Comparative Politics Ch 1-5

Bureaucracy

"A large set of appointed officials whose function is to implement laws." A product and a necessary element of the modern state. A critical component of rational-legal authority and legitimacy. Required for a state to perform complex functions. Division of state authority into discrete parts, and procedures for making decisions. Effective bureaucracy enhances sovereignty. Like legitimacy, effective bureaucracy strengthens sovereignty. A bureaucracy that efficiently carries out laws, collects taxes, and expends revenues as directed by the central authorities enhances the state's powers. Weak legitimacy and weak bureaucracy are two key causes of state weaknesses in the contemporary world.

Characteristics of the modern state

Defined territory, sovereignty (internal/external), legitimacy, and bureaucracy. "Ideal type": an ongoing administrative apparatus that develops and administers laws and generates and implements public policies in a specific territory. It has effective external and internal sovereignty, a basis of legitimacy, and a capables bureaucracy.

Liberal democracy

Originated from social contract theory, legitimate governments form when free and independent individuals join a contract to permit representatives to govern over them. Believe individuals are free with natural rights. Representative democracy, leaders can be removed, citizens have direct control.

Race and racial identity

People who see themselves as group based primarily on common physical characteristics and common history. Often hard to distinguish from ethnicity or culture. Unlike ethnicity, race tends to be an identity imposed by others - originally via European conquest and colonialism

Failed States

State that is so weak that it loses effective sovereignty over part or all of its territory. Failed states are usually poor states. Why? States need resources to provide security and other public goods, which are paid for by taxation. But taxation requires economic activity. Poor states have limited economic activity and thus limited tax base. A vicious cycle that weakens the government's effectiveness and legitimacy. State failure can have effects far beyond the state's borders. Virtually all elements of state strength are interconnected. If a state lacks the resources to provide basic infrastructure and security, its legitimacy most likely will decline. Corruption in some bureaucracies, such as the military and border patrol can cause a loss of security and territorial integrity. Weak states can become stronger by the creation of impersonal institutions and the rule of law. The strongest modern states are virtually all democracies.

Weak States

State that only partially provides political goods to its citizens. Prior to 20th century, weak states did not survive; now hostile takeovers are rare. Weak states are often characterized by the term "limited statehood": they provide some political goods widely but other only in certain areas of the country.

Comparative Politics

States ("countries") are main focus. Primary focus is on the internal workings of states and their societies, and comparison between or across states. Can focus on the politics of one specific country (at the national or local level). Can focus on comparing several countries or similar phenomena in several countries. Can focus on comparing issues and processes in one or more places across time. Major topics: political development, regime type and change, participation and representation, policy-making processes, political economy.

Large-N Case Studies

Systematic comparison with generalizable conclusions. Uses quantitative (statistical) techniques.

Race and racial identity in Brazil

defined based on physical features/skin color (a continuum ranging from branco (white) to preto (black) with seven major categories

Political Salience

the political importance of an issue; how prominent an issue is

extraction

"Acquiring the means of carrying out the first three activities" These activities all overlap incompletely and either all elad to each other or is the cause of one another, they are all very interdependent. States form in so many different ways and differ in organizational structure and institutionally, so they still characteristically carry out the 4 activities, but they differ due to the different extraction needs in order to gain revenue for war making or due to their personalized domestic or international rivals.

Legitmacy

"Recognized right to rule". All states needs and strive to maintain legitimacy. Two sides: the claims that states and others make about why they have a right to rule AND the empirical fact of whether their populations accept or at least tolerate this claimed right. Legitimacy enhances a state's sovereignty.

Extraction

"acquiring the means of carrying out the first three activities"

Basic timeline of state formation outside Europe

-18th/19th centuries in the Americas -mid-19th century in Asia, then Africa -Post-World War I:multi-ethnic empires collapse (Ottoman, Hapsburg),new, independent states take their place -1945: 51 sovereign member states found the United Nations -Most African states gain independence and join UN after 1960 -By early 1960s: modern states covered virtually the entire globe -Today: 193 sovereign member states represented in the UN (including newest member, South Sudan)

Six traits of totalitarian rule (Friedrich and Brzezinski) -

1) official state ideology, 2) single, mass political party and dictator, 3) secret police and institutionalization of terror, 4) state monopoly of the means of mass communication, 5) state monopoly of weaponry and means of force, 6) Bureaucratically controlled and directed economy. ***all 6 characteristics must be present to "qualify"***

7 major challenges for examination

1)Difficulty controlling variables in the cases they study. 2)Interactions between the variables themselves. (multicausality: variables interacting to produce particular outcomes) 3)Limits to our information and info gathering. 4)Comparative Politics concerns how we access the few cases we do have. 5)Even when widening the range of cases, focus tends to be limited to a single geographic region. 6)Problem of bias makes it even harder to control for variables and to select the right cases. 7)The search for cause and effect. Endogeneity (problem of distinguishing cause and effect).

Cult of personality

A cult of personality arises when a regime uses mass media, propaganda, or other methods such as government-organized demonstrations to create an idealized, heroic, and at times worshipful image of a leader, often through unquestioning flattery and praise.

"Ethnic democracy"

A democracy that favors a specific ethnic group

Correlation

Apparent association

Fascism

Appeals to spiritual and pseudo-biological principles:-Society is an organic whole, akin to living organism, with supreme leader as head, leading party and state—not a collection of individuals, or of social classes •Illiberal:-No sense of individualism or individual rights (political, social, or economic) that are separate from the state. The individual is and must be subsumed within the state; Corporatist: -Regime identifies, empowers and controls one specific organization to represent each sector of the economy and society (one labor union, one business association, one women's organization, one agricultural association, etc.), in the name of "the nation." Corporatism replaces multi-vocal civil society ; Ideologically anti-communist:-Rejection of Marxism's materialism, its focus on class struggle, and its elimination of private property and profit.

Most similar systems design:

Cases are similar in many ways with some key differences. Ex: Atlas's study of USA and Canada.

Social Democracy

Combines liberal democracy with much greater provision of social rights of citizenship and typically greater public control of the economy. Argues that citizens should not only control the political sphere but also elements of the economic sphere.

Role of Ideology

Determines how a country is run

"War making and state making as organized crime" (Tilly)

Direct relationship between state making and war making. AKA states make war and war makes states. Tilly: a government monopolizes violence making their claims for protection seem more credible, saying that the protection that the government is claiming to provide is for internal or external threats that the government is to blame for. "Even when a government's use of force imposes a large cost, some people may well decide that the government's other services outbalance the costs of acceding to tis monopoly of violence." The modern state evolved in a way to possess a permanent professional military and police force that could enforce state's rules and monopolize power. Tilly believes that we are demanded from the government money/freedoms in order for security or freedom. Legitimacy is gained through monopolizing power and then legitimizing that monopoly. Very Machiavellian, common habit of nation-states to use violence and coercion to accomplish their ends. States: "protection rackets with the advantage of legitimacy". Warmaking, extraction, and capital accumulation interacted to shape european state-making Each of these activities, over time, produced the apparatuses (the "forms of organization") of the modern state: -Armies and navies (external); police forces (internal) -Courts, legislative assemblies, laws -Provision of public goods -Bureaucracies, and "fiscal and accounting structures" to efficiently extract revenue

protection

Eliminating/neutralizing enemies of the state's clients (what does he mean by this?); providing public goods (domestic security, safety net, law and order, subsidies/tariffs

Exploration of the modern state

Europe exported the moderns ttae to the rest of the world through colonial conquest, beginning with the Americas in the 16th century. Over time, European settler in the colonies began to identify their interests as distinct from the monarch's and to question the legitimacy of rule by distant sovereigns. Rebellions soon followed. Independence nonetheless began the process of developing modern states. By the 1960s, modern states covered virtually every square inch of the globe.

Civic Nationalism

Everyone within the bounded territory is included as full citizens, regardless of ethnic origin •The model most supportive of democracy. •The French model (and US model under the 14th Amendment)-jus soli ("right of the soil"); defines the sense of belonging through citizenship and political equality; So, civic nationalism seeks to address the question in a liberal state: who belongs to the nation? The answer is that nationhood is granted through citizenship, so all citizens are members of the nation.

Internal and External Soverignty

External is the ability to defend its territory and not be overly dependent on other states for military, diplomatic, or economic support. Recognized by the international community of states, full membership in UN. Equal participation in the international arena; principle of non-interference. Internal implies a state's ability to govern (rule) over a given territory. Sole authority within a territory capable of making and enforcing laws and policies. States try to enforce their sovereignty by claiming a "monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force" (Max Weber). Simply put, the state claims to be the only entity within its territory that has the right to hold a gun to your head and tell you what to do. Sovereignty does not mean that a state is all powerful. Real internal and external sovereignty vary greatly and depend on many factors.

Headscarves in France and Turkey

France- France's republican tradition of strict secularism (laicité). Struggling with how to respond to hijab and burqa, France banned any "conspicuous religious symbols" in schools; has banned the burqa in public places Turkey- Secular, Westernized state founded by Kemal Ataturk in 1920s, population is 99% Muslim. Headscarves had been banned in all public places in Turkey. Moderate Islamist Justice and Development Party (AKP) now the ruling party and also holding the presidency—lifted the ban in public universities

Territory

Geographic area with clearly defined (and recognized) borders. No unclaimed territories remain in the world today. State borders can change, ex: war. Border changes and creation of new states are often attempts to make states coincide more closely with nations, groups with a shared identity that often seek to share a distinct territory and government.

Syrian civil war

Internationalization of sectarian conflict in Syria

Palestinian ethnonationalism in Israel

Israel as one example of a deeply divided society. Israel: a "Jewish republic" and "ethnic democracy" Palestinian citizens have long been viewed/feared as a potential "5th column" by Israel's Jewish majority "Despite enjoying formal political equality, [they] are second-class citizens" (P&W) Israel is but one of many cases where "the state seeks to promote the interests of ethnonationalist majorities over minorities

Jus sanguinis

Means the "Right of Blood" and reinforces cultural or ethnic nationalism which is based on based on common cultural, ethnic or "racial" characteristics

Jus soli

Means the "Right of Soil" and reinforces Civic nationalism which is based on everyone within the bounded territory is included as full citizens, regardless of ethnic origin

Origins of the modern state

Modern state arose first in Europe between the 15th and 18th centuries. The concept spread via conquest, colonialism, and then decolonization, becoming truly universal only with the independence of most African states in the 1960s. The truly modern states emerged as the state came to be seen as separate from an individual ruler. Subjects transformed into citizens of the state.

Cultural or Ethnic Nationalism

National citizenship (and mainstream identity) based on common cultural, ethnic or "racial" characteristics •Other ethnic groups within that territory might not be treated equally. Problematic for democracy. •The German model of "blood ties"-jus sanguinis ("right of blood"); where belonging is defined by ethnic identity, language, religion, and similar traits. It's a form of nationalism with some strong opinions about who does, and does not, belong.

Feudalism

Premodern states in Europe in which power in a territory was divided among multiple and overlapping lords claiming sovereignty. Neither claimed nor had undisputed sovereignty. The system often involved several layers of these relationships, from the highest and most powerful king in the region to the local lord. Based on premodern states in which power in a territory was divided among multiple and overlapping lords (and also the Church) claiming sovereignty. Feudal states "neither calimed nor had undisputed sovereignty". Based on the relationship between lord and vassal.

Changing understandings of race in US

Racial categories have been extremely fluid in the U.S. Black-white division has predominated, based on descent From "one drop" rule during slavery to "octoroon" under Jim Crow Took many years for all European immigrants to be considered "white": e.g., Irish, Italians, Poles, Greeks, Jews, others African-American movement: integrationist vs. black nationalist

Government responses to nationalist or ethnic claims

Repression: Banning public appeals to ethnicity, religion, other "sectarian" identities; harsh crackdowns on protests. Autonomy (which can include federalism): Formal institutional designs that can allow/recognize regional differences and autonomy-the right or condition of self-government (local legislatures, laws, rights). Multicultural integration (Separate ethnic identities that are living in one society together) vs. assimilation (All ethnic identities being merged into one identity as a people in a given government). Consociational approaches: Formal group recognition and power sharing built into the system (i.e., Lebanon) Centripetal government will exercise its functions in partnership with the "new centres of power() vs. consociational approaches (Formal group recognition and power sharing built into the system)

Absolutism

Rule by a single monarch who claims complete, exclusive power and sovereignty over a territory and its people. Legitimacy remained based largely on tradition and heredity, and most people remained subjects with few legal rights. Absolutist rulers won battles for power among feudal lords by using superior economic and military resources to vanquish their rivals. Absolutist state included at least rudimentary forms of a standing army and diplomatic service, both of which are crucial for external sovereignty; centralized bureaucracy; systematic taxation; and policies to encourage economic development. (modern state elements). Rule by a single monarch who claims complete, exclusive power and sovereignty over a territory and its people. FEUDALISM → ABSOLUTISM Multiple sources of authority and legitimacy within a given territorial space → the state consolidated under the king.

Least Similar (most different) systems design:

Selecting on the dependent variable (outcome). Ex: cases of revolutions.

Brazil: the bureaucratic authoritarian state

Semi-fascist roots: Corporatism prevalent before and during WWII, under Vargas' rule-After the war, highly unstable democracy•Military rule (1964-1985): The "bureaucratic authoritarian" regime (O'Donnell)-Supported by US as part of Cold War anti-communism-Brazil's "economic miracle" (1968-1973): Regime achieved high rates of economic growth, through pragmatic balance of free market policies and large state-funded infrastructure investments•However, much of population remained in poverty Democracy (1985-present): Return to democracy with election of civilian president

Constructivism

Social scientific approach, drawing from anthropology, sociology, psychology, and post-modernism. All identity is based on contrast. In order for there to be an "us" there must be a "them." Us/them boundaries are subject to change and reflect cultural values and the exercise of power

Peace of Westphalia (1648)

States have clearly defined borders and internal and external sovereignty. States will defend their sovereignty via diplomacy, war, and military alliances. All sovereign states are legally equal in the international system, and states cannot interfere in domestic matters of other states

Comparative Methods

The means by which scholars try to mimic laboratory conditions by careful selection of cases. A way to compare cases and draw conclusions. Inductive: reasoning where the means by which we go from studying a case to generating a hypothesis. Starts with evidence. Building from case out. Deductive: reasoning that starts with a puzzle and from there generates some hypothesis about cause and effect to test against a number of cases. Using evidence and cases.

Primordialism

The oldest approach, and the one that most people take for granted. Ethnic identities are "natural," and "fixed" and have always existed as such (since "time immemorial"). Identity groups "natural," or God given, and thus are unlikely to change over time and cannot be changed at whim. Ethnic groups can be clearly defined based on such criteria as kinship, language, culture, or physical features

Nations and Nationalism

The sovereign state originates with the Peace of Westphalia (1648)•Nationalism is a more modern concept•The concept of a unified people (sharing a common identity and tied to a bounded geographic entity) begins with the French Revolution (1789) and spreads across Europe--and beyond--in 19th Century •The political aspect: an ideology/belief that a particular group of people, a nation—an "imagined community"(B. Anderson) based on shared memories, narratives, history, language, land, etc--have the right to self-determination and independence within a specific piece of territory(usually in the form of a sovereign nation-state)

Civil Society

The sphere of organized (non-violent) activity by a broad collection of groups (associations, clubs, organizations, interest groups) that are smaller and less inclusive than the state/government, but larger than the family or private firm

Weber's 3 types of authority/legitimacy:

Traditional: authority and legitimacy of the ruler or leader is based on custom. Might be religious, sacred, or spiritual, or based on tribal, family or clan lineages, or the "blessings of ancestors". Ex: Divine Right of Kings, european absolute monarchies Charismatic: Based on the unique and extraordinary characteristics of the particular leader, such as personal, ethical or religious virtue, articulation of a compelling vision for the nation, and/or personal heroism. Revered and obeyed because people feel a strong emotional bond to them. Ex: Napoleon, Hitler, Castro, Gandhi, MLK Jr. If authority/legitimacy not transferred from leader to regime, then legitimacy might collapse with death or removal of the leader. Rational-Legal: Leaders are selected, and their right to rule is legitimized according to impersonal formal rules and procedure. Linked to the office, not the person. Salute the rank, not the man. Leadership succession is never "up for grabs". The "modern" form of rule. All of these types are ideal types. Real world legitimacy is rarely "purely" of one type; most legitimate authority is based on some combination of the three types, with rational-legal the primary quality of modern state legitimacy.

Causation

What causes what? Constructing hypotheses. Identifying and assessing/measuring dependent and independent variables. Major goal of experimental method. CAUSE AND EFFECT.

Protection

eliminating/neutralizing enemies of the state's clients (what does he mean by this?); providing public goods (domestic security, safety net, law and order, subsidies/tariffs

War making

eliminating/neutralizing the state's external rivals; establishing external sovereignty

State-making

eliminating/neutralizing the state's internal rivals; creating Rule of Law, monopoly of force, internal sovereignty

Political Science

four major subfields: american politics, comparative politics, political theory, international relations.

Corportalism

goes along with fascism, it is the system of representation in which one organization represents each important sector of society; two subtype are societal and state corporatism.

Totalitarian

is a state that controls virtually all aspects of society and eliminates all vestiges of civic society; Germany under Hitler and the Soviet Union under Stalin are key examples.

Theocracy

key idea: rule is run by divine inspiration or divine right; Rule by religious authorities: •Common in medieval and early modern Europe. Nowadays, the best example is not Christian but Muslim;Case Study:Iran•Unique in the Middle East: Shia theocratic regime•Yet there were no theocratic roots: Prior to 1979 Revolution, Iran had a modernizing authoritarian regime under the Shah that was highly dependent on the West (and US in particular)-Ayatollah Khomeini was the popular leader of an ideologically diverse revolution-Khomeini's Islamism (based on Shia understandings of theology and politics) became basis for new regime•A "hybrid" theocratic state that included some democratic elements-Ayatollah as supreme leader (cleric)-Popularly elected parliament and president-Council of Guardians (body of Shia clerics) oversees elections (including who is allowed on ballot) and approves or vetoes legislation•Significant factional struggle and debate-But citizen participation has been increasingly limited, esp. since 2009

Modernizing or bureaucratic authoritarian regime

modernizing authoritarian regime- Arose primarily in postcolonial states influenced by modernization theory: -Newly independent societies need to go through similar process as in the West in order to develop economically-Authoritarian regime needed to make tough economic choices•Pragmatic, non-ideological focus: Claim to legitimacy based on doing what's necessary to modernize the country-Economic development requires leadership of a modern elite, who will bring benefits of development - "technocratic legitimacy"-Development requires "national unity," therefore no democracy -But not much interest in penetrating/controlling the private sphere, as in totalitarian regimes•Often found in "weak states" where informal institutions (e.g., patron-client relationships) are important.; Bureaucratic-authoritarian regimes: institutionalized rule (often under a military government) with a primary goal of economic development

Negative and Positive Rights

negative rights are those that constrain the government from doing something/actions("Congress shall make no law..."). Freedom of expression and religion, property rights, etc.. ; positive rights are those that are obligations upon government to take some action (usually in the name of promoting more equality)-Often involves expenditures of revenue and even redistribution of income, at the economic "expense" of other citizens (i.e., right to public education, right to health care

States response to religion

neutral state model (State as officially neutral (but not opposed) to religion. United States. Role of civil society in a religiously diverse country: interfaith dialogue/cooperation; Center for Interfaith Cooperation (Indianapolis) Laicite (State as guarantor of a public sphere free of religion (anti-clerical). French laicité; Mexico (laicismo); also Kemalist Turkey (1930s-1990s) (this has been changing under Erdogan) ), positive accommodation (State as neutral but willing to financially support various religions. EX- Germany)

Small-N Case Studies

qualitative OR quantitative. Systematic comparison with generalizable conclusions. Case selection options (the way to "control" variables and mimic the experimental method): most similar systems design - cases are similar in many way with some key differences. Least similar/most different systems design - selecting on the dependent variable aka outcome.

Communism

was the first and most influential alternative to democracy, this ideology derived from the political theorist, Karl Marx. He believed economic classes would destroy a state and that private property needed to be eliminated. Grounded on historical materialism (the assumption that material forces are the prime powers of history and politics), mode of production (the economic system in any given historical era; feudalism to capitalism in the last millenium in Europe), and dictatorship of the proletariat (one of the first steps in Marxist thought, characterized by absolute rule by workers as a class over all other classes).