COMM398E Exam 1

What is sensation seeking?

''the seeking of varied, novel, complex, and intense sensations and experiences, and the willingness to take physical, social, legal, and financial risks for the sake of such experiences'' (Zuckerman, 1994, p. 27) -Simply put, people who seek/need high arousal. -Biological trait -Low levels of dopamine -Partially heritable: offspring may show similar risk-taking behaviors as their parents, all else being equal.

The Theory of Normative Behavior (TNSB) Concepts

- Descriptive norms - Injunctive norms - Outcome expectations - Group identity

How do we learn about injunctive norms?

- Through direct experience - By interpreting descriptive norms - if others do it, then I should do it, too

What is message framing?

-A persuasive message design strategy -Emphasizing one outcome vs. another associated with a behavior

Ambiguity and Normative Influences

-Ambiguity strengthens normative influences -E.g., being away from home, losing a significant other (e.g., bf, gf, parent)

Four Original Underlying Subscales of Sensation Seeking

-Disinhibition: a lack of restraint manifested in disregard for social conventions, impulsivity, and poor risk assessment. -Thrill and adventure seeking -Experience seeking -Boredom Susceptibility

Two Main Areas of Health Communication

-Health Care Delivery -Health Promotion

What are some characteristics of people who are high sensation seekers?

-Impulsive: A tendency to act quickly without planning and a general need for novelty, thrills, and excitement -Engage in thrill-seeking activities (bungee jumping, parachuting, fast and risky driving including drunk driving, gambling, X rated movies and horror films) to help a person achieve a preferred level of arousal. -Sensation seeking is positively related to the use of drugs, both in the amount and frequency of use, alcohol use, heavy alcohol consumption, and high risk sexual activity.

Normative Influences

-Injunctive Norms -Outcome Expectations -Group Identity

What is response efficacy?

-One's belief that a specific behavior will help avoid the threat -It is one of two components of perceived efficacy

What is self-efficacy?

-One's belief that they can perform the specific behavior -It is one of two components of perceived efficacy

Why are religiosity/spirituality-based messages effective/not effective?

-Some studies show no association between religion/spirituality on health outcomes, some show a negative association, however; ...the field is in general agreement that the weight of the evidence shows religion/spirituality having more of a beneficial than a harmful or no role in health outcomes. They ARE effective for developing culturally relevant or appropriate health communications for some groups i.e. African Americans and women/highly religious/spiritual people

What traditions has health communication drawn from?

-Sub-field within the broader academic discipline of communication sciences. -Language -Behavior -Interpersonal Communication -Group/Organizational Communication -Persuasion -Media Studies -Intercultural communication Outside of Comm -Public Health -Health Education -Health Psychology -Medical Sociology -Medical Anthropology -Health Economics -Epidemiology -Medical Informatics -Medicine -Nursing -Social Work -Clinical Psychology

Three Key Concepts in Fear Appeal Research

-Threat -Efficacy -Fear

Greater tendency to seek sensation is often associated with...

-lower default levels of dopamine -an overactive appetitive system (i.e. a positivity offset) and a weakly active aversive system (i.e. a negativity bias)

Social scientific influences of Health Comm (read over last)

1. Comm discipline's adoption of theories from psyc and sociology which were actively studying health a. Humanistic psyc movement - the importance of therapeutic comm b. Persuasion and social influence •Bandura - self-efficacy •Festinger - cognitive dissonance •Azjen & Fishbein - relationship between attitudes and behaviors •Hovland - persuasion and attitude change •Rokeach - values, attitudes, and opinions c. Medical sociology literature - the importance of doctor-patient comm

When a message arouses fear in a person, the person can respond in one of three ways.

1. Ignore the message, believing you're not at risk. Your perceived vulnerability to the threat will determine whether or not you pay attention. Stressing the high-risk nature of unprotected sex is one way a persuader could increase percieved vulnerability. 2. Perceive that you're at risk, so try to avoid the danger. "Danger Control" involves concentrating on constructive ways of reducing the threat, such as using condoms or refraining from sex altogether. 3. Fixate your fear. Responses based on fear control essentially involve "worrying about worry". Results in denial, avoidance, or panic. Danger control is a more effective response because it focuses on the solution. Fear control, conversely, is ineffective because it focuses on the problem.

What are the levels at which we can study health communication? (e.g., interpersonal)

1. Intrapersonal: Internal mental and psychological process that influence health care, such as the health beliefs, attitudes, and values that predispose health care behaviors and decisions. 2. Interpersonal: Relational influences on health outcomes, focusing on the provider/consumer relationship, dyadic provision of health education and therpeautic interaction, and the exchange of relevant information in health care interviews. 3. Group: The role communication performs in the interdependent coordination of members of collectives, such as health care teams, support groups, ethics committees and families as they share relevant information for making important health care decisions. 4. Organizational: Coordinate interdependent groups, mobilize different specialists, and share relevant health information within complex health care delivery systems to enable effective multidisciplinary provision of health care and prevention of relevant health risks. 5. Societal: the generation, dissemination, and utilization of relevant health information communicated via diverse media to a broad range professional and lay audiences to promote health education, health promotion, and enlightened health care practice.

Should we use fear appeals?

1. Some mixed evidence of effectiveness •Audience already sufficiently fearful (Gore & Bracken, 2005) •Behavior change isn't so easy to adopt (Witte et al., 1998) 2. Types of susceptibility •Focus on social consequences is key for adolescent behaviors (Lewis et al., 2007) 3. Fear appeals produce multiple affective responses beyond fear. •The exact relationship between these other emotions and persuasive outcomes is unknown.

How can we increase risk susceptibility with health messages?

3 in 4 people, all ages, genders, and races, not just in the city

Threat

A combination of severity and susceptibility

What are fear appeals?

A fear appeal is a persuasive message designed to scare people by describing the terrible things that will happen to them if they do not do what the message recommends.

How can we improve social norms-based health interventions?

Although we found that injunctive norms exercised a direct influence on behavioral intention, they did not interact with descriptive norms. Hence, evidence from this study indicates that these two processes operate inde-pendent of each other. This is incongruous with our prior study (Rimal & Real, 2003), conducted among college students with the use of identical mea-sures,in which the interaction between injunctive and descriptive norms was significantly associated with consumption. It is likely, however, that an understanding of this distinction between descriptive and injunctive norms and incorporating it into our health promo-tion campaigns can enhance their effectiveness. Current norms-based cam-paigns to reduce alcohol consumption are concerned mainly with descriptive norms. They have been conducted under the assumption that, by changing individuals' perceptions about the prevalence of a behavior—that is by cor-recting misperceptions about descriptive norms, behavior change will follow. The TNSB proposed and tested in this article points out, however, that research that seeks to understand how norms influence behaviors must make the distinction between descriptive and injunctive norms and take into account the role of outcome expectations and group identity

What is health communication?

An APPLIED behavioral science which examines the ways which communication influences health, health care delivery, and health promotion

Fear

An internal emotional reaction characterized by subjective experience (the psychological dimension e.g. "I am scared") and physiological arousal. It is aroused when a serious and personally relevant threat is perceived.

Health Promotion Areas of Inquiry? Traditions?

Areas of inquiry: •Persuasive uses of messages and media to promote public health •The diffusion of health innovations •The dissemination of health information •The development and evaluation of health campaigns Traditions: mediated comm focus (mass comm, campaign delivery, and new media)

Persuader's goal in using fear appeals should be to ?

Arouse fear in such a way that the person feels vulnerable but do so in a manner that triggers danger control rather than fear control. Activating danger control will prompt the person to take positive, constructive steps.

Why does sensation seeking level matter for health comm?

As with any persuasive appeal, understanding one's audience is important for delivering effective health communication. Understanding one's level of sensation seeking can help a persuader/health comm practitioner tailor a message accordingly. People with high SS can be targeted with messages which contain high MSV (message sensation value) Additionally High-MSV ads gain attention from, and are preferred by, high-sensation seekers because, in line with the Activation Model, these message features provide a level of stimulation that addresses sensation seekers' need for arousal. Low-MSV ads, in contrast, provide less than the optimal arousal level for high-sensation seekers. Consequently, high-sensation seekers give little attention to these ads (Lorch et al., 1994) and begin searching for more stimulating media content (or other activity). People who are relatively less prone to sensation-seeking behavior are far less attracted to arousing message features, often preferring content that seems familiar or calming (Donohew et al., 1991). Like their counterparts, though, when the level of stimulation is too high or too low, low-sensation seekers also experience negative affect, pay l

What is the difference between injunctive and descriptive norms?

Descriptive Norms are an individuals' beliefs about the prevalence of a behavior Injunctive Norms (also called subjective norms) -are the belief that significant others expect them to behave in a certain way -Individuals belief that if they do not behave in a certain way there will be social sanctions

Why and how do norms influence behavior?

Descriptive Norms: -Positive Effect on behavior in that individuals engage in behaviors that are perceived as popular/prevalent Injunctive Norms: Positive effect on behavior: individuals engage in behaviors that are perceived as approved/encouraged by significant others Think about the reasoned action model.... Intention is the greatest predictor of behavior... Intention is a byproduct of perceived behavioral control, perceived norms, and attitude towards the behavior... 1/3 of intention is a product of perceived norms which are a byproduct of injunctive and descriptive normative beliefs.

How do injunctive norms, outcome expectations, and group identity impact the effect of descriptive norms on behavior? (try and understand the examples on the slides)

Descriptive norms positively influence behavior, while injunctive norms, outcome expectations, and group identity can modify or change the effect that descriptive norms have on behavior.

What is a loss-framed message?

Emphasizing the negative consequences or costs incurred by not adopting a recommended behavior

What is a gain-framed message?

Emphasizing the positive consequences or benefits accrued through adopting a recommended behavior

EPPM: Fear Control Process High/low perceived threat and high/low perceived efficacy? Leads to ________ motivation __________ of persuasive message Called ______________ responses

Fixate your fear. Responses based on fear control essentially involve "worrying about worry". Results in denial, avoidance, or panic. Danger control is a more effective response because it focuses on the solution. Fear control, conversely, is ineffective because it focuses on the problem. Occurs when one perceives high threat (severity and susceptibility) and low efficacy (self and/or response). Leads to a Defense Motivation Rejection of persuasive message Witte calls these Maladaptive Responses

Self-Efficacy and Narrative Messages

Increased self-efficacy due to causal relevance

TNSB Outcomes Expectations

Individuals' belief that their actions will lead to certain benefits (outcomes more broadly) -Benefits to oneself -Benefits to others -Anticipatory Socialization

TNSB Group identity

Individuals' perceived similarity to referent others/aspiration to emulate referent others -Similarity -Aspiration

Correlation between injunctive and descriptive norms

Injunctive and descriptive norms may or may not be correlated. - If I believe that having 6 beers/week is the norm (descriptive norm), it doesn't mean that I also believe that significant others (e.g., bff, gf, bf) want me to have 6 beers/week myself (injunctive norm); but I could believe that, in which case injunctive and descriptive norms would be positively related.

Who designs the content in spirituality/religiosity based interventions?

It is identified by the target audience, not by the researcher. Religions can be very different, thus the content has to be carefully chosen

What behaviors are most suitable to be promoted with gain- vs. loss-framed messages? Why?

Loss framed messages are more persuasive as people fear losses more than they prefer gains. They may be more effective when risks are involved such as mammograms, breast self-examination, colonoscopies, HIV testing. (Loss Framed: High Risk Health Behaviors (Detection Behaviors) ) • Gain framed may be more effective with preventative behaviors (wear sunscreen, safe sex, diet and exercise) -Gallagher and Updegraff found this last point to be true in 2012

How do we create messages that are appealing to high sensation seekers?

Message sensation value - HIGH - Content: arousing, shocking, novel - Features: fast-paced message, multiple and quick camera cuts, special visual effects, close-ups, suspenseful or intense sound saturation - Delivery: within media contents these folks are likely to seek

EPPM: Danger Control Process High/low perceived threat and high/low perceived efficacy? Leads to ____________ motivation _____________ of persuasive message _____________ responses

Perceive that you're at risk, so try to avoid the danger. "Danger Control" involves concentrating on constructive ways of reducing the threat, such as using condoms or refraining from sex altogether. Occurs when one perceives high threat (severity and susceptibility) and high efficacy (self and response) Leads to a Protection Motivation Acceptance of persuasive message Witte calls these Adaptive Responses

Group Identity Effect on Behavior

Positive effect on behavior: individuals imitate referent/similar others; individuals conform with in-group members

Outcome Expectations Effect on Behavior

Positive effect on behavior: people engage in actions that bring them benefits/are perceived as bringing benefits to others/help them socialize (which is one type of benefit)

What is the difference between spirituality and religiosity?

Religiosity = organized participation and/or worship involving a higher power. Spirituality = a search for meaning and purpose in life; it may or may not involve religion.

Are statistical messages or narratives more effective?

Research results are mixed - some have found narratives are more effective, others have found statistical evidence messages are more effective

Where do we place those messages?

SENTAR (sensation seeking targeting) if we know that sensation seekers are likely to engage in a risky behavior, and we also know what type of media content these sensation seekers enjoy, then we have a significant advantage in both producing arousing stimuli and in deciding when and where to place communication campaign materials devel-oped with sensation seekers' preferences in mind.

What is the difference between statistical health messages and narrative health messages?

Statistical messages encompass factual/statistical information (there are more than 123,000 waiting for a vital organ transplant on the national waiting list/one organ donor can potentially save eight lives) whilst narrative messages are persuasive messages presented in a story form (The story of parents who decided to donate the organs of their deceased son/the story of a woman who is alive because she received the lung of an organ donor) In a way, narratives are the opposite of statistics as they represent the facts about one person whilst statistics represent a summary of what happened to many people.

TNSB provides advice about message _________________ as opposed to ______________. A message based on TNSB can be....

TNSB provides advice about message CONTENT as opposed to structure. ~ a message based on TNSB can be gain- framed, loss-framed, statistics-based, or narrative based!

What is risk severity?

The (perceived) severity of the threat/consequences portrayed in the fear appeal (to the recipient) -It is one of two components of perceived threat

What is risk susceptibility?

The perceived susceptibility (or believed likelihood) that the threat/consequences will occur to the recipient of the fear appeal. -It is one of two components of perceived threat

What does health communication study?

The pragmatic influences of human and mediated communication on health care and public health, often using the data they gether to enhance the delivery of health care and direct health promotion efforts

Do the two areas of health communication overlap?

Yes •E.g., doctors need to communicate persuasively with the patient

Danger is ________ fear is _____________

cognitive ; emotional

How can we increase response-efficacy with health messages?

decrease chance of getting the disease, number of people who quit

What is a religiosity/spirituality-based health intervention? Think about message content and message delivery setting.

interventions that integrate religious and/or spiritual themes and content (iconography, scripture) to support a core health message, such as getting cancer screening.

Anticipatory socialization

is the process, facilitated by social interactions, in which non-group-members learn to take on the values and standards of groups that they aspire to join, so as to ease their entry into the group and help them interact competently once they have been accepted by it

How can we increase risk severity with health messages?

leads to death, cancer, injury, loss of limbs, brain damage

The level of perceived threat should __________ exceed the level of perceived efficacy

never. AT the point where perceptions of threat begin to outweigh perceptions of efficacy people begin to shift from danger control to fear control.

How can we increase self-efficacy with health messages?

provide steps to take, show others performing the behavior, short amount of time

Statistical evidence messages were found to enhance: while narratives were found to enhance:

t. In terms of the Heuristic Systematic Model of persuasion, statistical evidence messages were found to enhance both systematic and heuristic processing while narratives were found to enhance only heuristic processing.

Narrative Messages (Persuasiveness cont.) Causal Relevance Claim? Similarity?

•Causal relevance claim: stories are superior in aiding message recipients in the discernment of causal relevance of information to the judgment they make [because people have a hard time interpreting and using statistics] •Similarity: you are more likely to identify with a story character than statistical information

Has audience type proven to be a factor for the effectiveness of statistical v. narrative messages?

•Doesn't seem like it -people reacted the same to both types of messages. •Seems that both types of messages can be effective, but we can't say one is more effective than the other.

What are some fruitful future directions for health communication research?

•Goals: disease prevention, disease management, making consumers equal partners in the health care enterprise •Comm strategies that incorporate multiple levels and channels, different strategies targeted at specific audiences (tailoring) to effectively disseminate relevant health information to specific at-risk populations •Role of culture on health and health care •Communication scholars will work to end the prejudicial treatment of marginalized cultural groups within the modern health care system, such as prejudicial treatment of people with AIDS, the poor, minorities, women, and the elderly. Future research will examine the health communication needs of marginalized cultural groups and identify strategies for enhancing health communication with members of these groups.

How are R/S health messages delivered?

•Health content presented through sermons •Testimony in church services •A spiritual booklet with day-by-day messages promoting X •Songs

When should statistics be used v. narratives?

•It is not clear •If you have information that your audience doesn't do well with numbers, narratives might be more effective. •Conversely, if you are speaking to medical professionals or researchers, number might work better.

Why do people high in SS engage in these behaviors?

•Low dopamine levels •Lower perceived risk (positivity offset)

Where are religious/spiritual messages to be delivered?

•Messages are delivered in appropriate settings (i.e., faith-based settings) •Faith minded people •Heterogenous people (messages will not offend) •The setting itself has an effect

Health Care Delivery Mostly.... Areas of Inquiry? Traditions?

•Mostly health care professional - patient interactions Areas of inquiry: •Organization and coordination of health care services •Effective consumer-doctor comm •Social support Traditions: Interpersonal, group, org comm focus

What are the basic ideas of prospect theory? Risky ________ can be ___________ in ________________ ways - as _________ or ________ Changing the _________ of a _________ should not change decisions, but it _______ Individuals assess _______ and _______ in relation to a _________ _________ Framing a ________ as a _______ rather than a ____________, by changing the ________ _________, changes the ___________ How information is ___________________ influences whether people ________________ that information as a ____________ or __________ Individuals are ___________ ____________ when facing potential gains and __________ _________ when confronted with potential losses Therefore, risky behavioral choices will be _________ __________ when information is framed in terms of _____________ (v. _________) of behavioral options

•Risky prospects can be framed in different ways - as gains or as losses. •Changing the description of a prospect should not change decisions, but it does. •Individuals assess gains and losses in relation to a reference point. •Framing a prospect as a loss rather than a gain, by changing the reference point, changes the decision. •How information is presented influences whether people interpret that information as a loss or a gain. •Individuals are risk averse when facing potential gains and risk seeking when confronted with potential losses. •Therefore, risky behavioral choices will be more likely when information is framed in terms of costs (vs. benefits) of behavioral options.

Why are statistical evidence messages persuasive? Sample size may operate as a ___________ -A claim based on a ________ sample [statistics] should be _________ impactful than an identical claim based on just ______ example -Messages containing statistics are perceived as _______ ________ and __________

•Sample size may operate as a heuristic •A claim based on a large sample [statistics] should be more impactful than an identical claim based on just one example => messages containing statistics are perceived as more effective and credible.

What kind of content is in R/S messages?

•Scripture and passages from the Bible •Inspirational messages

Why are narrative messages persuasive? V_______: elicitation of _________ and ________ Generate more ________ _______ in individuals' _________ Humans are ________ _______ ___________

•Vividness: elicitation of attention and interest •Generate more concrete images in individuals' minds •Humans are natural story tellers