C/P TEST topics and questions
E/Z isomerism
Z - highest priority groups are on the same side
effective nuclear charge equation
Zeff = Z - S, where Z is the number of protons and S is shielding of the core (non-valence electrons)
glycoside
a carbohydrate in which the -OH of the anomeric carbon is replaced by -OR, bind anomeric carbon to another molecule notation .....side
what leads to formation of a chiral product
a chiral enzyme
what is a free radical?
a molecule with an unpaired valence electron
what type of functional group is a glycosidic bond?
acetal
Acyl Halide and its reaction with alcohol
acyl halide + alcohol produces an ester
name for 1st group on periodic table
alkali metals
oxidation states of groups
alkali metals: +1 alkalien earth metal: +2 chalcogens: -2 (nonmetals) or +6 (metals) halogens: -1
name for 2nd group on periodic table
alkaline earth metals as you go down the periodic table, the reactivity increases as the atomic number increases
Bonds in glycogen
alpha 1,6 and alpha 1,4
type of bond in glycogen
alpha 1-4 glycosidic linkage
amino end and carboxyl end in protein formation
amino end (nuc with lone pairs) attacks CA end (electrophile)
how are peptides named?
amino end to carboxyl end
substrates in strecker synthesis
ammonia, cyanide, and aldehyde or ketone
electron affinity
amount of energy released when a gaseous species gains an electron in its valence shell
in mirrors the angle of incidence is equivalent to the
angle of reflection
what does the angle of incidence equal to
angle of reflection
for an electrolytic cell the
anode and cathode are reversed, the thing with lower (more negative/smaller) reduction potential becomes the cathode
Anode vs Cathode
anode is always where oxidation is taking place and cathode is always where reduction is taking place
one function of enzymes at active site
arrange reactants in ideal spatial orientation in a reaction
relationship between size of diffraction grating and resolution
as diffraction grating decreases in size, diffraction becomes more pronounced and resolution worses
relationship between temperature and resistance
as one increases temperature the resistance increases, linear (proportionate relationship)
temperatures impact on ksp
as temperature increases ksp also increases
when is entropy maximized?
at equilibrium
total pressure
atm pressure + gauge pressure
atomic number vs. mass number
atomic number is the number of protons while mass number is neutrons + protons
Is sodium bicarbonate an acid or a base?
base
how do beta particles and gamma particles differ
beta particles will be deflected in magnetic field while gamma particles will not gamma particles are high energy photons
delta H reaction
bond broken- bonds formed breaking bonds requires energy forming bonds releases energy, exothermic
at ph=7 what happens to hydrogens on phosphate groups and carboxylic acids
both lost
what is required for a stereocenter
bound to 4 different substituents
lyase
breaks molecules without water
Rate limiting step of Sn1
carbocation formation unimolecular
furanose
carbohydrate with a 5 membered ring
how does high acetyl-coA affect gluconeogenesis
causes shift of pyruvate into gluconeogenesis pathway acetyl-CoA activates pyruvate carboxylase and inhibits pyruvate dehydrogenase
faraday
charge of 1 mole of electrons
requirement to rotate polarized light
chiral carbon
difference between a coenzyme and a cofactor
coenzymes are generally organic molecules, while cofactors are usually small, charged metal ions
Geiger counter
compares relative magnitude of 2 nuclear waste depositories
what is solubility
comparison between intermolecular forces that hold a solid together and forces that solvent can exert on solute molecules
hydrogen atoms that are pumped by complex
complex I: 4H+ complex III: 4H+ complex IV: 2H+
gases are
compressible
factors that impact reaction rate
concentration of reactants (Except for zero order reactions- only can be changed by adding a catalyst or raising temperature), temperature that the reaction takes place at, surface area, adding a catalyst, also the medium that the reaction takes place in is important
what types of systems absorb UV light?
conjugated systems absorb UV light
what thing allows a system to absorb light?
conjugation
keq
constant at a constant temperature in addition only gases and aqueous solutions appear liquids and solids do not appear
type of bond metal coordination complexes
coordinate covalent ligand acts as a lewis base (electron donor) central atom acts as a lewis acid (electron acceptor)
what type of bonds are found in metal complexes?
coordinate covalent bonding
octahedral
coordinated by 6 atoms
S
counterclockwise
bond in HCL
covalent
disulfides are what type of bond?
covalent bond
when solutes are added what happens to melting point
decreases
spontaneous reaction characterized by ?
delta G < 0 and Keq>Q
keq>1
delta G is negative
Q=keq
delta G=0 at equilibrium
delta G
delta H - T delta S
delta G
delta g not + RTlnQ
light waves travel more slowly in
denser mediums, indicated by the index of refraction
examples of non-polar solvents
diethyl ether, hexane, acetone, and dichloromethane
enantiomers
differ at all chiral carbons
Anomers
differ in configuration at the anomeric carbon therefore alpha and beta anomers have opposite absolute configuration
enantiomers
different conformation at every chiral carbon
Rf
distance of solute (compound)/distance of solvent
reflux chemistry
distillation technique in which solution is heated
FADH2
donates 1 or 2 electrons
electrolyic cells
drive a non-spontaneous reaction so they drive an endergonic (delta G>O) reaction and also they include decomposition
what are D and L glucose
enantiomers
most dissolutions are
endothermic
thermodynamically favorable/ kinetically unfavorable means
energy of the products is less than the reactants and there is a high activation energy
heat
energy transfer due to difference in temperature
doppler shift equation
f'=f((vs+/-vl)/(vs+/-vs))
reaction order of M-M
first part of graph when [S]>km, the reaction is first order because dependent on [S], but then at high [S] the reaction is zeroth order
power equation
force x velocity
enolate
formed when enol undergoes deprotonation
delta G greater than zero
forward reaction is not spontaneous, reverse reaction is spontaneous so reaction proceeeds in reverse direction
name for electrochemical cell
galvanic and voltaic E>0 so it is spontaneous
dipole-dipole interactions are negligible during what phase?
gas phase due to the distance between the molecules
different enzymes for gluconeogenesis
glucose 6 phosphatase fructose-1,6-bisphophatase pyruvate carboxylase
Sucrose (alpha or beta?)
glucose is alpha fructose is beta alpha 1,2
rate limiting step pentose phosphate pathway
glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
glycerol can be converted to
glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate (enters gluconeogenesis)
NADH cannot cross the mitochondrial membrane. Therefore it needs these two shuttles.
glycerol 3 -phosphate shuttle malate-aspartate shuttle
what is the only amino acid without a B carbon
glycine
rate limiting step glycogenesis
glycogen synthase
link between nitrogenous base and ribose is what type of linkage
glycosidic linkage
electrons farther away from the nucleus have greater or less energy
greater energy, therefore there emission spectra produces lower wavelength lines
gram - bacteria
has an outer and inner membrane membrane thin peptidoglycan cell wall OM contains porins that regulates passage in and out OM contains LPS
alpha nucleus is the same as a
helium nucleus
what stimulates pyruvate kinase
insulin
where are hydrophobic side chains located in a protein
interior of the protein
is the boiling point due to intramolecular or intermolecular forces?
intermolecular forces more intramolecular forces a molecule has, less intermolecular forces it has and therefore, results in a lower melting point
period
inverse of frequency or seconds/cycle
image distance +
inverted and real
anomeric carbon
invertible epimer
Fo
ion channel
hill coefficient
is a measure of cooperation n>1 cooperative n<1 non-cooperative
anomeric carbon of a sugar
is an invertible epimer
rate limiting step of krebs
isocitrate dehydrogenase (iso→a-ketoglutarate +CO2+NADH)
what does adding a resistor in parallel do to the overall resistance?
it decreases the overall resistance
what does magnetic quantum number designate?
it defines the orientation of a subshell
what is stereochemistry across a double bond determined by?
it is determined by each carbon separately?
lower IMF's does what to boiling point
it lowers the boiling point
what does that acid catalysis of a hydroxide do to that hydroxide
it makes the alcohol a better leaving group
what does acid do in esterification reactions
it plays only a catalytic role
keq equals (rates)
k (forward) / k (reverse)
if delta G is less than 0, then
keq>1
alpha-keto acid
ketone on alpha carbon of carboxylic acid
1 newton
kg m/s^2
difference between kinase and phosphorylase
kinase use ATP as substrate while phosphorylase use inorganic phosphate
kinetic vs. thermodynamic products
kinetic products form faster (b.c lower activation energy), but the products have greater free energy thermodynamic produces form slower (b/c of elevated activation energy), but the products have lower free energy
most amino acids are
l amino acids
what makes a sugar non-reducing?
lack of hemiacetal groups, cannot undergo mutorotation and ring openining example of non-reducing (sucrose) reducing sugars get oxidized
spherical abberation
lenses produce images @ several focal points
decrease in entropy (negative entropy) represented by
less moles
where is glucokinase found
liver and pancreas
1st order reaction
ln[A] v. time
are sound waves longitudinal or transverse
longitudinal
lewis structure of ozone
looking at structure of ozone it is clear that it has a permanent dipole
beta decay
loss of an electron
pH of anode and cathode
low pH for anode and high pH for cathode
Increase IMF = _______ vapor pressure
lower, increased boiling point
metric units
m = mili 10^-3 ----- K = kilo 10^3 u = micro 10^-6 -----M=Mega 10^6 n=nano 10^-9 -------G=Giga 10^9 p=pico 10^-12 -------T=Tera 10^12
heat capacity
m*c
what do tosylates do?
make alcohols better electrophiles
entropy at equilibrium
maximized
ionic bonds occur between
metals and nonmetals
molecule in which carbon is in its lowest oxidation state
methane (-4)
All _______ are reducing sugars
monosaccharides
higher Rf value indicates
more nonpolar stationary phase (silica beads) is polar
Ka of a weak acid
much less than 1
4 quantum numbers
n - average energy of a shell l - describes shape of a shell ml - orientational ms - spin orientation
total internal reflection
n1>n2 angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle
index of refraction
n=c/v
pka of indicator
near pH of the equivalence point
what is the Delta G for any reaction that occurs in the body
negative
what type of charge moves from low potential to high potential
negative charge
what is the charge of ADP
negatively charged because of phosphates
effective nuclear charge
net positive charge of the nucleus experiences by electrons in the valence shell increases as you go across a period, but little change as you go down a group
are catalysts used up during a reaction?
no
does frequency change between different mediums?
no
are alpha and beta glucose enantiomers?
no they are anomers, differ at one chiral carbon. enantiomers have similar physical properties and differ at all chiral centers.
what makes a fluid ideal?
no viscosity, incompressible, laminar flow (velocity at all points is constant)
is glycine opitcally active
no, because it lacks a chiral center
atoms least likely to participate in ionic bonds
noble gases because full valence shell includes (He) -> noble gas
is allosteric regulation covalent or non-covalent
non-covalent
what type of bonding between antibodies and antigens?
non-covalent bonding interactions (electrostatic interactions and hydrogen bonding)
is dichloromethane polar or nonpolar
nonpolar
lipids have
nonpolar tails and polar heads
no chiral carbons
not enantiomers
Are esters water soluble?
not generally if have long fatty acid chain
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
objects are in thermal equilibrium when they are at the same temperature
specific rotation equation
observed rotation / [solution] x tube length (dm)
what is a stereospecific reaction?
only produces one conformation
can cyclic and linear form of glucose undergo oxidation
only the linear form of glucose can undergo oxidation
what can one use to characterize enantiomers?
optical rotation
enzymes involved in redox reactions
oxidases, reductases, dehydrogenase, mono-oxygenase
where do oxidation and reduction always occur?
oxidation always occurs at the anode, while reduction always occurs at the cathode
equivalence point for a strong acid + strong base
pH = 7
impact of dilutions on pH
pH increases because lower [H+]
diamagnetic
paired electrons (even # of electrons), repelled by magnetic field
head group of sphingolipid could have
phosphoethanolamine group monosaccharide oligosaccharide
rate limiting step of glycolysis
phosphofructokinase
example of covalent modification
phosphorylation
Polarity of the Silica Gel
polar
lipids
polar heads, nonpolar tails
electric field lines go from _____ charge to _______ charge
positive negative
Q>Ksp
precipitate forms
Pascal's Principle
pressure applied to a fluid is transmitted throughout the fluid P1=P2....F1/A1=F2/A2
equation for intensity
pressure per unit area = P/A
what happens to esters and CA's when treated with LiALH4?
primary alcohols
can amines be a hydrogen bond donor or acceptor?
primary amines can do both
keq>1
products are favored
1 volt
J/C
1 W
J/s
catalytic efficiency
Kcat/Km ability of the enzyme to work at low substrate conditions it is the linear beginning part of the M-M graph, the initial slope of the M-M graph
NMR peaks between 0-3 ppm
protons attached to alkane carbons
D v. L notation
put the most oxidized group on top, then note the positions of the OH group OH group on left (L) OH group on right (D)
units for rate laws
M/s
1 Joule
N*m
1 tesla
N/A*m
nitrogen gas
N2, inert, un-reactive because of the strength of the N=N triple bond
ionization energies of N and O
N>O because of half filled d subshell
Can acetyl CoA be used to make glucose?
NO!
equation for entropy
S=Q/T
second law of thermodynamics
S>0
inversion of stereochemistry
Sn2
reverse phase HPLC
Stationary phase is nonpolar, so more polar will move further
2nd order reaction
rate= k [A]^2; graph of 1/A is straight line
Keq < 1 means
reactants are favored the forward rate constant is smaller than reverse rate constant keq= k forward / k reverse
conformation isomers
rearrangement around a single bond
what is the color of oxygenated blood?
red
orbital
region of space around the nucleus defined by the probability of finding an electron in that region of space
polarity of cholesterol
relatively non-polar
diamagnetic
repelled by an external magnetic field
what does the azimuthal number (L) indicate?
shape and number of subshells
what does primary quantum number give info about?
size (radius) + energy level
slope for zeroth order, first order, and second order reactions
slope zeroth order = -k first order = -k second order = k
covalent bonds are composed of elements with a ______ EN difference
small
does sound travel faster in solids or gases?
solids
what time of wave travels faster in more dense medium?
sound waves travel faster in more dense medium, but light waves more slower in more dense medium
hybridization of amide bond
sp2, because planar. conjugation and resonance partial double bond character
trigonal bipyramidal
sp3d and 5 groups
anion-exchange chromatography
stationary phase contains + chages
km
substrate concentration at 1/2 Vmax
critical point
temperature and pressure at which liquid and gas state are indistinguishable
Tm
temperature at which a solution of DNA molecules is 50% melted
what remains constant in a phase transition?
temperature is constant in a phase transition
what remains constant in a phase transition?
temperature remains constant, all heat is put into breaking bonds and does not contribute to KE or temperature of the substance
what protein structure do R groups contribute to?
tertiary structure
at the boiling point what are the KE's of the liquid and the gas?
the KE's are the same since the gas and liquid have the same temperature
when naming an ester what is named first
the alcohol side chain
When pH=pKa, then...
the concentration of the acid and the conjugate base are equivalent
mass defect
the difference between the mass of an atom and the sum of the masses of its protons, neutrons, and electrons
what increases with differences in electronegativity?
the dipole moment
current is what?
the direction that positive charge flows
focal length
the distance from the center of a lens to the focal point
how does the distance from the nucleus impact the energy of the electron
the farther an electron is from the nucleus the greater its energy
image distance and object distance in plane mirrors
the image distance and the object distance are equivalent in plane mirros
in competitive inhibition what happens
the inhibitor binds to the active site
what is inertia dependent upon?
the mass of the object
critical point
the temperature and pressure at which the gas and liquid states of a substance become identical and form one phase
what happens to the vapor pressure as one increases the temperature
the vapor pressure increases
if an acid has multiple acidic protons?
then the acid can act as a buffer over several pH ranges
does H bonding occur when substance is in the gaseous state?
there is no H bonding when a substance is in the gaseous state
for W=Fdcos(theta) what does theta refer to?
theta is the angle between the displacement vector and the force
are resistors conductors or insulators?
they are conductors as they still allow the passage of electrons through the circuit.
nonpolar molecules contain polar or nonpolar bonds
they can contain both
hydrophobic molecules on surface of protein do what to the entropy of water molecules surrounding the protein?
they decrease the entropy of the water molecules because the molecules must take positions that minimize interactions with the hydrophobic proteins and maximize with other water molecules
what are spectator ions?
they do not participate in a reaction, never incorporated into a compound or a complex
what do tosylates to?
they make alcohols better electrophiles
effect of enzymes on a reaction
they speed up reactions, but do not change the equilibrium of reactions
what is heat?
transfer of energy that results from temperature differences
heat
transfer of energy that results from the differences of temperature between two substances
kcat
turnover number= Vmax/[E] plateau part of Michaelis-Menten graph ES-> E + P at high [S], kcat=Vmax
in transition metals color is associated with
unfilled d orbitals, electrons get promoted into higher energy orbital states.
paramagnetic
unpaired electrons (odd # of electrons), attracted to magnetic field
paramagnetic
unpaired electrons and attracted by an electric field
image distance -
upright and virtual
oxidation state equation
valence - bonded - nonbonded
product of combustion reactions
water and C02
what constitutes a buffer?
weak acid/base and its salt
the conjugate base of a weak acid is a
weak base
do weight and normal force form action reaction pair
weight and normal force do not form an action reaction pair
what is the best buffering region?
when the acid concentration is equivalent to the concentration of base
what makes an ideal buffer
when the pH=pKa
Newtown's Third Law
with every force there must be an equal and opposite reaction force acting on two diff bodies... example body exerts force on earth and exerts a force on body
power is equivalent to
work/time
Is helium a noble gas?
yes
are cultured cells considered a reasonable approximation for in-vivo cells?
yes
does histidine have an aromatic ring?
yes histidine has an aromatic ring with nitrogen
is ring closing thermodynamically favorable
yes, especially if the ring that is formed is a 6 membered right, a 6 membered ring is more thermodynamically favorable than a 4,5 , or 7 membered ring.
neutral solution most amino acids exist as
zwitterions
Diffraction
The bending of a wave as it moves around an obstacle or passes through a narrow opening
Q>keq
Then the forward reaction has exceeded equilibrium: 1) There is a greater concentration of products than at equilibrium. 2) The reverse reaction is increased to restore equilibrium. Delta G (forward reaction) is greater than zero
Q<keq
Then the forward reaction has not yet reached equilibrium. 1) There is a greater concentration of reactants than at equilibrium 2) The forward rate of the reaction is increased to restore equilibrium delta G (forward reaction) is less than zero
equation relating moles of gas and volume
V1/n1=V2/n2
When does entropy increase?
When dillution occurs, when ions are dispersed, when there are more moles of product than reactants, phase change entropy increases when a solute dissolves in solvent
When does refraction occur?
When the wave enters a new medium with a different index of refraction however, the light needs to enter at an angle relative to the normal
what determines shape in VSEPR?
# of lone pairs
factors that impact entropy
# of moles of reactants and products... if less moles in products then decrease in entropy phase change: entropy increases from solid-> liquid-> gas entropy increases if something is dissolved in solution
what determines geometry?
# of of groups
D notation
(+), cw rotation dextrorotary
L notation
(-), ccw rotation levorotary
epimer
*subtype of diatereomers *differ in configuration at exactly one chiral carbon
properties of enantiomers
- Same boiling point, melting point, and density - Same refractive index - Rotate the plane of polarized light in the same magnitude, but opposite directions - Different interaction with other chiral molecules
zero-order reactions
- have a constant rate that does not depend on the concentration of reactant - rate can only be affected by changing the temperature or adding a catalyst
oxidation number of nitrogen
-3
Delta G equation
-RTlnKeq
delta G not
-RTlnKeq
Delta G not
-nFEnotcell
what is the potential difference around any closed loop
0
E cell not
0.0592/n*log(k)
how many electrons does cytochrome c transfer
1 at a time, Fe2+ -> Fe3+
how many electrons are moved with cytochrome c
1 electron at a time
for a given temperature the specific rotation has only
1 value
newton's laws
1) an object at rest will stay at rest and an object in motion will stay in motion unless acted on by an outside force 2) F=m*a 3) every action has an equal and opposite reaction
frequency
1/s or number of cycles/s
NADH
2 electron transfers, does not react with O2
number of stereoisomers
2^n where n is the number of chiral centers
trigonal pyramidal
3 bonds, 1 lone pair
How many residues per turn in an alpha helix?
3.6 residues per turn
Average KE of a Gas
3/2*KT
how many rings in a steroid
4 (3 that are 6 membered, 1 that is 5 membered)
square planar
4 bonds, 2 lone pairs
pI of cysteine
5.07
pyranose
6 membered ring
octahedral
6-0 and sp3d2
1 Coulomb
A*s
F1
ATP synthase
Solubility Rules
Acetate (C2H3O2-) Group 1 SO4(2-)** Ammonium (NH4+) Group 17* SO4s will not be soluble if they are paired with a PMS (Pb, Mercury, Silver) or CASTRO BEAR (Ca, Sr, Ba). Group 17s will not be soluble if they are paired up with PMS.
Reactivity of carboxylic acid derivatives
Anhydrides > Esters/Carboxylic Acids > Amides
atomic weight
Average of the mass numbers of all isotopes
1 farad
C/V
first law of thermodynamics
Delta U=Q-W
Stuctural Isomers
Different covalent arrangement of their atoms
Energy of a photon equation
E=hf=hc/lambda E=hf equation gives the energy of a photon
potential of galvanic cell
E>0 which is spontaneous
Ecell
Ecathode + Eanode
Nerst Equation
Ecell=Ecell0-.0592/n*logQ or Ecell=Ecell0-RT/nF*LnQ
formal charge equation
Formal charge= valence-Nnonbonding-.5Nbonding
rate limiting step gluconeogenesis
Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase
what activates phosphofructokinase
Fructose-2,6-bisphosphate (produced by phosphofructokinase 2 - activated by insulin and inhibited by glucagon) + AMP
GLUT 2 v GLUT 4 transporter
GLUT 4 -> normal cells (Adipose and muscle) GLUT 2 -> liver and pancreas
what do alkaline earth metals form when they react with water
H2 gas
list of strong acids
HCl, HBr, HI, H2SO4, HNO3, HClO4
where are hydrophobic side chains located in a protein
inside the protein
mutorotation
In solution, the hemiacetal ring of glucose will break open spontaneously and re-form to rotate between C-1 and C-2 to produce either the a or B anomer. This reaction would be named the __________ of glucose.
Irreversible steps of glycolysis
hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, pyruvate kinase
Irreversible steps of glycolysis
hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, pyruvate kinase large negative delta G exothermic
what is a gamma particle?
high energy photon, ionizing
Do ionic solids have high or low melting points?
high melting points
FE-S
holds 1 electron at a time
FE-S
holds 1 electron at a time, in complex's 1 and 3
Ubiquinone
holds 2 electrons, moves 1 electron at a time
FMNH2
holds 2 electrons, transfers 1 electron at a time found in complex 1
Apoenzyme + cofactor =
holoenzyme
fischer projection
horizontal lines (out of page) vertical lines into page
what determines if a material is electrically conducting?
if it has free electrons
if radius decreases what happens to pressure of a fluid?
if radius decreases the velocity increases. if the velocity increases then pressure decreases
how to tell difference between D and L sugars?
in linear form: highest oxidized group on top D: OH on the right L: OH on the left in cyclic form: go to the 5th carbon, highest priority chiral carbon in ring. R conformation -> D S conformation -> L
when counting carbons in a fatty acid
include carbon that is a part of the carboxylic acid
aromatic amino acids
include histidine
what does an enzyme do
increases the rate of a reaction, but does not change the chemical equilibrium