Critical Thinking Exam 2 Review

How many steps to constructing an argument?

1. State the issue. 2. Develop a list of premises. 3. Eliminate weak or irrelevant premises. 4. Establish a conclusion. 5. Organize your argument. 6. Try out your argument. 7. Revise your argument. 8. Put your solution or conclusion into action.

What percentage of our food contains added sugar?

80

Hypothetical Syllogism

A form of a deductive argument that contains two premises, one of which is a hypothetical or conditional "if... then" statement.

Amphiboly

A grammatical mistakes in an argument that allows more than one conclusion to be drawn.

Equivocation

A key term in an argument changes meaning during an argument.

Premise

A proposition in an argument that supports the conclusion. Good premises are based on fact and experience, not opinion or assumptions. Ex, Winning the super bowl means your team is the best in the NFL.

Red Hearing Fallacy

A response is directed towards a conclusion that is different from that proposed by the original argument.

Categorical Syllogism

A type of deductive argument that categorizes or sorts things into specific classes such as mammals, students, or countries.

Polls

A type of survey that involves collecting opinions or information on a subject from a sample group for the purposes of analysis.

Sound Argument

An argument is valid and the premises are true.

Descriptive

Are based on empirical facts, scientific observation and evidence of our five senses.

Self-Selected Sampling

Are more likely to be biased. Ex, news network, corporations.

Example of Fallacy of Ambiguity

Arguments have uncertain phrases or sloppy grammatical structure.

Loaded Question

Assumes a particular answer to another unasked question.

Questionable cause

Assuming, without sufficient evidence, that one thing is the use of another. Also known as the "post hoc" fallacy.

Example of Fallacy of Division

Bob is a Republican and Republicans are all pro-life.

Casual Argument

Claims something is, or is not, the cause of something.

Evaluating Arguments

Clarity, Credibility, Relevance, Completeness, and Soundness.

Analogical

Comparison is made between two similar events or things. Ex, Capitalists are like vampires.

Fallacy of Ambiguity

Contain arguments with vague words or phrases, sloppy grammar, and confusion between closely related concepts.

Prescriptive

Contain value statements about what ought or ought not to be done. Ex, The NFL should hire more black coaches, marijuanna should be recreationally legalized.

Definitional

Contains the definition of a key term.

Types of premises

Descriptive, prescriptive, analogical, and definitional.

Cause

Event that brings about change or effect.

Random Sampling

Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Deductive

Facts

Which fallacy occurs when responses to complex issues are reduced to an either or choice?

False Dilemma

Positive Correlation

If one variable increases as the other increases. Ex, time spent studying and grades on exams.

Slippery Slope

If we allow a certain action, then all actions of this type, even the most extreme ones, will be permissible.

Example of deductive reasoning

If you brush and floss your teeth daily then you will have fewer cavities. Martha brushes and flosses her teeth daily. Thus, she will have fewer cavities.

Amy is unsure what to order while standing in line at chick fil a. It is her first time visiting the restaurant, so she listens to what other people order as she waits. Seven out of ten people order the #3 meals, so Amy assumes it must be good. What type of argument is Amy using in this example?

Inductive

Ad Hominem

Instead of presenting a counterargument, we attack the character of the person making the argument.

Secondary Deviance

Kleptomaniac, meth addict.

Chain Argument

Made up of three conditional propositions, two premises and one conclusion, linked together. Ex. If it rains tomorrow, then the beach party is cancelled.

Fallacy of Division

Making erroneous inference from the characteristics an entire group about one member.

Example of Fallacy of Accent

Meaning of argument changes according which word or phrase is emphasized.

3 facts from fed up documentary

Medicine benefits from unhealthy foods. 2 out of 3 Americans are obese or overweight. They where able to sell 30 million more cheese by promoting it more in different ways.

Example of Loaded Question

Nursing is the hardest major, did you know that?

Modus Ponens

One conditional premise, a second premise that states the antecedent, consequent, or the then part, of the first premise. Ex: If I get this raise at work, then I can pay off my credit-card balance. Premise 2: I got the raise at work. Conclusion: Therefore, I can pay off my credit-card balance.

Negative Correlation

One variable decreases as the other increases. Ex, The less education you have, the more likely you are to spend time in prison. Plot points on a graph and use the best fitting line to see correlation.

Consumption

Opposite direction of the fallacy of division. ex: Bob believes the 2020 election was stolen. All republicans must believe the 2020 election was stolen.

The Halo Effect

Rein forms and distinguished titles reinforce the idea that being knowledgeable in one field equates with knowledge in other areas. ex: Doctors, president, professor, and lieutenant general.

Self-serving errors

Respondents want to paint themselves in the most favorable light.

When politicians make attempts to sway or persuade voters by highlighting a very biased, specific point of view, this is called?

Rhetoric

Argument by Elimination

Rules out different possibilities until only one remains.

Inductive

Sample (not sure)

Sampling

Selecting only some members of a class or group and then making generalizations about population overall.

Primary Deviance

Speeding, running a red light.

Push Poll

Starts by presenting the pollsters' views before asking for a response.

Example of inductive reasoning

The Giants have lost their last seven games. Thus, they will probably lose their next game.

Appeal to Ignorance

The claim that something is simply true because no one has proven it false or that something is false because no one has proven it true.

Disjunctive Syllogism

The conclusion is based on a mathematical or geometrical calculation.

Arguments from Definition

The conclusion is true because it is based on a key term or essential attribute in a definition.

Deductive Argument

The conclusion necessarily follows the premises. Words and phrases like "certainly, definitely, absolutely, conclusively, must be".

Begging the Question

The conclusion of an argument is simply a rewording of a premise.

Modus Tollens

The second premise denies the consequent, and the conclusion denies the truth of the antecedent.

Dysjunctive Syllogism

Two alternatives presented in the first premise, rather than 3 or more. Either A or B, not A, therefore B.

Appeal to Force

Use threat in an attempt to get another person to accept our conclusion as correct.

Fallacy

When an argument appears to be correct but I further examination is found to be incorrect.

Accent

When the meaning of an argument changes according which word or phrase is emphasized.

Generalization

When we draw a conclusion about certain characteristics or a group or populations on the basis of a sample from that group.

Slanted Question

Written in such a way that it aims to elicit a particular response.