crjs 355
Victim- Offender Reconciliation Programs
- Brings victims and attackers together- mediators facilitate face-to-face negotiations that lead to agreements - based on settling complaints through non- coercive means - victim impact statements- Federal Crime Act of 1994 - victims make a statement about experience before the sentencing judge - the idea is that victims have the right to influence the outcome
Panopticon
- Circular building w/ cells clearly visible - Built near cities as a reminder/deterrent - Created to give management optical views
Critique of Neoclassical Theory
- Does not explain why crime has also decreased in areas in which there were no such policies. - Decline may also be an artifact of the measuring process or be due to demographic changes in the U.S. population - Backed by philosophy, not by science
Self Report Surveys
- Participants are asked to describe, in detail, their recent and lifetime participation in criminal activity Strength: can provide information on personal characteristics of offenders Weakness: relies on honesty of criminal offenders and drug abusers, a population not generally know for accuracy and integrity
Early biological theories focused on:
- Physical features and traits (body type, facial features, etc.) - Inheritance; "crime runs in the fam"
Bentham's An Intro to the Principles of Moral Legislation:
- Punishment must outweigh the pleasure of the crime - Punishment must not be too great nor too light - Hedonistic calculus
Critique of Rational Choice Theory
- Rational choice theory does not adequately consider the impact of emotional states on cognitive ability or the role of psychopharmacological agents (for example, alcohol) in decision-making - Rational choice theory assumes that everyone is equally capable of making rational decisions - There is an overemphasis on individual choice and a relative disregard for the role of social factors in crime causation
Why did Positivism Decline?
- Robert Martinson's "nothing-works" doctrine - James Wilson's argument that crime is not the result of social conditions, therefore it cannot be solved by social programs
Comprehensive Crime Control Act and Victims of Crime Act (1984)
- authorized federal funding for state victim- witness assistance programs - victim compensation - victim advocation - victim counseling - public education - crisis intervention
Ronald Reagan Task Force on Victims (1982)
- balancing victims' rights with defendants' due process - providing victims and witnesses with protection from intimidation - requiring restitution in criminal cases - developing guidelines for fair treatment of victims and witnesses - expanding victim compensation programs
NCVS (National Crime Victimization Survey)
- large nationally representative sample of 136,000 interviews conducted annually - collects information on crimes suffered by individuals and households, regardless of whether the crimes were reported to the police - includes information on victims, offenders, and crimes Strengths: includes unreported crimes, and important information on the personal characteristics of victims Weakness: Limited samples, and relies upon reporter accuracy
Cessare Beccaria (1738- 1794)
- people choose all behavior, including criminal behavior - people's choices are designed to bring them pleasure and reduce pain - criminal choices can be controlled by fear of punishment - the more severe, certain, and swift the punishment, the greater its ability tot control criminal behavior - punishment must be proportional to the seriousness of the crimes; if not, people would commit more serious offenses- known today as marginal deterrence
Just Deserts Model
- punishment is needed to preserve the social equity disturbed by crime - punishment should prevent more misery than it inflicts - retribution justifies punishment because people deserve what they get for past deeds - punishment based on Deterrence or incapacitation is wrong because it involves an offender's future actions, which cannot accurately be predicted
Omnibus Victim and Witness Protection Act
- required the use of victim impact statement at federal criminal case sentencing - protection for witnesses - stringent bail laws - restitution
Components of criminological theory and definition (articulated and unarticulated)
-Articulate: formal, written, explicit content, theoretical concepts are linked by relationship statements -Unarticulated: implicit assumption that underlies theory; assumption of social order/human nature
Articulated and Unarticulated Propositions
-Articulated: people commit crime when the benefits of committing a crime outweigh the cost of committing the crime -Unarticulated: implicit assumptions that underlie the theory (assumption of social order/human nature)
Major scholars in the classical school and their view of crime, criminal law, and punishment
-Beccaria: author of deterrence theory; emphasized focusing on criminal act when determining punishment; critique of existing CJ procedures (arbitrary/harsh, cruel, and unusual punishment); condemned obscure law, too much judicial power, coerced confessions and harsh punishments; focus on criminal act, not person, limiting discretions of authorities -Bentham: mitigating factors (age, mental stability/capacity, etc.) in discussion of ineffective punishments; punishment is ineffective if it has no impact on individual's will to commit crimes -crime reflects free exercise of human reason in the pursuit of pleasure; people are purposeful and act with intent
Biological positivism v sociological positivism
-Biological Positivism: focuses on physical and mental inferiority and delinquency and crime (physical = body type, mental = feeblemindedness) -Sociological Positivism: --
Bounded rationality and subjective expected utility principle
-Bounded Rationality: limited, flawed rationally; reasoning versus rationality; thoughtfully reflective decision making -Subjective Rationality: expected costs/benefits
Evidence for capital v non-capital sanctions
-Capital Sanctions: no evidence of a deterrent effect, more recent evidence - existing evidence cannot conclude on general deterrent effect of capital sanctions; death penalty -Non-capital Sanctions: marginal, collective overall deterrent effects in CJS, weak to moderate effect, targeted place based findings are strongest; all other legal penalties; strongest during interrupted time studies
Causal interference; determinism; soft determinism
-Causal Interference: cause X must precede and produce effect Y; casual nature of relationship -Determinism: behavior is caused by forces external to individual -Soft Determinism: combines determinism and free will approach; allows for human agency and recognizes that various factors influence and limit actions but leave room for individual choices that cannot be completely predicted
Certainty, severity, celerity and proportionality
-Certainty: probability of apprehension and punishment of a crime -Severity: punishment proportional to the harm caused to society -Celerity: swiftness in which criminal sanctions are applied after commission of a crime -Proportionality: legislature should enact an exact scale of crimes with an exact scale fo threatened punishment, without regard to individual differences
Differences between classical and positivistic schools; what does each focus on as a cause of delinquency
-Classical: focus on how legal sanctions impact behavior -Positivistic: focus on how non-legal factors impact behavior (biological, psychological, environmental)
View of crime during medieval era and approach to punishment (types of prevalent punishments)
-Compurgation: swear innocence, get 12-25 people to plea on your behalf of innocence -Trial by Ordeal: through divine intervention, god will save innocent people -punishments were focused on physical, public and excessive punishment
Three types of sociological paradigms
-Consensus: assumes that social institutions represent our interests (Emil Durkheim) -Conflict: assumes that institutions fuel economic power and interests (Karl Marx) -Change: way that we view a particular question
Correlation v Causation
-Correlation: relationship between two sets of variables -Causation: cause and effect; first action creates second action CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUATE TO CAUSATION
Criminology v Criminal Justice
-Criminology: tends to focus on etiology of criminality, antisocial behavior, criminal offending and crime (causes, correlates, risk factors of criminal behavior) -Criminal Justice: tends to focus on control of law breaking (formal social reactions to control crime)
cross-sectional v longitudinal data/research
-Cross-Sectional: observations/measurements collected at one point in time -Longitudinal: collection of extended observations over time
Deterrence effects v experiential effects
-Deterrence Effect: risk perception influence behavior (perception of risk impact the decision to offend) -Experiential Effect: prior experience influences risk perception (experience with punishment or punishment avoidance impacts perception of risk of getting caught); stronger than deterrence (led to reconceptualization of deterrence, need for longitudinal data, perception of risk change over time)
Displacement and Diffusion
-Displacement: crime moves from one location to another -Diffusion: when benefits of target hardening at a "hot spot" spreads to nearby locations
Experiential Effect v Deterrent Effect
-Experiential Effect: effect of prior behavior on current perceptions of the certainty of arrest (stronger than deterrent) -Deterrent Effect: perceptions of certainty on subsequent behavior
General, specific, absolute and restricted (marginal) deterrence
-General Deterrence: state's punishment of offenders serves as an example to those in the general public who have no yet committed a crime, instilling in them enough fear of state punishment to deter them from crime -Specific Deterrence: apprehended and punished offenders will refrain from repeating crimes if they are certainly caught and severely punished -Absolute Deterrence: existence of a system that provides punishment for wrongdoing deters an unknown about of crime, this effect of the chance of punishment versus no punishment at all -Restricted (Marginal) Deterrence: reduction in frequency and severity of offending; refrain from engaging in certain types of crime; obey law because fearful of the punishment
General v Typological
-General: crime centered -Typological: criminal centered
Ideals of enlightenment movement and consequences of the enlightenment movement for criminological theory
-Ideals: humans are rational, hedonistic and exercise free will, be critical of authority, positivism and scientific method -contributed to French Revolution of 1791
Informal and formal costs, benefits
-Informal: costs from others (ex: embarrassment, loss of respect); moral sanctions (ex: shame, self-imposed) -Formal: legal sanctions (ex: punishment)
Legal v Normative Definition of Crime
-Legalistic: crime is a human act that violates the criminal laws of a state, local jurisdiction or federal government (any gov. body) that has the power to make laws. -Normative: offenses against human relationships/harmful to society
Main scholar associated with RAT and articulated and unarticulated propositions
-Marcus Felson and Lawrence Cohen -motivated offender + suitable target + absence of capable guardian = crime -for a personal/property crime to occur, must be at the same time and place: perpetrator + victim/object
Medieval Approach v Enlightenment
-Medieval: no formal writing code; spiritualistic approach to explaining human savior (law based in God-given law --> crime = sin; offender is sinner) -Enlightenment: challenged traditional/religious authority, spiritualistic approaches, corruption, nepotism/simony, raised questions about society/social order
Level of Analysis
-Micro Units: addresses broader questions about small groups/individual differences -Macro Units: addresses broader questions about differences across societies/major groups
Types of Causes (necessary and sufficient)
-Necessary: variable must be present for effect to follow (X must be present for Y to follow) -Sufficient: variable, if present, essentially guarantees effect will occur (X guarantees Y occurs)
difference between objective and subjective (perceptual) deterrence studies
-Objective: measures severity and certainty of criminal penalties; use objective indicators from official CJ statistics (risk is measure by arrest rate, severity measured by maximum sentence provided by law for offense by average sentence length to crime); deterrence predicts inverse/negative relationship between these official measures of legal penalties and official crime rate measured by crimes known to police (if high, crime rates should be low) -Subjective: measure individual's subjective perception of legal penalties; one's perception of risk for violations is influenced somewhat by information regarding objective certainty of sanction; focuses on micro and macro levels of risk
Retribution, deterrence and moral education
-Retribution: fair payment exacted for the committing of crimes -Deterrence: theory created by Beccaria; punishment that is proportional, certain, swift and severe will deter law-breaking; the purpose of criminal law is to deter people from committing crime -Moral Education: protecting society from acts that threaten the social order; punishment vindicates and reinforces social order; teaches what norms are appropriate and what are inappropriate
Similarities/differences in classical and positivistic schools
-Similarities: identifying factors, within and outside of the control of the individual, that lead to crime -differences: classical = legal sanctions, positivism = non-legal factors
Situational crime prevention techniques and target hardening
-Situational Crime Prevention: techniques designed to reduce opportunities for crime; environmental crime prevention -Target Hardening: leads to displacement (crime moves from one location to another); hot spot (spreads to surrounding area)
Spiritual approach v natural/scientific approach to explaining human behavior
-Spiritual: criminal law based in God given natural law; crime = sin; offender = sinner -Scientific: --
Definition of temporal ordering and spuriousness
-Temporal Ordering: X must precede Y (cause must precede effect) -Spuriousness: false; correlation between X and Y is NOT due to another variable
Major scholar associated with enlightenment movement and views of human nature, crime and social contract
-Thomas Hobbes: relied on naturalistic approach; all are hedonistic; crime and victimization are a natural act; natural state of affairs is a war of "every man against every man"; social contract arises out of fear of death and violence (Leviathan and absolute sovereignty) -enter in social contract because we fear each other; need social contract because we are all self-serving -Locke
Three Criteria of Causation
-X related to Y: X correlated with Y -X must precede Y: temporal ordering -correlation between X and Y is not due to another variable
Stafford and Warr's modification to deterrence theory (experiences with punishment and non-punishment)
-argued both types of deterrence can apply to same person, because general and specific deterrence are experiences that can apply to everyone -general and specific deterrence should refer to different types of kinds of punishment and non-punishment experiences: 1. personal experience with punishment: direct personal experience with punishment that should stop crime 2. personal experience with non-punishment: engaging in crime freely will cause recommit 3. vicarious experience with punishment: punishment can still deter behavior; death penalty teaches society to not do crimes (idea) [general deterrence] 4. vicarious experience with non-punishment: continually see others not punished, increase likelihood we commit crime
Measurement of concepts, types of data used, evidence for elements of punishment
-bulk of cross-sectional perceptual research provides support for deterrence (weak to moderate, consistent findings for risk perceptions of certainty) -longitudinal perceptual research provides weaker support for deterrence (experiential effects stronger; differential effects for "seasoned" offenders) -inclusion of non-deterrence variables weakens the effects of deterrence variables
Major points on Beccaria's Essay
-critiques existing CJ procedures (arbitrary and capricious; harsh, cruel, unusual punishments) -condemned obscure laws, too much judicial power, coerced confessions and harsh punishments -proposed a series of reforms to criminal law (adopted by French legal code of 1791) -clearly defined law, focus on the criminal act (not the person), limiting discretion of authorities -punishment should serve the purpose of deterrence -laws must be explicit and available to the public -advocated for jury trials -punishment should be proportional, certain, swift and severe
what does each suggest about punishment/treatment of delinquency/crime?
-focused on physical and mental inferiority and delinquency and crime (physical = body type, mental = feeblemindedness) -forces outside the control of the individual influence delinquent and criminal offending
How does RCT expand deterrence theory? how does it reflect deterrence theory plus more?
-focuses on choice and decision-making -explain involvement and event decisions -expands possible range of punishments to include informal punishment and benefits of crime
View of human nature and social order
-human nature: people are rational (reasoning) and hedonistic; weigh good and bad without making decision; all of us equally want to commit a crime to seek out the benefits -social order: consensus; free will and individual choice
Policy implications of deterrence theory
-involve manipulation of punishment (formal sanctions) -increased penalties, more severe sentences, more police, death penalty
Evidence for deterrence theory, types of deterrence studies (ecological, interrupted, etc.)
-most studies of objective deterrence have examined only certainty and severity of punishment (objective measures = actual CJ sanctions) -certainty measures arrest rate, proportion of those arrested that are convicted -severity measures maximum sentence, sentence length, proportion of convicted offenders sent to prison vs non-incarcerated -ecological: compare areas with each other (state that has death penalty vs not and compare with bodily crime); police jurisdictions compare crime rates -interrupted: look at RVA and see how crime starts before intervention and after (decrease crime when there, increased when leave but not as much crime as before police) -brutalization effect: death penalty increasing violent crime
Evidence of RCT
-strong, negative correlation between informal sanction and crime -positive correlation between perceived benefits of crime and crime -effects of cost/benefits vary across individuals (effect of sanctions are limited among individuals with a short time horizon; decision making impacted by individual traits)
what are the four types of criminals advanced by Lombroso? Describe each
1- born criminals (having atavistic characteristics) 2-insane criminals (idiots, imbeciles, paranoiacs, epileptics, alcoholics) 3-occasional criminals/ criminaloids (explained by opportunity) 4-criminals of passion (criminals that are characterized by being propelled to crime by an irresistible force)
Please describe Merton's typology of modes of individual adaptation. (chp 4)
1- conformity 2-innovation 3-ritualism 4- retreatism 5- rebellion
what are techniques of neutralization? List and provide examples of the 5 specific techniques of neutralization originally set forth by Sykes and Matza
1- denial of responsibility; things out of my control made me break the law 2- denial of injury; my act did not injury anymore 3-denial of the victim; the act was deserved so it wasn't wrong for the situation 4- condemnation of the condemners; its okay to break the law because the system is already messed up 5- appeal to higher loyalties; I felt like I had to break the law to help someone else, wasn't for personal needs
Agnew extended Merton's strain theory by identifying three different types of strain. What are the three types? (chp 4)
1- failure to achieve positively valued goals 2- actual or anticipated removal of positively valued stimuli 3- actual or anticipated presentation of negative stimuli
Reckless discusses 2 sources of criminal motivation. In a few sentences and in your own words, please describe each source
1- push; the state you're in (physically, emotionally, and mentally) can PUSH you to get into trouble 2- pull; peer pressure, trying to be/ act like someone you're not can PULL you Into criminal activities
During the 1950s, Skyes and Matza turned attention to two related issues. What were these issues?
1- social pressures causing delinquency 2- delinquency occurred throughout class structure not inner city slums
Community Organization
1. Community Organizes at the neighborhood level against crime- block watches and neighborhood patrols are examples 2. Victims' Rights - notified of proceedings and status of defendant - present at proceedings - make a statement - receive restitution - be consulted before dismissal or plea agreement - right to a speedy trial - victims contact information should remain confidential 3. The Development of Offender registry
Seven ways of evaluating theory
1. Scope: range of phenomena that it proposes to explain 2. Parsimony: conciseness and abstractness of a set of concepts and propositions 3. Empirical Falsification: open to evidence that may counter/disprove its hypothesis with negative finding; not falsifiable in this sense (not testable) 4. Tautology: statement/hypothesis that is true by definition/involves circular reasoning 5. Empirical Validity: theory supported by research evidence 6. Internally Consistent: clearly defined concepts and propositions logically stated 7. Social Validity: refer to social importance and acceptability of treatment goals, procedures and outcomes
Link between Victimization and Crime
1. Victimization causes social problems- unemployment, strain in personal relationships, factors related to criminality 2. Victimization causes stress and anger- victimization, PTSD, those low in self- control may use drugs and alcohol to self- medicate 3. Victimization prompts revenge- victims may seek revenge for what happened to them; retaliation is expected in some cultures 4. Spurious relationship- crime victims and offenders are separate groups; appears to be a connect because they are from the same neighborhood and live the same lifestyles
Rate of Victimization for Child Maltreatment
9.1 per 1000 Boys and girls experience abuse at similar rates (except fatal injuries among boys and black children) Most vulnerable between 4-7 and 12-15 Highest rate of victimization under the age of 1 Victims are primarily white, Hispanic, or black Black children experience highest rates of maltreatment
Klinefelter's Syndrome
A disorder resulting from the presence of an extra X chromosome that produces underdeveloped genitals, extreme height, and enlarged breasts
Evidence-Based Criminology
A form of contemporary criminology that makes use of rigorous social scientific techniques, especially randomized controlled experiments, and the systematic review of research results; also called knowledge-based criminology.
Translational Criminology
A form of criminology whose purpose is to translate the results of research into workable social policy.
Structuring Criminality
A number of personal factors condition people to choose crime - peers and guardianship - excitement and thrills - economic opportunity - learning and experience - knowledge of criminal techniques- avoid detection
Hot Spots
A place where potentially motivated criminals congregate thereby elevating the chances of victimization
Criminalist
A specialist in the collection and examination of the physical evidence of crime
Situational Choice Theory
A variation of rational choice theory that argues that the individual decision to engage in criminal activities is shaped by the opportunities, risks, & benefits - the situation - attached to certain types of crimes
Incapacitiation- Does Incarceration Control Crime?
Advocates: the growth in the prison/jail population is directly responsible for the decade-long decline in the crime rate Opponents: little evidence that incapacitation deters future crimes
Crime Patterns
Age: people tend to commit less crime as they age Gender: emotional, physical, and psychological differences to explain crime relate differences (Masculinity Hypothesis and Chivalry Hypothesis) Race: minorities involved in a disproportionate share of criminal activity. Minorities are arrested and prosecuted more than whites. Economic and Social Disparities: racial and ethnic differentials may be tied to economic and social disparity, family dissolution
Criminology
An interdisciplinary profession built around the scientific study of crime and criminal behavior, including their forms, causes, legal aspects, and control.
Mesomorph
Athletic and muscular, larger bones; most likely to be associated w/ crime
General Theory of Crime
Based on the assumption that lack of self-control is the core factor in criminal behavior.
Pluralist Perspective
Behaviors are typically criminalized through a political process only after debate over the appropriate course of action
Situational Crime Prevention— Benefits and Costs
Benefit: Diffusion and displacement Costs: displacement, extinction, and encouragement
Who proposed a theory of Atavism?
Cesare Lombroso
Who proved Lombroso's theory wrong?
Charles Buckman Goring
History of Law
Code of Hammurabi- first written criminal code developed around 2000 BCE, Punishment was bas on retribution "An eye for an eye" Mosaic Code- God entered into a covenant with the Israelites- they had to obey his law, was the foundation for Judeo-Christian moral teachings and the basis for the US legal system.
CRAVED model
Concealable, removable, available, valuable, enjoyable, disposable
How do criminologists view crime?
Consensus View- the law defines crime and reflects public opinion, agreement exists on what crime is, and laws apply equally to all citizens Conflict View- the law is a tool of the ruling class, crime, crime is politically define concept, the law is used to control the underclass Interactionist View- the definition of crime evolves according to the moral standards of those in power (moral entrepreneurs) Moral entrepreneurs are individuals or groups that seek to influence or maintain norms
Classical School of Criminology
Crime is a product of ppl exercising their free will to engage in crime, not bc of traditional reasons such as the supernatural
Rational Choice Theory
Crime is a rational decision to violate any law and is made for a variety of reasons including greed, revenge, need, anger, lust, jealously, thrill-seeking, or vanity
Soft Determinism
Crime is likely to happen based on conditions, but ppl make can push past those bad conditions
Atavism
Crime is the result of non-evolved humans/primitive urges
General Deterrence
Crime rates are influenced and controlled by the threat or perception of the application of punishment - perception and deterrence - certainty of punishment and deterrence - severity of punishment - speed (celerity) of deterrence
Specific Deterrence
Crime rates rely on how punishment is applied - criminal sanctions should be so powerful that known criminals will never repeat their criminal acts The Domestic Violence Studies - arrest and conviction may, under some circumstances, lower reoffending
Dark Figure of Crime
Crime that is not reported to the police and that remains unknown to officials.
Rational Choice Theory
Criminal behavior is the outcome of a reasoned decision making process, wherein the benefits outweigh breaking the law.
Just Deserts
Criminal offenders deserve the punishment they receive at the hands of the law & punishments should equal the severity of the crime committed.
Somatotyping
Criminality influenced by physiology
Difference between Criminology and Criminal Justice
Criminology- explains the origins of crime, and the nature of crime in society Criminal Justice- the study of the agencies of social control. EX: police, courts, corrections
Factors of the Ecology of Crime
Day of the week, season and climate, temperature, and regional differences
Structuring Crime
Decisions must be made about what, where, when, and whom to target - choosing the type of crime: the choice of crime may be dictated by the market conditions - choosing the time and place and Crime: criminal behavior may be altered according to shifting opportunity structures - Selecting the target of crime: look for easy targets and shy away from more difficult or armed targets
Difference between Deviance and Crime
Deviance- a behavior that departs from the social norms, values, and beliefs but is not always criminal Crime- an act deemed as socially harmful or dangerous that is specifically defined, prohibited, and punished under criminal law.
Development of Rational Choice Theory
Early Middle Ages (1200's - 1400's) - superstition and fear of satanic possession dominated thinking Renaissance (1400's - 1600's) - the 'social contract' emerges to explain human nature and behavior Enlightenment (1600's - 1700's) - The view than human behavior was a result of rational thought and processes
Franz Joseph Gall
Established phrenology: - Brain is most important organ - Aspects of personality are associated w/ parts of the brain - Skull shape corresponds to the shape of the brain & is therefore indicative of the personality/criminality
according to Nye, what was the most important agent of social control? What were the four types of control that could be exerted by this agent of social control?
FAMILY most important: 1-direct control 2- internalized control 3- indirect control 4- control though alternative means of need satisfaction
theories about crime causation are more empty ruminations and have no consequences in the real world
False
Grounded/Concatenated Theory
Focus on antecedents and consequences
Crime and Unemployment
Four Views on this relationship: 1. Bad Economy= higher crime rates 2. Good Economy = higher crime rates 3. Bad Economy = lower crime rates 4. Crime and the economy are unrelated
Definition of Paradigm
Fundamental model that organizes our view of something
Victim Characteristics
Gender: males are more likely than females to be the victims of violent crime (except for crimes of rape and sexual assault) - females are more often victimized by someone they know, while males are more victimized by strangers Age: younger people face a greater victimization risk than older people, declines rapidly after 25, teens 16-19 suffer 45 per 1000, over 65 suffer 2 per 1000, elderly victims growing problem— abuse and neglect and financial exploitation, fraud and scams Social Status: poorest Americans are the most likely victims of violent and property crimes Marital Status: never- married people are victimized more than married people— widows and widowers have the lowest victimization risk Race and Ethnicity: African Americans and other minorities are more likely than whites to be the victims of violent crime
his study of 3,000 English convicts concluded that there were no significant differences between the criminal and noncriminal except for stature and body weight
Goring
Deviant Behavior
Human activity that violates social norms
Eliminating Crime
If Crime is rational, then it can be controlled or eradicated by convincing potential offenders that: - crime is a poor choice that will not bring rewards but, instead, lead to hardship and deprivation - crime is not worth the effort - crime brings pain and that is not easily forgotten
Who brought phrenology to the United States?
Johann Caspar Spurzheim
What Causes Chronicity?
Kids exposed to a variety of personal and social problems of an early age are the most at risk to repeat offending: referred to as "early onset" - chronic offender factors include problems in the home and school, early history of arrest, low intellectual development, and parental drug involvement
Consensus Perspective
Laws are enacted to criminalize certain behaviors when members of society agree it's necessary
Routine Acitivities Theory
Lifestyles contribute to the types of crime that occur in society; motivated offender, suitable target, lack of a capable guardian - lead to victimization
Differences in Mala in Se and Mala prohibitum
Mala in Se- inherently evil and deprived (murder, burglary, arson, rape) Mala in Prohibitum- defined by parliament expansion of criminal law
Three Strikes Law
Mandatory sentencing of incarceration of up to life in prison to persons who have been convicted of a serious criminal offense on three or more separate occasions. - there is evidence that a stay in prison can reduce the length of a criminal career
Contemporary Choice Theory
Mid 1970's - a renewed interest in the classical approach to crime - rehabilitation failed to prevent future criminal activity - a significant increase in the reported crime rate, as well as serious disturbances in the nation's prisons, frightened the general rule Impact on Crime Control 1980's - tougher laws and mandatory sentences - views the decision to commit crime as being shaped by human emotion and thought processes
Part 1 Offenses
Murder, rape, robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, larceny-theft, motor vehicle theft, and arson
Difference between offender-specific and offense-specific
Offense-Specific: Offenders will react selectively to the characteristics of an individual criminal act Offender-Specific: Individuals must decide if they have the prerequisites to commit a successful criminal act
Criminologist
One who studies crime, criminals, and criminal behavior
Free Will
People will have free will
General Deterrence
Punishing an offender to set an example for the general population
Cesare Beccaria
Punishment should be about real injuries rather than intent; deterrence over retribution;
in your own words, why did Reckless put much more emphasis on inner containment rather than outer containment
Reckless put an emphasis on inner containment because an individual can resist and not do criminal activity while with outer it's harder and you have other factors trying to push and pull you into doing things making it easier for you to do those crimes, since you have that constant peer pressure
Delinquency
Refers to violations of the criminal law and other misbehavior committed by adolescents
Expressive Crimes
Result out of anger and frustration against society, a condition fueled by alcohol and drug abuse, common in impoverished areas
Government's Response to Victimization
Ronald Reagan's Task Force on Victims (1982) Omnibus Victim and Witness Protection Act Comprehensive Crime Control Act and Victims of Crime Act (1984)
of the following theorists, who would recommend policies that increase neighborhood organization to prevent crime?
Shaw and McKay
Uniform Crime Report Part 2 Offenses
Simple assault, forgery/counterfeiting, fraud/embezzlement, possession of stolen property, vandalism, weapons violations, sex crimes, drug violations, gambling, DUI
Endomorph
Soft and round, overweight; relaxed and sociable
Justice Model
Spurred by the "get tough" movement, suggested that offenders deserve punishment bc of their own poor actions
Criminal Anthropology:
Study of relationship between human physical characteristics and criminality
"Dark Figure of Crime"
Surveys in which people are asked about their attributes, beliefs, values, and characterizations, as well as their experiences with crime and victimization
Becarria believe punishment should be:
Swift: right after the offense Certain: involves the actual offender Severe: slightly outweigh the benefit of the crime
Situational Crime Prevention — Targeting Specific Crimes
Tactics to reduce a specific crime problem: -increase efforts - reduce opportunities - reduce rewards - increase risk - increase shame - reduce provocation - remove excuses
McCleskey v. Kemp (1987)
The US Supreme Court held that a simple showing of racial discrepancies in the usage of the death penalty doesn't amount to a constitutional violation
Lifestyle Theory
The belief that certain leisure-time and other activities increase the chances of becoming a crime victim
Hard Determinism
The belief that crime results from forces beyond the control of the individual
Social Relativity
The notion that social events are interpreted differently according to the cultural experiences and personal interests of the initiator, the observer, or the recipient of that behavior.
NCVS (National Crime Victimization Survey)
The ongoing victimization study conducted jointly by the Justice Department and the U.S. Census Bureau that surveys victims about their experiences with law violation.
Specific Deterrence
The prevention of individuals from committing crime again by punishing them
Criminalization
The process by which behaviors and individuals are transformed into crime and criminals
Clearance Rate
The proportion of reported or discovered crimes within a given offense category that are solved.
chronic offenders (career criminals)
The small group of persistent offender who account for a majority of all criminal offenses "Chronic 6%"
What is the study of criminology according to Sutherland?
The study of the entire process of law making, law-breaking, and law enforcing; starting point for classifying criminological theories
Routine Activities Theory
The view that volume and distribution of predatory crime are closely related to the interaction of three variables that reflect the routine activities of the typical American lifestyle 1. The availability of the suitable targets 2. The absence of capable guardians 3. The Presence of motivated offenders
Is Crime Rational?
Theft: more likely to be random acts of criminal opportunity than well-thought-out conspiracies Drug Use: at the onset, drug use is controlled by rational decision making— its fun and thrilling!! Violence: violence is a matter of choice and serves specific goals— control, retribution, deterrence, or reputation - rational robbers: choose victims who are vulnerable, have low coercive power, and do not pose any threat - rational killers: many homicides are the result of rational planning and care in targeting the victim - rational sex criminals: sex criminals report using rational thought and planning
Ectomorph
Thin and fragile; restrained, shy, and inhibited
UCR (Uniform Crime Report)
Three methods to express crime data: 1. The Number of Crimes reported and arrests made 2. Crime rates per 100,000 people 3. changes in rate of crime over time Strengths: contains information of the number and characteristics of people arrested, and is a standard upon which most criminological research is based. Weakness: UCR omits those crimes not reported to the police
Social Ecology of Victimization
Time and Place: violent rise is likely to take place in public during certain times of the day Neighborhood: inner-city experiences higher rates of theft and violence Schools: populated by high risk juvenile males and after school activities are unsupervised Victim's Household: African American, urban, and Western states' homes are the most vulnerable to crime - owners are less vulnerable than renters - smaller families = less victimization
Theoretical Criminology
Type of criminology that is usually studied in colleges and universities, describes crime and its occurrence, and offers explanations for criminal behavior
Sources of Crime Data
Uniform Crime Report (UCR), National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS), Self Report Surveys
Neoclassical Criminology
Uses the scientific method to study crime; based on hard determinism
Uniform Crime Report Part 1 Offenses
Violent Crimes: Murder, rape, aggravated assault, robbery Property Crimes: larceny theft, burglary, motor vehicle theft, arson
which of the following theorists is associated with containment theory?
Walter Reckless
Uniform Crime Report
an official measure of crime in the United States, produced by the FBI's official tabulation of every crime reported by more than 18,000 law enforcement agencies
the _______ school of thought emphasized the role of the rational human being who weighed costs and benefits
classical
the view that individuals are hedonistic and acted based upon rational thought and free will are main components of which of the following schools of thought?
classical school
according to Anderson, a ______ shapes how disrespected parties should react in given community
code of the street
social cohesion among neighbors combined with their willingness to intervene on behalf of the common good is known as what?
collective efficacy
Instrumental Crimes
committed by indigent people to compensate for the lack of legitimate economic opportunity
________ allows an accused to have reputable people swear an oath that he or she is innocent and is based on ________.
compurgation; spiritualism
Agnew sought to identify the variables that _____ the response to strain
condition
_______ explanations of crime argue that the answer to crime rests largely in harsher sanctions
conservative
Reckless's theory of containment is based on one simple insight. What is this?
crime will occur when containment is weak
Joseph is tall, lanky and skinny. Which body type would Sheldon classify Joseph as?
ectomorph
which of the following strategies would a strain theorist say would best reduce crime?
expand economic opportunities
According to the classical school, people commit crime on impulse without thinking about the consequences of crime
false
Most people's opinions about crime are drawn from sustained study of the topic
false
according to the Chicago criminologists, the solution to juvenile waywardness was to eradicate the pathologies that lie within the individual
false
differential association does NOT take into account crimes by the wealthy
false
self- concept, goal orientation, frustration tolerance, and norm retention and erosion are the four factors of inner containment
false
the early Chicago school theorists showed that crime was randomly distributed
false
the three mainstream theories call for the overthrow of the current social order
false
a person will be likely to commit crime when definitions ______ to crime outweigh those that are unfavorable to crime
favorable
which perspective has led to the "gendering of criminology" in the United States?
feminist
Phrenology
focused on measurements of the head, based on the concept that the brain is the organ of the mind, and that certain brain areas have localized, specific functions or modules
which of the following is NOT a type of subculture according to Cloward and Ohlin?
gang subculture
Formality
general, discursive and symbolic interactionism
one of the most significant contributions of Sutherland's differential association theory is which of the following?
his theory was able to explain the criminality of the affluent who tend to commit "white collar" crimes
which of the following theories is associated with Messner and Rosenfeld?
institutional anomie
a "cultural orientation in which the law and its agents is viewed as illegitimate, unresponsive, and ill equipped to ensure public safety" is the definition for ___________.
legal cynicism
Two pillars of science
logic/rationality and observation
How do pre-paradigmatic fields establish theory?
not one starting point; focus on antecedents and consequences (grounded theory)
what book was a defining work in the classical school of thought?
on crimes and punishments
Lifestyle Theory
people may become crime victims because their lifestyle increases their exposure to criminal offenders College lifestyle: partying, taking recreational drugs Criminal lifestyle: a career as a criminal may predispose one to be victimized
Routine Activities
recurrent and prevalent activities of daily life
according to Durkheim, _______ was considered to be the sum of social forces of constraint that bound individuals to the norms
regulation
based on social disorganization theory, the best way to lower crime rates is to ________?
reorganize communities
Mary has been burglarized by someone who is homeless. She then begins to think poverty in the cause of crime. This is an example of how Mary's _______ have/ has shaped the way she has come to think about crime.
social experiences
Which of the following best summarizes Matza's contribution to our understanding of juvenile delinquency/ criminality
that delinquency is not so much the expression of pathology but a process of "drift"
according to messier and Rosenfeld, the fact that work dominates our lives means that the institutional balance is titled toward which of the following?
the economy
Deviant Place Theory
the greater their exposure to dangerous places, the more likely people will become victims of crime and violence EX: socially disorganized— high crime areas
Cycle of Violence Theory
the notion that abuse and neglect that children suffer predispose them as adults to abuse and neglect their own children
According to Beccaria, which of the following was the aim of a good system of legislation?
the prevention of crime
What is criminology?
the scientific approach to studying criminal behavior
Victim Precipitation Theory
the view that victims may initiate, either actively or passively, the confrontation that leads to their victimization
Merton argued that the cultural goals in America may not be reached though conventional means in some social segments of the American population
true
Sykes and Matza argued that delinquents retained a commitment to conventional society and its standards of behavior
true
by the early 1960s, poverty was seen not as the fault of the individual but as the fault of the system
true
control theory is not so much a theory of deviance but a theory of conformity
true
differential association refers to the learning of criminal behavior through the interaction with others
true
motor vehicle theft is a form of probity.
true
the major problem with spiritualistic explanations of criminality is that they cannot be tested scientifically
true
there appears to be evidence that crime rates are lower in societies in which the vitality and support for noneconomic institutions are more pronounced
true
each year the FBI publishes the _______ in which it lists the numbers of various crimes that have become known to the nation's police departments.
uniform crime reports
