences today generally expect speakers to use everyday language and conversational delivery style, you will beed to adapt your delivery to audiences of different sizes and from different cultures. • Consider your audience and speaking context when you select a method of delivery. • Consider your audience's interest, expectations, and knowledge to ensure that your impromptu presentation is audience-centered.

Principle Four: Listen and respond thoughtfully to others.

• As you listen to presentations, consider the cultural differences in the organization of speakers from cultures other than your own.

Principle One: Be aware of your communication with yourself and others.

• Be conscious of the type of informative messages you are developing (presentation about an object, a procedure, a person, an event, or an idea), to help you determine how best to organize your message. • Be consciously aware of using strategies that will make your informative messages clear, interesting, and memorable.

Principle Four: Listen and respond thoughtfully to others.

• Be prepared to answer questions after your presentation, regardless of whether there is planned question-and-answer period.

Principle Four: Listen and respond thoughtfully to others.

• Before you deliver your presentation to an audience, talk and listen to audience members to help you customize your message for them.

Principle Five: Appropriately adapt messages to others.

• Do everything possible to ensure your audience's physiological and safety needs are met. • To motivate an audience, appeal to their basic needs. • If you are speaking to an apathetic audience or one that is not even aware that a problem exists, emphasize the problem portion of your problem-and-solution presentation.

Unreceptive:

• Don't tell listeners that you are going to convince them to support your position. • Present your strongest arguments first. • Acknowledge opposing points of view. • Don't expect a major shift in attitudes or behavior

Principle Two: Effectively use and interpret verbal messages.

• Focus on your message to help manage speaker anxiety. • Search for topics on the web, in the media, and in books. • Word you specific purpose in terms of your audience to help you keep your focus on them.

Neutral:

• Gain and maintain your audience's attention. • Refer to beliefs and concerns that are important to listeners. • Show how the topic affects people your listeners care about. • Be realistic about what you can accomplish.

Principle Two: Effectively use and interpret verbal messages.

• Give a manuscript or memorized speech when exact wording is critical • Phrase your ideas so that they will be clear, accurate, and memorable. • Do not try to memorize an extemporaneous presentation word for word; vary the ways in which you express ideas and information.

Principle One: Be aware of your communication with yourself and others.

• Give yourself a pep talk before getting up to speak • Consider your own interest and experiences when searching for a topic • Remember that the most effective illustrations are often personal ones

Receptive:

• Identify with your audience. • Emphasize common interests. • Provide a clear objective; tell your listeners what you want them to do. • Appropriately use emotional appeals.

Principle One: Be aware of your communication with yourself and others.

• If your subject is sensitive or your information classified, be cautious and noncommittal in any impromptu remarks you make. • As you become comfortable rehearsing an extemporaneous presentation, you can decrease your reliance on your notes • Grammatical and usage errors communicate a lack of preparation. If you are uncertain of how to use a word or phrase, look it up or ask someone.

Principle Five: Appropriately adapt messages to others.

• Investigate and consider using the customary organizational strategy of your audience's culture. • Discuss last the idea that you most want your audience to remember • If you know your audience will be skeptical of some of your ideas, first present ideas on which you can agree.

Principle One: Be aware of your communication with yourself and others.

• Know whether your specific purpose is to change or reinforce an attitude, a belief, a value, or a behavior, and be realistic in assessing what you will need to do in your presentation to effect change. • To use cause-and-effect organization, analyze and then convince your listeners of the critical casual ink. • Relate personal experience to make you seem a more competent and trustworthy speaker.

Principle Three: Effectively use and interpret nonverbal messages.

• Maintain eye contact, use enthusiastic vocal inflection, and more and gesture purposefully to increase the likelihood that your audience will view you as dynamic. • Dress appropriately to enhance your credibility. • Maintain eye contact through and even after your closing sentence to enhance your terminal credibility.

Principle Two: Effectively use and interpret verbal messages.

• Organize your presentation logically to communicated your verbal messages effectively. • Use verbal transitions to show relationships between ideas in your presentation. • Introduce your topic and preview your main ideas in your introduction.

Principle Three: Effectively use and interpret nonverbal messages.

• Remember that the physical symptoms of speaker anxiety are rarely visible to an audience. • Consider the accountability, accuracy, objectivity date, usability, and sensitivity to diversity of pictures and graphics you find on web sites. • Use visual aids to present statistics.

Principle Five: Appropriately adapt messages to others.

• Revise your ideas or strategies ay any point in the presentation-preparation process, as you seek out and learn more about your audience. • Be audience-centered to reduce speaker anxiety. • Be sensitive to and adapt to the diversity of your audience.

Principle Four: Listen and respond thoughtfully to others.

• Seek out information about your audience and how they are likely to respond to your message to increase your comfort with speaking in public. • Listen for topic ideas in the course of casual conversation with friends.

Principle Two: Effectively use and interpret verbal messages.

• To create negative visualization, describe in detail how bleak or terrible the future will be if your solution is not implemented • To create positive visualization, describe in detail how wonderful the future will be if your solution is implemented. • To select and narrow topic for a persuasive presentation, pay attention to print and electronic media to stay current on important issues of the day.

Principle Four: Listen and respond thoughtfully to others.

• Use eye contact to help you determine how your audience members are responding to you. • If possible, rehearse your presentation for someone and seek feedback about both your content and your delivery.

Principle Three: Effectively use and interpret nonverbal messages.

• Use nonverbal transitions-pauses, facial expressions, altered vocal pitch or speaking rate, and movement- to indicate when you are moving from one idea to the next. • Use nonverbal cues, such as pausing, slowing your rate of speech, and letting your vocal inflection fall, to signal that you are approaching the end of your presentation. • Add delivery cues and reminders to your final speaking notes.

Principle Three: Effectively use and interpret nonverbal messages.

• Use presentation aids to make messages clear, interesting, and memorable. • Observe the nonverbal behavior of your audience to help you determine whether your messages has been communicated clearly. • Nonverbally reinforce ideas to make your message memorable.

Principle Two: Effectively use and interpret verbal messages.

• Use supporting material such as stories, examples, and illustrations to gain and maintain attention. • Use word pictures to make images and stories interesting and memorable. • Pace the flow of the information you present to enhance message clarity.

Principle One: Be aware of your communication with yourself and others.

• Use the introduction of your presentation to help establish your own credibility; be aware of the skills, talents, and experiences you have that can enhance your credibility with your listeners. • Use a preparation outline to demonstrate to yourself that your main ideas are clearly related to your central idea and are logically and adequately supported.

Principle Three: Effectively use and interpret nonverbal messages.

• When you deliver a manuscript speech, try to look at an entire sentence at a time so that you can maintain eye contact as you say the sentence. • Do not read a manuscript speech too rapidly; vary the rhythm, inflection, and pace of delivery so that the speech does not sound as though is it being read. • Do not deliver a memorized speech too rapidly, and avoid patterns of vocal inflection that make the speech sound recited