Criminology

George Herbert Mead (1863-1931)

'The Psychology of Punitive Justice' (1918) 'The Genesis of the Self and Social Control' (1925) -Self as social product -Meaning making through interaction with others

Possession for the purpose of exporting

(2) Except as authorized under the regulations, no person shall possess a substance included in Schedule I, II, III, IV, V or VI for the purpose of exporting it from Canada.

Crimes within organizations

(By Individuals against the organization, or Offences against employees) -Medicine -Healthcare Fraud -Performance of Unnecessary Medical Procedures Law - "Ambulance-Chasing" Retail -"Bait-n'-Switch" Stock Trading - "Pump and Dump" Stock Scams-and Insider Trading

Section 4(3) of the Criminal Code "possession"

(a) a person has anything in possession when he has it in his personal possession or knowingly ▫ (i) has it in the actual possession or custody of another person, or ▫ (ii) has it in any place, whether or not that place belongs to or is occupied by him, for the use or benefit of himself or of another person; and (b) where one of two or more persons, with the knowledge and consent of the rest, has anything in his custody or possession, it shall be deemed to be in the custody and possession of each and all of them.

Social Control Theory: Assumes

- Human beings are neither good nor evil - People are born with the capacity to do wrong - It is conformity, not deviance, that needs to be explained - crime is a normal phenomena and is something that should be expected in the absence of adequate internal or external controls.

Social Control Theory: Asks

- Why don't we all commit deviance? - Not, why only some commit deviance?

Hare developed the Psychopathy Checklist

-20 traits and behaviours associated with psychopathy -Widely used for research and for making decisions in the mental health and criminal justice systems -Deemed strong predictors of violence and recidivism in offenders and psychiatric patients

White-Collar Crime & Legal Sanctions

-2004: Canada passed laws to make it easier to prosecute fraud-related offences ▫And also created the IMETs to investigate stock fraud -Yet the conviction record has been abysmal -This is due to: ▫Large corporations can hire the best experts and lawyers ▫The IMETs are limited to large, complex cases ▫Corporations use delaying and obstructing methods ▫Gov'ts are reluctant to impose tough regulations on big businesses because of negative impact on jobs and the economy

Left Realism

-A strong critique of "left idealism" -Also criticizes conventional or orthodox criminology -Emphasizes the need to examine the "square of crime" -The relationship between the offender, the victim, the police, and the public Must pay attention to the serious harm generated by street crime, "working-class crime" ▫ Crime is disproportionately distributed among the working class, women, and racial minorities ▫ The majority of working-class crime is intra-class ▫ Victimization surveys help focus on and examine the problem of crime for the working class -Must develop a working-class criminology that examines and offers practical solutions to street crime -Must advance concrete and non-repressive crime control programs and policies: ▫ Alternatives to prisons ▫ Pre-emptive deterrence ▫ Making police more accountable to the public; ▫ "Harnessing the energies of the marginalized" to create a "politics of crime control"

2000's

-After a number of failed decriminalization bills, access to cannabis for medical purposes was established by Health Canada in 2001-(Marijuana Medical Access Regulations) (MMAR) -March 13, 2012 -Omnibus crime bill- Bill C-10: "Safe Streets and Communities Act" -(CADUMS) 2011 -Use of at least one of five illicit drugs excluding cannabis [cocaine or crack, speed, ecstasy, hallucinogens (excluding salvia) or heroin] was reported by 1.7% of Canadians. -prevalence of past-year cannabis use decreased from 10.7% in 2010 to 9.1% 2011 -Among youth, aged 15-24 years, past-year use of at least one of 5 illicit drugs (cocaine or crack, speed, hallucinogens (excluding salvia), ecstasy, and heroin) decreased from 11.3% in 2004 to 4.8%.

Cesare Beccaria (1738-94)

-All humans are responsible for their behaviour -Little law -More due process -Nobody should be exempt from the law -Prevention better than punishment -Punishment should be used to deter -Punishment must be proportionate -Law should be written and punishments publicized -Punishment must be swift and certain and applied without prejudice

Messner and Rosenfeld's (2007) theory of institutional anomie

-American Dream emphasizes monetary success but places less emphasis on legitimate means of achieving that success -This directly encourages people to use illegal means to get money -It indirectly encourages crime by emphasizing the economy above all other institutions

Moore (2005) defines cybercrime as

-Any criminal offence or series of offences committed through the use of a computer and a computer network or Internet connection

Theories of crime inspired by religious beliefs & superstition

-Belief in evil spirits and magic -People ascribed various unusual phenomena of nature to the activities of evil spirits -This led to the belief that any pathology in human behaviour must be due to evil spirits

Assessing Biological Positivism

-Biological factors almost certainly have some role in the determination of criminal conduct. -The extent of this role is generally (very) small. -Such effects are heavily mediated by, or only occur in interaction with, broader social or environmental factors.

1950s: Sheldon developed somatotype theory

-Body types of endomorphs, mesomorphs, and ectomorphs were associated with different personality traits -Mesomorphs (muscular types with aggressive personalities) were more likely to be involved in delinquent or criminal behaviour -His research was criticized for lack of rigour

The Role of Delinquent Peers

-By combining differential association theory and control theory, a better overall explanation of crime is obtained -Differential association's emphasis on ties to deviant peers exposes social bonds as multidimensional: conventional and unconventional -The adolescent's lack of ties to the conventional order will increase association with deviant peers since the adolescent has nothing to lose by this affiliation -These ties will increase the probability that the adolescent will be involved in deviance

Sociological Theories of Crime

-Causes of crime are external to the individual -Criminals and delinquents are normal people whose behaviour is influenced by their environment -Crime as a manifestation of social pathology - particularly social strain (not not strains that reside within the individual)

Social Learning Theory

-Central concept is cognitive functioning: the ability to think & make choices -People learn new behaviours through modeling - vicarious learning by watching others.

Parental supervision and discipline

-Children who are adequately supervised by their parents have lower delinquency rates than their peers who are not -Clear, consistent, discipline that entails explicit disapproval of unwanted behaviour is related to non-delinquency -Strict discipline and harsh physical punishment, combined with lack of parental warmth, is related to higher rates of behavioural problems and delinquency

Antisocial Personality Disorder

-Classic examples are serial killers Charles Manson and Clifford Olson -But not schizophrenics like Vincent Li, who was found not criminally responsible due to a mental disorder -DSM-V: APD is "a pervasive pattern of disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others that begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into adulthood"

Enlightenment philosophers' view of society

-Composed of free and rational human beings -People enter into a social contract: they agree to give up some freedom for a safer society -This contributed to the movement throughout Europe to reform governance and criminal justice

When Social Media Become Antisocial

-Consensus model of crime can be applied to cybercriminology to determine where the line between crime and deviance is drawn in online communities -This requires a broader understanding of computer technologies as being inherently criminogenic -Technological determinism in online offending helps us understand how specific technologies drive cultural changes -The architecture of a digital environment and the dominant culture of that environment play a major role in offending

Marxist Criminologists' Definition of Crime

-Crime is a political concept -Concept of crime is designed by those in power to protect the power and position of the upper classes at the expense of the poor -determining what is "crime" is difficult if the laws reflect the interests of the ruling class -many types of social harm may not be incorporated into the criminal law if they go against capitalist interests

Typology of Corporate Crime (Organizational)

-Crimes by Organizations/Corporations Against Individuals (the Public): -Crimes by Organizations (Corporations) Against Employees -Crimes by Organizations (Corporations) Against other Organizations

Organizational crime

-Crimes committed by corporations or businesses via the people within them, with the aim of furthering the interests of the corporation as well as those individuals involved (such as fraud, failure to observe health and safety legislation to help cut costs).

Psychoanalytic Theory

-Criminal behaviour is a form of neurosis -Criminals suffer from compulsive need for punishment to alleviate guilt and anxiety from unconscious strivings -Criminal activity is a substitute gratification for desires not met in the family -Delinquent behaviour is the result of traumatic events whose memory has been repressed -Delinquency may be an expression of displaced hostility

1930s: Hooton- large samples of prisoners and others

-Criminals were socially and biologically inferior to noncriminals -Some new stigmata differentiating criminals from others were found -He advocated for the segregation of "physically, mentally, and morally unfit individuals" ▫ This gave rise to the eugenics movement -His work was discredited on scientific grounds

Consumer Safety Issues

-Current consumer safety issues related to Chinese products; part of a criminogenic global market structure -Large companies buy from China because of low cost -Low cost is due to low wages, absence of workplace regulations, which results in little quality control

Shaw and McKay: Ecological Analysis

-Deviance originates not in pathology of individuals ▫ But in the social disorganization of communities -Certain parts of Chicago had high crime rates over a long period of time ▫ Despite racial/ethnic changes in population (i.e., problem was ecological) -This was blamed on failure of neighbourhood institutions and organizations (e.g., family, schools) ▫ Which did not provide adequate social controls -Result: criminal subculture developed in these areas

Anomie and Suicide

-Different social structures promote suicide -He noticed that the freedom in protestant religion caused the suicide rate to be higher compared to people who were catholic

Crimes by Employees Against Organizations

-Employee Pilferage Examples: -Under-charging friends. -Over-charging and pocketing difference. -Embezzlement -Individuals in a position of trust are faced with what a "non-shareable" financial problem. -They feel they can resolve this problem by "temporarily borrowing" from their employer. -This breaks down as embezzlers realize they have been discovered and cannot make repayment in time. -Abuse of expense accounts.

Crime and Intelligence

-Evidence supporting a link between biological or intellectual deficiencies and criminal behaviour is weak -Given rise to the eugenics movement ("well born") & sterilizing people with intellectual disabilities -criticisms of the cultural bias of IQ tests have emerged.

Psychological Theories of Crime

-Examines criminality through theories of personality or learning that account for a person's behaviour in a specific situation 1) Assumption of offender deficit- something is psychologically wrong with the offender 2) Assumption of discriminating traits- offenders differ from non-offenders, esp. in impulsivity and aggression

Costs of White-Collar Crime

-Far exceeds the cost of traditional crime as recorded in official police statistics -The estimated cost of WCC in the U.S is about $250 billion a year (Hackler, 2007: 298) -Because a white-collar criminal is perceived of as not "hurting" people don't tend to view it as serious > What about in cases where injury or death is present?

Emile Durkheim

-French sociologist, wrote Division of Labour in Society (1893) -Demonstrated the close relationship between social structure (the organization of society) and the norms and values of society (social and cultural life) -Emphasized social cohesion and the social restraints that prevented crime

Theories of Social Disorganization: Thrasher and the Gang

-Gangs predominated in areas where there were breaks in the structure of social organization (where social controls were weak): ▫ In city slums ▫ Along economic or ecological boundaries ▫ In adolescence -Gangs not necessarily delinquent -However, delinquency often is the natural result of the activities of youth in areas with weak social controls

Nature of White-collar Crime

-Generally takes place in private -Offenders are continuously present at the scene -Tends to involve an abuse of trust inherent to their occupational role -Often involves some form of insider knowledge -Often no complainant, or one that only comes forward long after the event -Generally doesn't involve an immediate physical threat so less source of fear and anxiety than other forms of crime -Determination of responsibility may be problematic (because of nature of organization) -Tends to have an ambiguous legal and criminal status

Wahlsten (2003)

-Genes work at the level of molecules -Intelligence, social variables and crime cannot be directly influenced -Genes could influence: liver function > unable to metabolize certain amino acids > à build up > negatively affect brain development > poor success in school >crime There is no gene that codes directly for social behaviour; such as crime

Jeremy Bentham The Principles of Morals & Legislation (1781)

-Hedonistic calculus-pleasure/pain principle -Favored utilitarianism-objective of social action is ensuring the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people -Firm believer in efficacy of prison

Personality is composed of three forces

-Id: biological drives -Ego: directs the impulses of the id and acts as a reality tester -Superego: conscience

Assessing Control Theory

-Idea that control exercised by family and education and the notion of self-control resulted in early intervention policies- parenting skills, self-esteem -Proposition to increase control to reduce deviance may lead to oppressive and repressive policies and questions about how much intervention is appropriate -Does a better job of explaining the conditions that make crime a possibility rather than an actuality -Underplays the role of social structures beyond the family, such as the economic and political context -Some control theories are slightly deterministic in their claim that without particular controls or inhibitors crime is inevitable- are we really predisposed to crime unless we are kept in check?

SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM

-In general views society as the product of the everyday interaction of individuals -Specifically focuses on understandings of the 'self' and the role of 'symbols' for explaining social behaviour and social action

Crime and Mental Illness

-Increasing involvement of those with mental illness in the CJS -The deinstitutionalization of those with mental illness has contributed to this increase -Police are increasingly encountering mentally ill individuals -Mentally ill persons are arrested more frequently than others, controlling for the type of crime -But are less likely to recidivate than offenders who do not have a history of mental illness -Police training to deal with the mentally ill varies across jurisdictions but is generally minimal

Assessing Labeling Theory

-Influential in ensuring Diversion from the CJS is practiced wherever possible, particularly with youth -Does not provide any explanation for why people offend in the first place (primary deviation) -There are still a number of crimes that are characterized by high social agreement (consensus) (ex: murder)-focusing on social reaction alone distorts the reality of this harmful criminal behavior -Not always clear what gives people the capacity to reject labels (there is extreme variability to how people respond to labels in practice) -Others actively embrace deviant labels or reject the labeling of the CJS as itself deviant (the labeling of their protest as terrorism by the state as what is deviant) -Focusing on the power of CJS actors to label misses an analysis of the wider distribution of power and inequality in society

Socialization into Crime

-Interactionism focuses on what happens to criminals once their deviant activities commence -Two areas of interactionist theories can be seen in the context of socialization into crime: 1)The processes of differential association 2)Acquisition of a criminal identity

Edwin H. Sutherland (1939) White-Collar Crime

-Introduced the term White-Collar Crime (WCC)— "a crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of his occupation" (1940) -Crime stats paint a false picture-based on unequal application of criminal law -Revealed widespread illegality among the 70 largest corporations in the U.S -White-collar offending is not only prevalent but also serious in terms of costs to society (more costly than street crime) -Employed Labeling theory- not all acts that are harmful are labeled as criminal, not all actors who perpetrate harm are labeled as criminals -"normal business" vs. "criminal act" -Limited role of criminal justice system with respect to WCC

Labelling Theory

-Is concerned with what happens after an act is committed, not what happens before; -Argues that deviance doesn't reside in the person or in the act, but in the reaction to it; -Pays attention to how reactions to people/acts consist of applying labels, and the impact that those labels may have on the person and our understanding of the act

Lombroso &Biological Positivism Part 2

-Lombroso observed physical differences between criminals and noncriminals. -Applied Darwin's evolutionary theory to criminals who were less evolved -"These people are innately driven to act as a normal ape or savage would but such behaviour is deemed criminal in our civilized society" (Gould, 1981, 153) -They are born criminals who can be distinguished by stigmata: the physical signs of their atavism

The Contribution of the Positive School

-Lombroso's most lasting contribution was in relation to the criminal justice system -Classical theorists said punishment should fit the crime, he said punishment should fit the criminal ▫ As such, he called for different treatment in the justice system for different kinds of criminals -Born criminals should be incarcerated to protect society ▫ But they should be treated leniently as they have no control over their behaviour

Marxist Conflict Perspectives in Criminology

-Marx himself wrote little on crime -Many criminologists believed that Marx's work could help analyze the relationship between crime and the social world -Marxist theories focus not on individual pathologies but on social, political, and economic structures that give rise to crime -Marxist criminologists view conflict as rooted in the structure of capitalist society

Crimes of the Powerful

-Marxist research on corporate crime focuses on the harmful conduct of those inside the sphere of production in capitalist economies -Corporate crime has far greater negative impact on society compared to "street crime" -Capitalism and profit maximization create strong motivation for corporations to commit crimes and other socially harmful behaviours

Crimes by Employees Against Employees

-Most are of a personal nature, and thus don't qualify as occupational crime.

Does increased contact with the CJS indicate a significant relationship between crime and mental disorder?

-Not necessarily; the increased rate of mental disorder in prisons has been the result of "the manner in which institutions of our society react to that individual behaviour" (Golding, 1985) -Teplin (1984) analysis of police data: the presence of symptoms of mental illness affects the probability of arrest -Bonta, Law, and Hanson (1998): mentally disordered offenders on average showed lower recidivism rates than other offenders Borum (1996): mental disorder is a risk factor for predicting violent recidivism

Cybercrime

-Online crimes that are largely similar to offline crimes of violence and sexual offending

Judicial Decisions

-Ontario Superior Court, (2010), struck downs sections 210, 212(1)(j) and 213(1)(c) Canada's prostitution laws as unconstitutional -Court of Appeal for Ontario (2012) struck down the bawdy house provision; amended the CC to clarify that the prohibition on living on the avails of prostitution applies only to those who do so "in circumstances of exploitation"; upheld the communication provision as constitutional thus kept street prostitution illegal. -The Supreme Court of Canada (2013) unanimous 9-0 decision stuck down all 3 sections as unconstitutional -Bill C-36 "Protection of Communities and Exploited Persons Act"

The Classical Theory of Crime

-People have free will, can choose to commit crime-i.e., crime and deviance were not the result of some supernatural force or demonic possession -Crime is rational, people broke the law because they thought that doing so would advance their own interests -Crime is calculated (following a cost-benefit analysis) -Laws are used to control behaviour (the response to crime is punishment)

Wrongful Convictions

-People who work in the justice system sometimes break the rules or exhibit incompetence -One consequence: the imprisonment of innocent people -In some cases, justice officials had "tunnel vision," and in other cases, evidence was deliberately withheld to help convict the accused

The Deviant Career

-People willing to engage in deviance have a weak commitment to conventional norms and identities -Young people also have little commitment to deviance ▫ Thus, they drift between conventional and deviant behaviour -Matza (1990): young offenders attached to certain marginal, masculine, subterranean traditions

Gottfredson & Hirschi's (1990) Self-control: The General Theory of Crime

-People with low self-control are more likely to commit crime and engage in risky activity when given the opportunity -Low self-control individuals are impulsive, focus on the moment, have unstable personal relationships, and are less likely to feel remorse -Low self-control is the result of early childhood socialization: poor relationships with parents and/or poor parenting -Assumed to cause deviance throughout one's life

Activities that constitute cybercrime

-Phishing - Ripping - Hacking (distributed denial-of-service attacks) - Luring - Stalking - Spamming - Skimming - Trafficking (via the Deep Web)

Strengths and contributions of Edwin Sutherland

-Points out the importance of learning criminal behaviour, motives, attitudes, and techniques -Highlights the importance of ties to deviant peers ▫ Research shows that deviant peers are a major risk factor for criminal behaviour -Matsueda (2001): "differential association theory represents one of the most important theoretical traditions in criminology"

Babiak & Hare (2006)

-Psychopaths fit well into the corporate world -Social manipulation makes them seem charismatic in the hiring process -Like all predators, they like the action and rewards -Workplace psychopaths most often cited in the media are investment bankers (ex those responsible for 2008 financial crisis)

Crimes by Employees Against the Public

-Public corruption :the use of public office for private gain Ex: The Mollen Commission -Sexual abuse by members of the clergy

Does capitalism encourages crime?

-Punch argues that the major corporate crimes of the 20th century share the following" -New opportunities for corporate deviancy created in 1980s by: ▫ Economic difficulties in the 70s and 80s ▫ Deregulation and restructuring of the financial sector ▫ Globalisation with increased electronic markets and less oversight -Mismanagement, risk-taking, speculation, fraud and creative accounting due to reduced regulatory oversight -Reshaped perception that corporate crime was done for the good of the business

Marxist Criminology Crime Control & Prevention

-Punishment of crime in a capitalist society is understood by Marxist criminologists as a way to police and regulate those who threaten private property relations and the public order -Crime prevention involves radical democracy; collective ownership and control over means of production; redistribution of social resources according to need

Howard Becker's "Outsiders"Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (1963)

-Recognized the political dimensions of labeling by moral entrepreneurs- those who seek to impose their values or moral rules on others -Becker helped shift attention away from crime and toward deviance

R. v Bedford (2013) Constitutional Challenge

-S. 2b freedom of expression; -S. 2d freedom of association; -S. 7 life, liberty and "security of the person" (meaning protection for their physical and mental integrity); -S. 11d presumed innocent until proven guilty -S. 15 right to equality

Former Criminal Code prostitution provisions

-Section 210 outlaws what are called "common bawdy-houses." -Section 212 prohibits "procuring" prostitution or "living on the avails" of prostitution. -Section 213 outlaws "communicating in public for the purposes of prostitution."

Richard Cloward: Illegitimate Opportunity Structures

-Simply being subjected to socially generated strain does not enable a person to deviate in any way he or she chooses > people can participate in a given adaptation only if they have access to the means to do so -People under strain cannot become any kind of criminal they choose > they are limited by the opportunities available to them -Juveniles undergoing strain could lead to three different types of gangs or subcultures: 1) Criminal profit - oriented crimes 2) Conflict—gang violence as a means of attaining status, at least among peers 3) Retreatist—substance abuse -Race, class, or the city in which a youth lives may also influence opportunity structures

Portugal- A case study in decriminalization

-Since decriminalizing possession of all drugs, including cocaine and heroin in July 2001, the following changes have occurred: -small increases in reported illicit drug use amongst adults; -reduced illicit drug use among problematic drug users and adolescents, at least since 2003; - reduced burden of drug offenders on the criminal justice system; -increased uptake of drug treatment; -reduction in opiate-related deaths and infectious diseases; - increases in the amounts of drugs seized by the authorities; -reductions in the retail prices of drugs. (pg 1017)

Richard Quinney Conflict Theory

-Social Reality of Crime (1970) -Focused on "segments of society" (social groupings) that attempt to secure their interests through criminal law -Quinney saw much inequality in decision-making of public policies and laws -Only some interest groups are sufficiently powerful to influence public policy

Family Relationships

-Social control theory emphasizes family relationships ▫Since these provide children with the attachments that restrain their deviance -Several aspects of family relationships are related to delinquency:

Criminalization of Consensual Sex

-Sodomy punishable by death until 1869 -1892 "Gross indecency" -Bill C- 150 Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1968-69, Justice Minister Pierre Trudeau, repealed Canada's sodomy laws, claimed "the state has no place in the bedrooms of the nation"

Self-control: The General Theory of Crime

-Some research support for this theory ▫Canadian research found correlation between low self-control and drug use (Sorenson and Brownfield, 1995) -LeBlanc (1997): low self-control is just one of many psychological traits that should be a part of a holistic social control theory of offending -Sampson and Laub (2003): lifelong deviance not always the case. ▫Deviance may subside with transitions (turning points) in one's life and changes in social bonds

Anomie

-State of normlessness; confusion about social norms -Due to rapidly changing society -When systems of regulation and moral constraints are insufficient to effectively limit individual desires Introduced by Durkheim

The Classical Theory of Crime: specific reforms

-Stop executing people for minor offences -Criminal matters should be dealt with in public according to the dictates of the law -Laws should be accessible to all -Separate the lawmaking power of the legislature from the role of judges -Laws to be set by legislatures while judges determined guilt and administered punishment

Strain as a Feature of Individuals

-Strain alone does not always produce delinquency -Strains are more likely to lead to delinquency if they have certain characteristics: • High in magnitude • Unjust • Linked to low social control • When the crime pays off • When strain is resolved through contact with people who are involved with crime

Robert Agnew General Strain Theory

-Strain can be experienced directly, but it can also be anticipated and vicarious ex, if one anticipates being attacked on the way to school, one may skip school, which could lead to other problems)

Parental role model

-Strong ties to parents act as a deterrent to delinquency regardless of parent criminality ▫Yet there is an association between criminality of the parent and that of the child Which may be because of problems that accompany criminal parents (e.g., poverty, bad parenting, labelling) Direct modelling of parental behaviour does not seem to be the major cause of delinquency The modelling of aggression and antisocial attitudes may be the most significant mechanism

Jean Piaget (1932)

-Studied children playing -Moral reasoning was learned in stages -Children go from egocentrism (because they lack empathy) to cooperation (by age 11 or 12)

Deviant cybercommunities

-Subcultural networks of people who seek to circumvent the customary user experiences of websites, social media, and other online technology -They seek to exploit weaknesses and vulnerabilities ("soft targets") Cyberdeviance often encompasses one or more of the traditional offline paraphilias

The Measurement of White-collar & Corporate crime: Problems faced by researchers

-The higher professions are self-regulating, and sometimes remain silent regarding violations. -Many employers simply ask for resignations from errant workers to avoid scandal. -Occupational crime statistics are not kept on a systematic basis by any agency or association. -Probes of occupational wrongdoing by outsiders are usually greeted by secrecy.

Micro-anomie

-The individual is in a state of anomie -The individual places more emphasis on self-interest than collective values -Konty: students who favoured self-enhancing values over self-transcending values were more likely to have reported criminal and deviant acts introduced by Merton

Problems and limitations of Psychoanalytic Theory

-Theory is untestable (it relies on unobservable underlying constructs) -It is tautological (aggressive acts are seen as the result of impulses, but the evidence for impulses is aggressive acts) -Not all criminals suffer from guilt or anxiety

Corporate Fraud & Accounting Scandals: The financial collapse of 2008

-US financial institutions resisted increased regulation ▫ Thus, they took on excessive risk and engaged in reckless lending practices -A culture of greed ensued ▫ Extractive capitalism: corporations focused on making profits rather than social responsibilities -Ratings agencies defaulted on their responsibility -Global economy collapsed, trillions in capital were wiped out, millions were affected, gov't (taxpayer) bailouts ensued ▫ Yet no corporate executive was punished

Lombroso & Biological Positivism

-Used the scientific method (controlled observation) to study the causes of crime -compare criminals and noncriminals -Wrote The "Criminal Man"(1876) -Deterministic- Crime was caused by biological factors beyond the individual's control -These theories were accepted at the time because ▫ They were "scientific" ▫ They blamed the individual, not society (unlike the Statistical school), which appealed to the ruling class

Cyberterrorism (Baranetsky, 2009)

-Using a computer to orchestrate large-scale "attacks on information," including government or critical infrastructure servers or any database of interest to national securityCyberterrorism has the potential to permanently disrupt the economic or environmental stability of entire nations or regions ▫ This includes network attacks against critical infrastructure sites Cyberterrorism is one of the most pressing issues facing government and law enforcement today

Crimes by Organizations (Corporations) Against Employees

-Violations of Health & Safety Laws: -Black Lung (due to coal exposure) -Brown Lung (due to cotton mill exposure) -White Lung (due to asbestos exposure)

Extent of Corporate and WC Crime

-Violations of criminal laws, securities regulations, etc., have become common -Financial cost to victims and society is in the billions of dollars annually, far outstripping street crime -US banks, including Citigroup, were fined billions of dollars for their role in the 2008 economic crisis -Deaths and injuries also frequent from corporate irresponsibility and crime

Crimes by Organizations (Corporations) Against other Organizations

-Wartime Trade Violations -Cheating on Government Contracts -Income Tax Violations -Industrial Espionage -Illegal Competitive Practices

Social Control Theory: Focuses on

-Why we refrain from deviance -The processes that bind people to the social order

Hirschi and the Social Bond

-Wrote Causes of Delinquency (1969) -Individuals are more likely to turn to illegitimate means if their bonds to society are weak or broken -Four linked aspects of social bonds constrain our behaviour: • Attachment • Commitment • Involvement • Belief

Responding to White-collar crime

-corporate crime tends to be subject to different forms of control than conventional crime (dealt with through the civil courts rather than as criminal matters -terms like 'rule-breaking', 'violations of codes' and 'malpractice' are used. Such activities tend to be 'regulated' rather than 'policed' -is a range of agencies involved in the investigation of corporate crime -police and courts in many respects play a relatively minor role

George Vold (1958): Group Conflict Theory

-focuses on crime that occurs due to conflict between competing "interest" groups -Law-making is a political process involving conflict between interest groups -"Those who produce legislative majorities win control over the police power and dominate the policies that decide who is likely to be involved in violation of the law"

1950's

-illegal drug use was declining however the media published highly sensational accounts of drug addicted youth in Canada (Solomon and Green 1988:102) -drug addiction as a disease instead of a crime gained ground

Public sex- "Indecency"

-law against indecent acts spelled out in s. 173(1) of the Criminal Code under heading of "disorderly conduct" -Penalizes anyone who "willfully does an indecent act in a public place in the presence of one or more persons or in any place with the intent to insult or offend" -Indecency is not defined, left to court ruling -According to gay rights activist and professor Gary Kinsman- "indecent acts" almost always sexual -Contested private/public spaces where acts of "indecency" occur -Public spaces may include: ▫ motel rooms ▫ cars ▫ public toilets ▫ dark alley ▫ behind bushes in a park ▫ "private member" clubs? (no longer the case, R. v. Labaye [2005] "the Swingers case")

1969, the Commission of Inquiry into the Non Medical Use of Drugs (the Le Dain Commission)

-recommendation of the gradual withdrawal of criminalization of illegal drugs -recommended greater leniency for the crime of possession including the abolishment of imprisonment -recommended that the possession of cannabis should not be considered an offence

Now Criminalizes

-the purchase of sexual services (clients, sometimes also referred to as "johns") -communication in public for the purpose of prostitution by anyone -third parties in the sex industry who gain "material benefits from sexual services" -the advertisement of sexual services

Marginalization of the study of white collar crime

-there's less social and political interest (criminology tends to reflect powerful interests -White crime is covered less in the media, or if it is covered it's relegated to the business section of the papers -this behaviour is often a lot more private and hidden -it's not captured by crime statistics documenting recorded crime -requires specialized knowledge -university is becoming more corporatized and the knowledge it produces must be seen as having some market value, in this context criminologists might not want to challenge authorities

Strengths of Strain Theory

1) Drawing our attention to the social, cultural and economic circumstances that lead to crime 2) Pointing to the relationship between particular forms of social organization and particular levels of crime 3) Drew attention to the unintended consequences of the social goals of a drive for an individualistic economic achievements 4) Deminonstrated the vulnerability of the working class to and poorer communities to strain and crime

Three types of strain

1) Failure to achieve positively valued goals 2) Denial or removal of previously attained positive achievements (privileges, opportunities, relationships) 3) Exposure to negative or noxious stimuli (abusive relationships at home or work)

Criticisms of Strain Theory

1) Overemphasis on the crimes of the poor and the ignoring of the crimes of the powerful or middle class - such as corporate crime 2) Exaggerates the idea that financial success is the main goal or the general acceptance of middle-class values and the American dream 3) Doesn't' look closely enough to the socio-political circumstances of crime 4) Not clear how general anomie theory explains the crimes of the middle class 5) Not clear how it explains the variety of forms of offending- such as sexual violence 6) Generally doesn't take into consideration human agency 7) Doesn't look closely enough at how social control produce some people as deviants and others as not deviants

Becker's rule-breaking process

1) Rules are created by social groups, or moral entrepreneurs, and it is the infraction of these rules that creates deviance. 2) The rules are applied to particular people- typically people with power and legitimacy apply the rules to those without power and legitimacy 3) Those to whom the rules are applied are then labelled as 'outsiders' (the selection of particular people or groups is dependent on career contingencies- the situations or conditions that may affecting people's behaviours and are outside their control).

Shover and Hochstetler (2006): three components of middle-/upper-class lifestyle that contribute to criminal behaviour

1. Competitive spirit (winning is the only thing) 2. Arrogance (the rules don't apply to them) 3. A sense of entitlement (they deserve what they stole) -Fraud in large companies also perpetrated by junior employees (Ex: bank tellers (Hagan)

Quinney's Group Conflict Theory

1. Crime is a product of legal definitions 2. Crime is behaviour that conflicts with the interests of segments that have the power to shape policy 3. Powerful segments also enforce and administer the law 4. People in less powerful segments of society are more likely to have their behaviour criminalized 5. Conceptions of crime are constructed and diffused in the segments of society by various means of communication (the mass media) 6. The social reality of crime is constructed by the formulation and application of criminal definitions

Two classes of group conflict can result in criminal behavior

1. Crime occurs when there is a conflict between the behaviour of a minority group and the laws of the dominant majority 2. Crime occurs from conflict between competing interest groups vying for power

Albert Bandura (1977): aggression learned from three sources

1. Family (parents who are aggressive/abusive) 2. Subcultural influences (e.g., violence learned in tough neighbourhoods from role models or peers) 3. Symbolic modelling (e.g., watching television violence)

The school affects delinquency in two interrelated ways

1. It has taken over many of the occupational socialization functions formerly done by the family 2. The school is related to delinquency through its effects on children's daily lives The daily problems of coping with school failure have more impact on delinquency than how it may affect future occupational outcomes

Edwin Sutherland

1. People learn how to engage in crime 2. This learning comes about through interaction with others who have already learned criminal ways 3. The learning occurs in small, face-to-face groups 4. What is learned is criminal technique, motives, attitudes, and rationalizations 5. Among criminals, one important learned attitude is disregard for the community's legal code 6.One acquires this attitude by associating with those who hold it and not associating with those who don't 7. Differential associations with criminals and non-criminals vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity 8. Learning criminal behaviour rests on the same principles as learning any other kind of behaviour 9. Criminal behaviour is a response to the same cultural needs and values as non-criminal behaviour

Explaining white-collar and corporate crime

1. The behaviour of individuals (pleasure seeking, rationalization) 2. Ownership and authority positions within a corporation provide power and freedom from control that may be criminogenic 3. The nature and requirements of the organizations (corporate environment) 4. The structure and demands of the economic system (strain) (structure-profit before people) 5. Weakness of formal and informal controls over business activities 6. Low risk of prosecution and conviction, lenient penalties

Biological Theories in the Early 20th Century

1930s: Hooton- large samples of prisoners and others 1950s: Sheldon developed somatotype theory

1961 Narcotic Control Act

1960s US President Nixon declared a war on drugs (control through law enforcement) 1960s and 1970s, criminalization of drugs was challenged by the emerging "public health" movement ▫ large numbers of middle class youth were using illicit drugs recreationally without turning into dangerous lunatics

1980s

1980s drug scare driven by politics and re-enforced by the media, led to the development of the Canadian Drug Strategy (implemented in 1987) In 1986, President Ronald Reagan declared a "new war on drugs" in the US.

Trafficking

5. (1) No person shall traffic in a substance included in Schedule I, II, III or IV or in any substance represented or held out by that person to be such a substance. Possession for purpose of trafficking (2) No person shall, for the purpose of trafficking, possess a substance included in Schedule I, II, III or IV

Importing and exporting

6. (1) Except as authorized under the regulations, no person shall import into Canada or export from Canada a substance included in Schedule I, II, III, IV, V or VI.

Emile Durkheim & Crime

A certain amount of crime is normal and plays a number of important functions: -It has an adaptive function: it introduces new ideas and practices into society. -It has a boundary maintenance function: it reinforcing social values and norms.

Robert Merton & Anomie

Applied the idea of anomie to the American situation in 1938 Modified Durkheim- anomie theory became a theory of relative deprivation rather than a theory of a lack of norms and social regulation Relative deprivation - a gap in society in terms of goals individuals have and the appropriate means of achieving the goals

Social Control Theory: Hirschi

Attachment: affective ties with others -We refrain from crime because we don't want to hurt or embarrass people we like Commitment: the degree to which an individual pursues conventional goals -Deviance risks the time, energy, etc., invested in obtaining the goal Involvement: the degree to which an individual is active in conventional activities -People who are busy with pro-social activities (e.g. school, work, family) do not have time for deviance Belief: in conventional values and the legitimacy of the law -Absence of such belief makes deviance more possible

Operant Conditioning - Behaviourism

Based on work by B.F. Skinner (1904-90) Rewards and punishments can increase the probability of a given response -Reward reinforces a behaviour -Punishment weakens a behaviour This technique is used as the basis to change the antisocial behaviour of delinquents and criminals

Psychoanalytic Theory

Basic premise is that individuals go through different stages of development: (1) oral, (2) anal, (3) phallic, (4) latency (5) genital Associated with Sigmund Freud

Dangerous Policies From Biological Explanations

Biological explanations of crime could produce undesirable consequences such as: -Lower class citizens are punished more -Ignore flaws in the structure of society -Less concern for social programs -More jobs in the criminal justice system but it still remains inefficient -More jobs for Dr.s/ therapists to"correct" deficiencies

Corporate Fraud & Accounting Scandals: Bre-X: Canada's biggest stock fraud

Bre-X: Canada's biggest stock fraud -Bre-X: Canadian gold mining company in 1990s -David Walsh president of Bre-X claimed to have discovered the world's largest gold mines in Indonesia -The false information of the drilling tests and size of the reserves hit mutual fund companies -Many people invested in Bre-X shares and lost close to $6 billion dollars -In 1999 the RCMP announced it was ending its investigation without laying criminal charges against anyone

Sex Worker

Broader meaning than prostitute, includes; stripping, phone sex lines, pornography and prostitution

Marxist Criminologists' Causes of Crime

Cause of crime varies depending on the class position of the offender and the choices they make 1) Economics and State Crimes of the powerful 2) Economic and socio-cultural Crimes of the less powerful

Cybercrime and Routine Activities Theory Online

Certain correlates among victims: ▫ How much time they spend online and the nature of the virtual environments they visit Research on cyberbullying and cybervictimology must include the assessment of risk ▫ e.g., victims might be classified according to a continuum of risk tolerance: from infrequent to frequent users Digital media offer cyberbullies access to users who would normally not have face-to-face contact with them ▫ Traditional barriers between life stages are obscured, which leads to generational and demographic confusion ▫ This brings about unforeseen online collisions between groups of people with different values Online bullying is facilitated by digital environments that offer little in the way of suitable guardianship ▫ Who should be the guardians (parents, police, ISPs)? ▫ Bill C-30: expand police powers to conduct online surveillance (i.e., act as guardians of virtual spaces) ▫ Expanded police powers clashed with privacy issues, so the bill was withdrawn ▫ The future of guardianship on the Internet is now difficult to predict

Karl Marx (1818-1883)

Concerned with relations of production in industrial capitalist societies -Capitalist Class (bourgeoisie)-owned the means of production -Working Class (proletariat)-had to sell their labour in order to survive -Lumpenproletariat-a class of people who are denied productive work and thus their human nature -In our postindustrial, capitalist society, property, wealth and power become concentrated in fewer and fewer hands- those of the capitalist class

The legal classification of illicit drugs in Canada

Controlled Drugs and Substances Act (CDSA)- schedules I, II, III, IV, V -Schedule I: heroin, morphine, cocaine, codeine, and other similar substances -Schedule II: cannabis (marijuana) products -Schedule III: drugs like amphetamines, LSD, psilocybin and methamphetamines -Schedules IV & V include substances such as steroids and barbiturates -Substances listed in schedules IV & V can be possessed but must be obtained with a prescription, and are illegal to import, export or traffic, or to possess for the purpose of trafficking It is an offence to be in possession of any controlled substance listed in schedules 1, 2, or 3.

Typology of White-collar (Occupational Crime)

Crimes by Employees Against the Public Crimes by Employees Against Employees Crimes by Employees Against Organizations Employee Pilferage Embezzlement Crimes within organizations (By Individuals against the organization, or Offences against employees) Medicine Law Retail Stock Trading

Quinney's Typology of Crime (1977)

Crimes of domination -Crimes of control (police brutality, violations of civil liberties) -Crimes of government (warfare, political assassinations) -Crimes of economic domination (pollution, white collar or organized corporate crime) Crimes of accommodation & resistance -Predatory crimes (burglary & theft) -Personal crimes (robbery & homicide) -Crimes of resistance (protest, workplace sabotage, terrorism)

Theories of Moral Development

Criminal behaviour understood by focusing on how we develop (or fail to develop) a sense of morality and responsibility Jean Piaget (1932) Kohlberg Three levels & 6 stages of moral development

Critiques of Positivism

Determinism fails to take into account human decision-making, rationality and choice; avoids consideration of individual responsibility Differentiation assumption that offenders have some characteristics that will help identify them as criminal or non-criminal is reductive Pathology assumption that the difference between the criminal and the non-criminal is a result of something that has gone wrong in the life or circumstances of the former

Critiques

Deviant motives and meanings are often gradually learned and tentatively applied And modified over time in interactions with both deviants and non-deviants -Expressive reasons for committing crime (thrill and enjoyment) are ignored -Key concepts are hard to operationalize ▫ Such as the intensity and frequency of criminal associations

Instrumental and Structural Marxism

Different views on how state, and its institutions, work to maintain and reproduce the uneven divide

Problems with Classical thinking

Equal punishments for the same crime did not; -Allow for flexibility -Factor in personal considerations or mitigating circumstances of individual offenders (ex: incapacity, motives, personalities) -Classical thinking overlooked power imbalances and inequality that may give rise to or influence decisions to commit a crime -Does not account for bureaucratization of the criminal justice system -Does not account for vested interests -Denies that Utilitarianism can go astray

Paraphilias

Erotomania—physical stalking of a person (offline) vs. cyberstalking (online) Exhibitionism—flashing (offline) vs. sexting (online) Scopophilia (voyeurism)—secretly watching others (offline) vs. use of smartphone to secretly record or photograph people (online) Scatologia—obscene phone calls (offline) vs. cyberbullying, cybermobbing, and Internet trolling (online) -Understanding of new media exposes how electronic manifestations of identified paraphilias have no clear offline referent. -Thus, they are more difficult to define and to legislate

Strain Theory

Fits with the Consensus perspective -Crime is a social phenomenon -Crime is caused by social disjuncture, or social processes that represent social strain within a society -Main focus of analysis is strain associated with "structural opportunities" and "cultural processes" -Crime is caused by a strain on society -Structural opportunities partially produced by the lack of opportunities to achieve certain goals -Cultural processes strain as the result of cultural norms and practices falling apart or being interrupted

Sex In Public Places: An Order Maintenance Problem? Fred Desroches (1991)

Fred Desroches (1991) -Studied tearooms and how police responded to the activities in the public restrooms -Argues that in the past several years police have invoked the crime control model of enforcement -Police used intrusive surveillance techniques -Police publicized the accused persons' names -Given the minimal harms of the offense vs. the harms of criminalization less intrusive responses are recommended

Effect of Drugs & Drug laws

International Centre for Science in Drug Policy, governmental efforts to control and limit drug use have in large failed - potency and quality of each of the drugs increased - street drugs seen marked reductions in their street prices - Illicit status fuels criminal markets characterized by violence - Increases harm associated with use - Fuelled corruption and contributed to political and economic instability across the world

Learning theories: Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov (1890s) - salivating dogs experiment Eysenck's Theory of Crime and Personality

Spitzer (1975): Crimes of the Powerless

Marxian theory of deviance Criminalization of behaviour is often directed at problem populations that arise in capitalist societies: ▫ Surplus populations ▫ Those who disturb capitalism, such as student radicals Problem populations become candidates for deviance processing when they disturb, hinder, or call into question: capitalist modes of production, social conditions within capitalism, etc.

Robert Merton & Anomie Continued

Merton shifted focus to opportunity structures -Crime was primarily lower class, so less evenly distributed than Durkheim would have predicted Society has two parts -Cultural structure (goals of society) -Social structure (means by which goals are pursued) 'A strain to Anomie' -Disjunction between goals and means creates strain -Crime is the result of the gap between culturally prescribed aspirations and the socially structured means of realizing the aspirations

The search for inherited characteristics

Negative eugenics suggested that the gene pool could be improved by: 1) Permanent segregation; 2) Sterilisation; 3) Restrictive marriage restraints; 4) Restrictive immigration policies.

Limitations of the Classical School

Neoclassical Theory

White-collar Crimes

Occupational (White Collar crimes): Commercial crimes committed by people within corporations or businesses during the course of their employment for personal gain (such as embezzlement)

Responses to Strain

People respond to strain in 5 different ways (some deviant, some not) -Conformity; innovation; ritualism; retreatism; rebellion

Early Biological positivism: Physiognomy & Phrenology

Physiognomy- the study of facial features and their links to crime Phrenology - using the shape of the skull/bumps on the skull to determine whether these physical attributes are linked to criminal behaviour

Contemporary Biological positivism

Present day study's of link between a range of biological, biochemical and psysiological factors with possible links to offending ▫ Ex: genetic influences, neurological abnormalities, or biochemical irregularities

Cesare Beccaria On Crime and Punishments (1764)

Prevention/deterrence of crime is a result of: -certainty (how likely punishment is to occur); -celerity (swiftness, how quickly punishment is inflicted); -severity (how much 'pain' is inflicted).

The Deviant Career Edward Lemert (1969)

Primary & Secondary Deviance

Different Legislative responses to Drugs

Prohibition, partial prohibition, decriminalization, medicalization and legalization

Prostitution vs. Sex Work

Prostitution = exchange of sex for money and other things of value (such as meals, housing, or drugs- but not typically dinner, clothes jewelry) Sex worker" has broader meaning than "prostitute ▫ stripping, phone sex lines, and pornography, prostitution "Prostitute" invokes intense social stigma and therefore can reinforce discrimination

Emile Durkheim, Social Formations and Social Change (1938)

Societies operate in one of two ways: mechanical solidarity or organic solidarity -Both societies are characterized by a particular form of collective conscience -The nature of the society in which one lives will determine how deviants are dealt with

Neoclassical Theory

Sought more flexibility in the justice system, such as individualizing sentences to take into account: -Offender characteristics (ex age) -Mitigating circumstances (mental competence) -Motive -Judges were given more discretion -Still no real consideration of structural factors

Pharmacology divides drugs into

Stimulants - ('Uppers') which activate the nervous system (crack, cocaine and amphetamines). Depressants - ('Downers') which, on the contrary, depress the nervous system and are generally used to reduce anxiety and induce sleep (barbiturates and benzodiazepines). Analgesics - Which are mainly used in pain relief (opium, morphine, heroin). Hallucinogens - Which tend to alter perceptions and emotions (LSD, magic mushrooms and ecstasy).

White-collar Offenders

Sutherland- WCC largely of "elite status"

Laud Humphreys (1970) The Tearoom Trade: Impersonal Sex in Public Places

Tearooms: Public bathrooms that are frequently used by men for impersonal & anonymous sexual encounters (mostly oral sex) with other men Men from diverse social backgrounds; varying personal motives for seeking sexual interactions with men; range of self-perceptions as straight, bisexual or gay; married and single; professional and working class

Eysenck's Theory of Crime and Personality

The dimensions of personality: -extraversion vs. introversion -neuroticism vs. stability -Psychoticism -Extraverted, neurotic, and psychotic persons are more likely to be delinquent or criminal However, research shows mixed results in their association with crime

Schooling

The school plays a primary role in socialization and is an important determinant of delinquency •Those who are successful enjoy the experience, are rewarded, and have a stake in conformity •Those who fail may be rejected by peers and adult world and have less stake in conformity The correlation between school failure and delinquency is strong

Assessing the Contributions of the Classical School: The Classical School and Legal Reform

These reforms provided the foundation for the modern criminal justice system: -Equality before the law -Guarantee of one's rights -Establishment of fixed penalties -Due process safeguards -Separation of judicial and legislative systems

Kohlberg Three levels & 6 stages of moral development

Three Levels -Preconventional: the roles and social expectations are external to the individual -Conventional: the person understands and accepts and upholds rules of society -Postconventional: the person critically examines customs from chosen principles; few attain this level 6 stages of moral development: 1.Preconventional: act out of self interest 2.Late Preconventional: individuals become more practical 3.Conventional: strive for social approval 4. Late Conventional: the conscience develops a sense of duty to society 5.Postconventional: appreciates larger principles and rights of individuals 6.Late Postconventional: individuals are oriented to decisions of conscience and ethical principles

Crimes by Organizations/Corporations Against Individuals (the Public)

Types of Corporate Crime: -price fixing -commercial bribery -corporate dumping Specific Examples: -Chrysler Corporation -General Electric -Ford Motor Company -Hormel Plant -tax violations -fraud against government -crimes against consumers

History of Drug Laws in Canada

Use of opiates unregulated up until The Opium Act in Canada in 1908 ▫ indictable offence to import, manufacture, offer to sell, sell, or possess to sell opium for no- medical purposes ▫ simple possession and use were not prohibited Opium Act repealed 1911 & replaced with harsher Opium and Drugs Act ▫ harsher penalties for drug offenders ▫ expanded the list of prohibited drugs to include Morphine and cocaine

Prohibition

a criminal offence to produce, import distribute or possess controlled substances for non-medical purposes.

Partial prohibition

adults would be permitted to possess a defined amount of certain drugs and to cultivate up to a specified number of plants.

Conflict perspective

criminal law reflects the interests of the powerful groups that create and enforce those laws

Prostitution

exchange of sex for money and other things of value (such as meals, housing, or drugs- but not typically dinner, clothes jewelry)

Medicalization

exemptions to criminal offences for the medical management of drug dependence, such as in the use of methadone for opioid dependence.

Consensus perspective

most people share similar values; morality is universal, customs persist, and the law represents a codification of societal values

Secondary deviance

occurs when the response leads them to see themselves as deviant, to adopt this as their master status, and to then act on this basis.

1996

the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act (Bill C8) was voted into law

Primary deviance

the simple commission of a prohibited act. This is something that pretty much everybody does and most of the time is unlabelled, meaning that the people concerned don't develop a deviant identity.

Structural perspective

the state is neither completely free of control by the dominant classes nor dominated by them

Legalization/regulation

this refers to a system in which no aspect of the production-possession cycle is an offence for any substance.

Decriminalization

usually used in the context of possession; refers to the absence of criminal charges for small quantities of certain drugs.

Instrumental perspective

view criminal law and the criminal justice system as instruments for controlling the poor, have-not members of society

Strength of family ties

▫ Warm, affectionate family relationships are associated with low rates of delinquency ▫ Mutual rejection and hostility are typical of the families of delinquents