CSET Spanish I
Re-Integration
New cues are re-integrated but even though the individual has an increased ability to function in the new culture, he rejects it and experiences anger and resentment and acts hostile and rebellious.
Dental
T, d,
free morpheme
can function independently as words (e.g. town, dog) and can appear with other lexemes (e.g. town hall, doghouse)
Assertives
functions is to tell what the speaker knows or believes; assertions, claims, reports " I bill was recently signed.."
Speech Act Theory (Locomotives Illicit Persecutions)
intorduced by J.L Austin and and further dev by J.R. Searle We can perform a speech act (1) directly or indirectly, by way of performing another speech act, (2) literally or nonliterally, depending on how we are using our words, and (3) explicitly or inexplicitly, depending on whether we fully spell out what we mean.
Borrowing
is a word adopted from one language (the donor language) and incorporated into another language without translation.
reasons to avoid emphasis on grammar and error correction
it may inhibit lang acquisition at early stages of languagge dev.
directives
makes the addressee perform an action; suggestions, requests, commands "Will you close the windows?"
when does optimal input occur?
occurs when "affective filter" is low
Critical Period ( Lenneberg 1967)
there is a senstitive period for acquisition of L1 (linked to neural plasticity) also applies to L2. Native like proficiency declines after puberty.
Level III Speech Emergence
third phase of lang dev. is marked by increased comprehension, simple sentences and some errors in speech
Labial
Lips m, b, f, p
Infinitives
The infinitive is the most basic form of a verb. Verbs in the infinitive form indicate what an action is, but do not indicate anything about who is doing the action or at what point in time the action is taking place.
morphology
The study of the forms of words In linguistics, it is the study of words, how they are formed, and their relationship to other words in the same language.[2][3] It analyzes the structure of words and parts of words, such as stems, root words, prefixes, and suffixes. it also looks at parts of speech, intonation and stress, and the ways context can change a word's pronunciation and meaning.
commissives
commits the speaker to do something in the future; promises, threats, offers. "I will study for tomorrow's test"
Type of Instruction
instruction should be embedded in meaningful context, modified, paraphrasing, collaborative, interactive and multimodal
discourse anlysis
is a general term for a number of approaches to analyze written, vocal, or sign language use, or any significant semiotic event. broad term for the study of the ways in which language is used in text and context (including sign lang) Analyzes naturally occuring language and looks at what speakers do in conversation. (continued over a number of sentences)
What inter learner variables affect order of lang acquisition?
sex, intelligence, social background, rate of learning, experience of linguistic interaction, age
independence
social, psychological and clutural differences are accepted/enjoyed. Function in both cultures; biculturality is acheived.
deep structure (language)
the information that exists in the mind of the speaker as more or less an abstract representation
differences between learning L1 and L2 http://multilingualism.pbworks.com/w/page/21913433/Similarities%20and%20Differences%20between%20First%20and%20Second%20Language%20Acquisition
-When learning L1 basis- universal grammar -When learning L2, knowledge of L1 serves as basis for learning L2 ( lang transfer) -In L1 babies spend years babling while in L2 the learner is older and acquisition occures much more rapid -In formal L2 learners can use metacognitive process -L2 involves more schemata and less universal grammar -Sensitivity to phonological disntinctions that are not already known from L1 may be reduced -Opportunity to practice with native speakers is not usu. extensive -L2 requires conscious effort Differences: In first language acquisition, the basis for learning is universal grammar alone. In second language acquisition, knowledge of the first language also serves as a basis for learning the second language. There may be both positive and negative transfer between languages in second language learning. In first language acquisition, children spend several years listening to language, babbling, and using telegraphic speech before they can form sentences. In second language acquisition in older learners, learning is more rapid and people are able to form sentences within a shorter period of time. In formal second language learning in older learners, learners are able to use more metacognitive processes in their learning. They can consciously analyze and manipulate grammatical structures, and they can explicitly describe how language works. This can speed the learning process. In second language learning in older learners, learners bring more life experience and background knowledge to their learning. They have more schemata and more learning strategies to help them learn the second language. In second language learning in older learners, there may be less access to universal grammar, and sensitivity to phonological distinctions not present in the native language will be reduced. Students learning in a classroom setting may also have fewer opportunities to learn language authentically. These factors may reduce the likelihood that second language learners will attain native-like proficiency. First-language learners always attain native proficiency, unless they have a disability that affects language learning. In first language acquistion, learners have many chances to practice with native speakers (especially caregivers). In second language acquisition, learners may or may not have the opportunity to practice extensively with native speakers. Almost everyone acquires a first language, but not everyone acquires a second language. Acquiring a first language happens naturally, while acquiring a second language often requires conscious effort on the part of the learner.
Euphemism
/ˈjufəˌmɪzəm/ is a generally innocuous word or expression used in place of one that may be found offensive or suggest something unpleasant.[1] Some euphemisms are intended to amuse; while others use bland, inoffensive terms for things the user wishes to downplay. Euphemisms are used to refer to taboo topics (such as disability, sex, excretion, and death) in a polite way, or to mask profanity. a mild or indirect word or expression substituted for one considered too harsh, blunt or when referring to something embarrassing; "eliminte" for "to kill" or "cougar" older lady on lookout for relationship with ounger man.
lexicon
A _______is the vocabulary of a person, language, or branch of knowledge (such as nautical or medical). In linguistics, a ________is a language's inventory of lexemes. The word "________" derives from the Greek λεξικόν _______, neuter of λεξικός (lexikos) meaning "of or for words". Linguistic theories generally regard human languages as consisting of two parts: a________, essentially a catalogue of a language's words (its wordstock); and a grammar, a system of rules which allow for the combination of those words into meaningful sentences. The _________ is also thought to include bound morphemes, which cannot stand alone as words (such as most affixes). In some analyses, compound words and certain classes of idiomatic expressions and other collocations are also considered to be part of the ________. Dictionaries represent attempts at listing, in alphabetical order, the ________ of a given language; usually, however, bound morphemes are not included.
language development in children
Children develop language in a set sequence of stages, although sometimes particular skills develop at slightly different ages: Three-month-old infants can distinguish between the phonemes from any language. At around six months, infants begin babbling, or producing sounds that resemble many different languages. As time goes on, these sounds begin to resemble more closely the words of the languages the infant hears. At about thirteen months, children begin to produce simple single words. By about twenty-four months, children begin to combine two or three words to make short sentences. At this stage, their speech is usually telegraphic. Telegraphic speech, like telegrams, contains no articles or prepositions. By about age three years, children can usually use tenses and plurals. Children's language abilities continue to grow throughout the school-age years. They become able to recognize ambiguity and sarcasm in language and to use metaphors and puns. These abilities arise from metalinguistic awareness, or the capacity to think about how language is used.
Tiempo indicativo
En español el indicativo es la forma usada para describir hechos reales o seguros, con independencia de si estos hechos son pasados, actuales o se espera que sucederán con certeza. Los nombres usados para los tiempos verbales difieren en España y Latinoamérica. En la lista siguiente, siempre que haya dos nombres, el segundo es el que se usa en países latinoamericanos:
Reflexive pronouns
In Spanish, the reflexive pronouns are: me/nos (first person singular/plural), te/os (second person) or se (third person). In Latin America, "os" is not used, being replaced by "se" for the pronoun "ustedes". For clarity, there are optional intensifying adjuncts for reflexive pronouns, accompanied by "mismo/a" (masculine and feminine forms for "self"). They are not strictly adjuncts: "si mismo/a" (instead of "se"), "ti mismo/a" (in the Río de la Plata region, it is replaced by "vos mismo/a") but "mi mismo": they usually postpend the genitive. Examples with "wash oneself": yo me lavo (I wash myself.) nosotros nos lavamos (We wash ourselves.) tú te lavas (You wash yourself.) vos te lavás (You wash yourself, Rioplatense Spanish) usted ("Ud.") se lava (You wash yourself. [Formal]) ustedes ("Uds.") se lavan (You wash yourselves. [Formal, plural]) vosotros os laváis (in Spain) él se lava (He washes himself.) ella se lava (She washes herself.) ellos se lavan (They wash themselves. [Masculine]) ellas se lavan (They wash themselves. [Feminine]) Note that the indirect object "le"/"les" do not override "se" in the reflexive.
similarities between learning l1 nd l2
In both first and second language acquisition, universal grammar may influence learning. In second language learning, universal grammar may influence learning either independently or through the first language. In both first and second language acquisition, there are predictable stages, and particular structures are acquired in a set order. Individuals may move more slowly or quickly through these stages, but they cannot skip ahead. In both first and second language acquisition, making errors is a part of learning. Learners need to make and test hypotheses about language to build an internal representation of the language. In the initial stages of learning, learners may use chunks of language without breaking them down or processing them as independent units. In later stages, they may make new errors as they begin to process the parts of each chunk according to the rules of their language system. For example, a learner may start out using the correct form of an irregular verb as part of a language chunk, but later overgeneralize and place a regular affix on that same verb. In both first and second language acquisition, the learner uses context clues, prior knowledge, and interaction to comprehend language. In both first and second language acquisition, age is an important variable affecting proficiency. In both first and second language acquisition, learners can often comprehend more complex language than they are able to produce. In the initial stages of learning, learners go through a silent period. In both first and second language acquisition, a learner's proficiency can vary across situations. In both first and second language acquisition, learners may overgeneralize vocabulary or rules, using them in contexts broader than those in which they should be used. In both first and second language acquisition, learners need comprehensible input and opportunities to learn language in context in order to increase their proficiency.
morpheme
In linguistics, it is the smallest grammatical unit in a language. In other words, it is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. The field of study dedicated to it is called morphology. It is is not identical to a word, and the principal difference between the two is that a morpheme may or may not stand alone, whereas a word, by definition, is freestanding. When it stands by itself, it is considered as a root because it has a meaning of its own (e.g. cat) and when it depends on another to express an idea, it is an affix because it has a grammatical function (e.g. the -s in cats to indicate that it is plural).[1] Every word comprises one or more of these. Every one of these can be classified as either free or bound.[2] These categories are mutually exclusive, and as such, a given one will belong to exactly one of them.
syntax
In linguistics, syntax _______ is the set of rules, principles, and processes that govern the structure of sentences in a given language, specifically word order. The term__________is also used to refer to the study of such principles and processes.[3] The goal of many__________ is to discover the _________ rules common to all languages. A basic feature of a language's ______ is the sequence in which the subject (S), verb (V), and object (O) usually appear in sentences. Over 85% of languages usually place the subject first, either in the sequence SVO or the sequence SOV. The other possible sequences are VSO, VOS, OVS, and OSV, the last three of which are rare.
Palabras Esdrujulas
LAS PALABRAS ESDRÚJULAS Las palabras esdrújulas son las que llevan la intensidad de la voz en la antepenúltima sílaba. Importantísimo destacar que en este caso todas las palabras se acentúan con el acento ortográfico (tilde) siempre. Ejemplos de palabras esdrújulas: América - Bélgica - Sudáfrica - música - miércoles - sílaba - máquina - gramática - económico - pájaro - séptimo - cuídate - brújula - gótico - hígado - ejército - características - cállate - dámelo - fósforo - cáscara - cerámica - oxígeno - didáctico - válido Las palabras esdrújulas también se llaman proparoxítonas. LAS PALABRAS SOBRESDRÚJULAS Las palabras sobresdrújulas son las que llevan la intensidad de la voz en la sílaba anterior a la antepenúltima sílaba. Todas llevan tilde. Estas palabras sobresdrújulas que llevan tilde generalmente son verbos que van unidos a los complementos indirecto y directo o son adverbios. Ejemplos de palabras sobresdrújulas: cuéntamelo - devuélveselo - éticamente - fácilmente - explícaselo - rápidamente - juégatela - véndemelo - repíteselo - frívolamente - ágilmente - ábremelo - dígaselo - cálidamente - difícilmente - dibújamelo - dócilmente - gánatela
Palabras agudas
Las palabras agudas son las que llevan acento (la intensidad de la voz) en la última sílaba. Importante destacar que no todas las palabras agudas llevan acento ortográfico (tilde). Las palabras agudas llevan tilde si terminan en vocal: Perú - sofá - café - rubí - menú - marroquí - bebé Las palabras agudas llevan tilde si terminan en N o S: también - algún - jamás - según - sillón - además - organización - capitán - alemán - anís - canción Hay palabras agudas que tienen tilde a pesar de NO terminar en vocal, N o S. Esto es por la ruptura del diptongo: Raúl, baúl, raíz, maíz Ejemplos de palabras agudas CON tilde: Perú - acción - sofá - café - organización - vudú - capitán - rubí - francés - sillón - camarón - país - japonés Ejemplos de palabras agudas SIN tilde: amor - cantidad - papel - reloj - capaz - pared - estoy - avestruz - virtud - fatal - contador Las palabras agudas también se llaman oxítonas.
Palabras Graves
Las palabras graves (o palabras llanas) son la que llevan la intensidad de la voz en la penúltima sílaba. Cabe recalcar que no todas la palabras graves llevan acento ortográfico (tilde). Las palabras graves NO llevan tilde si terminan en VOCAL o en N o S: Ejemplos de palabras graves CON tilde: árbol - cárcel - ángel - difícil - túnel - azúcar - lápiz - césped - fácil - útil - carácter - débil Ejemplos de palabras graves SIN tilde: problema - adulto - martes - zapato - volumen - pesca - amazonas - tasa - piso - corazones* * Corazón (con tilde) - Corazones (sin tilde) La palabra corazón lleva acento cuando es singular porque la intensidad de la voz está en la última sílaba y termina en N. Pero cuando se convierte en plural, la intensidad de la voz pasa a la penúltima sílaba y como termina en S, ya no lleva tilde. Algunos otros ejemplos de palabras con el mismo cambio: organización - organizaciones nación - naciones objeción - objeciones declaración - declaraciones explicación - explicaciones guión - guiones Palabras graves y el diptongo IA Hay palabras graves que se acentúan a pesar de terminar en vocal, rompiendo de esta forma el diptongo (ia). María - antropología - biología - oftalmología. Las palabras graves (o palabras llanas) también se llaman paroxítonas.
Linguistic prescription
Linguistic _____________ is the practice of elevating one variety or manner of language use over another. It may imply that some forms are incorrect, improper, or illogical, or lack communicative effect, or are of low aesthetic value.[1] Sometimes informed by linguistic purism,[2] these normative practices may address such linguistic aspects as spelling, grammar, semantics, pronunciation, and syntax. They may also include judgments on socially proper and politically correct language use. Linguistic __________ may aim to establish a standard language, teach what a particular society perceives as a correct form, or advise on effective communication. If usage preferences are conservative, __________might appear resistant to language change; if radical, it may produce neologisms. ____________approaches to language are often contrasted with descriptive linguistics ("descriptivism"), which observes and records how language is actually used.[4] The basis of linguistic research is text (corpus) analysis and field study, both of which are descriptive activities. Description, however, may include researchers' observations of their own language usage. Despite being apparent opposites, ________ and description may inform each other, as comprehensive descriptive accounts must take speaker preferences into account, and an understanding of how language is actually used is necessary for prescription to be effective.
Spanish suprasegmental features
Que se superpone a varios segmentos. el acento y la entonación son rasgos fónicos que se superponen a unidades lingüísticas mayores que el fonema (segmento mínimo), por eso se denominan rasgos suprasegmentales
Recursion and Infinity
Recursion and Infinitude "[One] factor that encourages linguists to believe that human languages are infinite sets stems from a presumed connection between linguistic creativity and the infinite cardinality of languages. Note, for example, this statement by [Noam] Chomsky (1980: 221-222): . . . the rules of the grammar must iterate in some manner to generate an infinite number of sentences, each with its specific sound, structure, and meaning. We make use of this 'recursive' property of grammar constantly in everyday life. We construct new sentences freely and use them on appropriate occasions . . . He is suggesting that because we construct new sentences, we must be using recursion, so the grammar must generate infinitely many sentences. Note also the remark of Lasnik (2000: 3) that 'The ability to produce and understand new sentences is intuitively related to the notion of infinity.' "No one will deny that human beings have a marvelous, highly flexible array of linguistic abilities. These abilities are not just a matter of being able to respond verbally to novel circumstances, but of being capable of expressing novel propositions, and of re-expressing familiar propositions in new ways. But infinitude of the set of all grammatical expressions is neither necessary nor sufficient to describe or explain linguistic creativity. . . .
Pragmatic Competence
The ability to understand another speaker's intended meaning is called________________ competence the ability to coprehend or reproduce a communicative act which includes one's knowledge of social distance, social status between speakers involved, cultural knowledge such as politeness and linguistic knowledge, explicit and implicit
Phonology
The branch of linguistics that deals with sytems of sounds. is a branch of linguistics concerned with the systematic organization of sounds in languages. It has traditionally focused largely on the study of the systems of phonemes in particular languages (and therefore used to be also called phonemics, or phonematics), but it may also cover any linguistic analysis either at a level beneath the word (including syllable, onset and rime, articulatory gestures, articulatory features, mora, etc.) or at all levels of language where sound is considered to be structured for conveying linguistic meaning.
Disintegration
The differences in cultures lead to confusion, isolation, loneliness. New cultural cues are misread=withdrawal and depression can occur.
Autonomy
The person is able to see the differences between the two cultures in a more objective way, is able to deal with them and therefore feels more self-assured, relaxed, and confident.
Phonemic split
The phenomenon in which a single phoneme diverges into two different phonemes. a once identical phoneme diverges in different instances and is divided into 2 phonemes over time
Phonemic merger
The phenomenon in which two different phonemes merge and become replaced by a single phoneme. where 2 or more phonemes come together and become indistinguishable; cot-caught
phonemes
The smallest unit of sound;may cause change in meaning but does not have meaning on its own "bake" v. "brake" /r/ is one of the units of sound (or gesture in the case of sign languages, see chereme) that distinguish one word from another in a particular language. The difference in meaning between the English words kill and kiss is a result of the exchange of the phoneme /l/ for the phoneme /s/. Two words that differ in meaning through a contrast of a single phoneme form a minimal pair. In linguistics, they(usually established by the use of minimal pairs, such as kill vs kiss or pat vs bat) are written between slashes like this: /p/, whereas when it is desired to show the more exact pronunciation of any sound, linguists use square brackets, for example [pʰ] (indicating an aspirated p).
honeymoon period
The soujourner is intrigued by the differences in culture she/he perceives and is excited about everything
Surface Layer vs Deep Layer
The terms "surface layer" and "deep layer" refer to different levels that information goes through in the language production system. For example, imagine that you see a dog chasing a mailman. When you encode this information, you create a representation that includes three pieces of information: a dog, a mailman, and the action chasing. This information exists in the mind of the speaker as a "deep" structure. If you want to express this information linguistically, you can, for example, produce a sentence like "The dog is chasing the mailman." This is the "surface" layer: it consists of the words and sounds produced by a speaker (or writer) and perceived by a listener (or reader). You can also produce a sentence like "The mailman is being chased by a dog" to describe the same event -- here, the order in which you mention the two characters (the "surface" layer) is different from the first sentence, but both sentences are derived from the same "deep" representation. Linguists propose that you can perform movement operations to transform the information encoded in the "deep" layer into the "surface" layer, and refer to these movement operations as linguistic rules. Linguistic rules are part of the grammar of a language and must be learned by speakers in order to produce grammatically correct sentences.
Language Classification
There are two kinds of _________ practiced in linguistics: genetic (or genealogical) and typological. The purpose of genetic classification is to group languages into families according to their degree of diachronic relatedness. For example, within the Indo-European family, such subfamilies as Germanic or Celtic are recognized; these subfamilies comprise German, English, Dutch, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, and others, on the one hand, and Irish, Welsh, Breton, and others, on the other. So far, most of the languages of the world have been grouped only tentatively into families, and many of the classificatory schemes that have been proposed will no doubt be radically revised as further progress is made. A typological classification groups languages into types according to their structural characteristics. The most famous typological classification is probably that of isolating, agglutinating, and inflecting (or fusional) languages, which was frequently invoked in the 19th century in support of an evolutionary theory of language development.
Cultural Adaptation/cultural shock cycle for students
Upon introducing themselves to a new language and its culture is to experience the following: Honeymoon, Disintegration, Re-Integration, Autonomy, Independence
Subject pronouns
Yo Tu, usted, vos el ella
Synchrony and diachrony
________ are two different and complementary viewpoints in linguistic analysis: a ________approach considers the development and evolution of a language through history. The word is built on the Ancient Greek words δια "through" and χρόνος "time". Historical linguistics is typically a ________ study. a __________approach considers a language without taking its history into account. The word is built on the Ancient Greek words συν "with" and χρόνος "time". __________ linguistics aims at describing language rules at a specific point of time, even though they may have been different at an earlier stage of the language. School grammar typically uses a __________ (as well as prescriptive) approach. Initially, all modern linguistics was historical in orientation. Even the study of modern dialects involved looking at their origins. Ferdinand de Saussure's distinction between _________ and __________linguistics is fundamental to the present day organization of the discipline. Primacy is accorded to ________ linguistics, and__________ linguistics is defined as the study of successive ____________stages. Saussure's clear demarcation, however, has had both defenders and critics. In linguistics, a ____________ analysis is one that views linguistic phenomena only at a given time, usually the present, though a ______________analysis of a historical language form is also possible. This may be distinguished from __________, which regards a phenomenon in terms of developments through time. ______________analysis is the main concern of historical linguistics; however, most other branches of linguistics are concerned with some form of synchronic analysis. In practice, a purely __________linguistics is not possible for any period before the invention of the gramophone, as written records always lag behind speech in reflecting linguistic developments. Written records are difficult to date accurately before the development of the modern title page. Often dating must rely on contextual historical evidence such as inscriptions, or, modern technology such as carbon dating can be used to ascertain dates of varying accuracy. Also, the work of sociolinguists on linguistic variation has shown synchronic states are not uniform: the speech habits of older and younger speakers differ in ways that point to language change. _________ variation is linguistic change in progress. ___________ and __________ approaches can reach quite different conclusions. For example, a Germanic strong verb like English sing - sang - sung is irregular when viewed ___________: the native speaker's brain processes these as learned forms, whereas the derived forms of regular verbs are processed quite differently, by the application of productive rules (for example, adding -ed to the basic form of a verb as in walk - walked). This is an insight of psycholinguistics, relevant also for language didactics, both of which are __________disciplines. However, a _________ analysis will show that the strong verb is the remnant of a fully regular system of internal vowel changes, in this case, namely, the Indo-European ablaut; historical linguistics seldom uses the category "irregular verb".
Universal Grammar
___________in linguistics, is the theory of the genetic component of the language faculty, usually credited to Noam Chomsky. The basic postulate of _________ is that language is hard-wired into the brain.[1] It is sometimes known as "mental grammar", and stands opposed to other "grammars", e.g. prescriptive, descriptive and pedagogical.[2][3] The theory suggests that linguistic ability becomes manifest without being taught (see the poverty of the stimulus argument), and that there are properties that all natural human languages share. It is a matter of observation and experimentation to determine precisely what abilities are innate and what properties are shared by all languages. The theory of __________ proposes that if human beings are brought up under normal conditions (not those of extreme sensory deprivation), then they will always develop language with certain properties (e.g., distinguishing nouns from verbs, or distinguishing function words from lexical words). The theory proposes that there is an innate, genetically determined language faculty that knows these rules, making it easier and faster for children to learn to speak than it otherwise would be. This faculty does not know the vocabulary of any particular language (so words and their meanings must be learned), and there remain several parameters which can vary freely among languages (such as whether adjectives come before or after nouns) which must also be learned.
linguistic inteference/ language transfer/ crosslinguitic influence
___________refers to speakers or writers applying knowledge from one language to another language.[1] It is the transfer of linguistic features between languages in the speech repertoire of a bilingual or multilingual individual, whether from first to second, second to first or many other relationships.[2] It is most commonly discussed in the context of English language learning and teaching, but it can occur in any situation when someone does not have a native-level command of a language, as when translating into a second language.
productive rule of language 1:2 Language Use
_________is a general term in linguistics for the limitless ability to use language (i.e., any natural language) to say new things. Also known as open-endedness or creativity. The term __________is also applied in a narrower sense to particular forms or constructions (such as affixes) that can be used to produce new instances of the same type. In this sense, ____________ is most commonly discussed in connection with word formation. A pattern is___________ if it is repeatedly used in language to produce further instances of the same type (e.g. the past-tense affix -ed in English is__________, in that any new verb will be automatically assigned this past-tense form). Non-________ (or un__________) patterns lack any such potential; e.g. the change from mouse to mice is not a ___________ plural formation--new nouns would not adopt it, but would use instead the __________ -s-ending pattern. Semi-__________forms are those where there is a limited or occasional creativity, as when a prefix such as un- is sometimes, but not universally, applied to words to form their opposites, e.g. happy → unhappy, but not sad → *unsad."
Linguistic rules
________are part of the grammar of a language and must be learned by speakers in order to _______ exist for different types of utterances. Other examples of __________, or movement operations between "deep" and "surface" layers, include declarative sentences (You have a dog) and their corresponding interrogative sentences (Do you have a dog?). Here, the movement operations include switching the order of the first two words of the sentence.
Language development
_______is a process starting early in human life. Infants start without language, yet by 10 months, babies can distinguish speech sounds and engage in babbling. Some research has shown that the earliest learning begins in utero when the fetus starts to recognize the sounds and speech patterns of its mother's voice and differentiate them from other sounds after birth.[1] Usually, productive language is considered to begin with a stage of preverbal communication in which infants use gestures and vocalizations to make their intents known to others. According to a general principle of development, new forms then take over old functions, so that children learn words to express the same communicative functions they had already expressed by preverbal means.[2]
suprasegmentals (phonological feature)
a group of symbols for stress, length of intonation, syllabification ( stress on certain syllables) that influence segmentals
affective filter
a screen of emotion that can block language aquisition or learning if it keeps a learner from being too self-conscious/embarassed to take risks during communicative exchanges.
descriptive linguistics
a set of rules about language based on how it is actually used; there is no right or wrong language; "he goes" means "he said" represents the unconscious knowledge of language In the study of language, __________ linguistics is the work of objectively analyzing and describing how language is actually used (or how it was used in the past) by a group of people in a speech community. All scholarly research in linguistics is_________; like all other sciences, its aim is to observe the linguistic world as it is, without the bias of preconceived ideas about how it ought to be.[1] Modern __________linguistics is based on a structural approach to language, as exemplified in the work of Leonard Bloomfield and others.[not verified in body] Linguistic____________ is often contrasted with linguistic prescription, which is found especially in education and in publishing. Prescription seeks to define standard language forms and give advice on effective language use, and can be thought of as a presentation of the fruits of ____________research in a learnable form, though it also draws on more subjective aspects of language aesthetics. Prescription and _____________are complementary, but have different priorities and sometimes are seen to be in conflict.
Natural order
according to Krashen there is a natural progression of language dev exhibited by infants/young children/ seconday lang learners (child or adult)
Speech Act
an utterance defined in terms of a speakers intention and the effect it has on the listener; considers three levels of such utterances.1 Locutionary act, 2.illocutionary acts, 3. perlocutionary acts. in linguistics and the philosophy of language is an utterance that has performative function in language and communication. According to Kent Bach, "almost any __________ is really the performance of several acts at once, distinguished by different aspects of the speaker's intention: there is the act of saying something, what one does in saying it, such as requesting or promising, and how one is trying to affect one's audience." The contemporary use of the term goes back to J. L. Austin's development of performative utterances and his theory of locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts. _________ are commonly taken to include such acts as promising, ordering, greeting, warning, inviting and congratulating. For example, the phrase "Don't go into the water" (a locutionary act with distinct phonetic, syntactic and semantic features) counts as warning to the listener not to go into the water (an illocutionary act). If the listener heeds the warning the speech-act has been successful in persuading the listener not to go into the water (a perlocutionary act). This taxonomy of speech acts was inherited by John R. Searle, Austin's pupil at Oxford and subsequently an influential exponent of speech act theory.
phonological change
any sound change which alters the distribution of phonemes in a language. occurs by addition of new phonemes or reorganization of old
bound morpheme
appear only as parts of words, always in conjunction with a root and sometimes with other bound morphemes. For example, un- appears only accompanied by other of these to form a word. Most bound of these in English are affixes, particularly prefixes and suffixes. Examples of suffixes are -tion, -ation, -ible, -ing, etc Those that are not affixes are called cranberry " ". can be further classified as derivational or inflectional.
Nativist Theory ( Chomsky)
childrens brains contain LAD (lang acq. device) which holds grammtical universals is based on the observation that children pick up grammar and syntax without any formal teaching
taboos
considered too profane for the time, overtime people become less sensitive to the use of, "dam" Fag"
Segmentals
consonant and vowels sounds (words broken into syllables) i.e. ca/be/za
what distinguishes the recurson of human language from simple repititon?
embedding of a structure ( affixes, words) within another structure of the same type.
Speech act functions http://online.sfsu.edu/kbach/spchacts.html
exchange factual information, intellectual information, or emotional attitudes
expressives
express how the speaker feels about the situtation; apologies, complaints, thanks. "Im sorry I lied"
surface structure (language)
expressing information linguistically by producing sentences/utterances
level I Pre-production stage
fist step of language dev. is marked by a silent period with minimal coprehension and no verbal production
family and branches
group of languages related through descent from a common ancestor, then further divided.
Discourse Analysis 1:2 Language Use
is a general term for a number of approaches to analyze written, vocal, or sign language use, or any significant semiotic event. The objects of discourse analysis (discourse, writing, conversation, communicative event) are variously defined in terms of coherent sequences of sentences, propositions, speech, or turns-at-talk. Contrary to much of traditional linguistics, discourse analysts not only study language use 'beyond the sentence boundary' but also prefer to analyze 'naturally occurring' language use, not invented examples.[1] Text linguistics is a closely related field. The essential difference between discourse analysis and text linguistics is that discourse analysis aims at revealing socio-psychological characteristics of a person/persons rather than text structure.[2]
lexemes
is a unit of lexical meaning that exists regardless of the number of inflectional endings it may have or the number of words it may contain. It is a basic unit of meaning, and the headwords of a dictionary are all ___________.[1] Put more technically, a _________ is an abstract unit of morphological analysis in linguistics, that roughly corresponds to a set of forms taken by a single word. For example, in the terminology language, run, runs, ran and running are forms of the same _________, conventionally written as run.[2] A related concept is the lemma (or citation form), which is a particular form of a___________ that is chosen by convention to represent a canonical form of a___________. Lemmas, being a subset of ____________, are likewise used in dictionaries as the headwords, and other forms of a __________ are often listed later in the entry if they are not common conjugations of that word.
Language change
is variation over time in a language's phonetic, morphological, semantic, syntactic, and other features. It is studied by historical linguistics and evolutionary linguistics. Some commentators use the label corruption to suggest that ________ constitutes a degradation in the quality of a language, especially when the change originates from human error or prescriptively discouraged usage.[1] Descriptive linguistics typically does not support this concept, since from a scientific point of view such changes are neither good nor bad. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_change
Perlocutionary acts
is what happened as a result and in certain cases a further ___________ its actual effect, such as persuading, convincing, scaring, enlightening, inspiring, or otherwise getting someone to do or realize something, whether intended or not (Austin 1962)
Illocutionary acts
is what was meant the pragmatic 'illocutionary force' of the utterance, thus its intended significance as a socially valid verbal action (see below) The way in which a sentence is used to express and attitude with a certain function or force; the social function of what is being said. "It's cold in here" could be: indirect request- to close window direct refusal-to open window complaint
locutionary act /propositional act
is what was said the act of saying something in full normal sense; literal meaning; "It's hot in here"="It's hot in here" the performance of an utterance: the actual utterance and its ostensible meaning, comprising phonetic, phatic and rhetic acts corresponding to the verbal, syntactic and semantic aspects of any meaningful utterance;
Level IV Intermediate Fluency Stage
last step of lang dev. marked by very good comprehension, more complex sentences and complex errors in speech.
monitor hypothesis
learning as opposed to aquisition serves to develop a monitor ( en error detecting mechnism) that scans utteracnes for accuracy in order to make corrections hypothesis explains the relationship between acquisition and learning and defines the influence of the latter on the former. The monitoring function is the practical result of the learned grammar. According to Krashen, the acquisition system is the utterance initiator, while the learning system performs the role of the 'monitor' or the 'editor'. The 'monitor' acts in a planning, editing and correcting function when three specific conditions are met: that is, the second language learner has sufficient time at his/her disposal, he/she focuses on form or thinks about correctness, and he/she knows the rule.
Stephen Krashen Theory of lanugage acquisition
learning occurs through formal knowledge and learning about language, while acquisition is the unconscious mind related activity that occurs in conversation.
diachronic Linguistics
looks at how a language has changed over a period of time ________ linguistics is the study of a language through different periods in history. Historical linguistics, also called ______ linguistics, is the scientific study of language change over time.[1] Principal concerns of historical linguistics include: 1. to describe and account for observed changes in particular languages 2. to reconstruct the pre-history of languages and to determine their relatedness, grouping them into language families (comparative linguistics) 3. to develop general theories about how and why language changes 4. to describe the history of speech communities to study the history of words, i.e. etymology
synchronic linguistics
looks at how a lanuage system works at a point in time _______ linguistics is the study of a language at one particular period in time (usually the present). Also known as descriptive linguistics or general linguistics. _______linguistics is one of the two main temporal dimensions of language study introduced by Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure in his Course in General Linguistics (1916). The other is diachronic linguistics. "A __________study of language is a comparison of languages or dialects--various spoken differences of the same language--used within some defined spatial region and during the same period of time. Determining the regions of the United States in which people currently say 'pop' rather than 'soda' and 'idea' rather than 'idear' are examples of the types of inquiries pertinent to a ________ study." (Colleen Elaine Donnelly, Linguistics for Writers. State Univiversity of New York Press, 1994)
inflectional morphemes
modify a verb's tense, aspect, mood, person, or number, or a noun's, pronoun's or adjective's number, gender or case, without affecting the word's meaning or class (part of speech). Examples of applying " " morphemes to words are adding -s to the root dog to form dogs and adding -ed to wait to form waited. An ________ morpheme changes the form of a word. In English, there are eight inflections.[3] Also, known as conjugation.
different types of change that language undergo at all levels of language change
phonetic-sounds, morphological-words, semantic-meaning, syntactic-set of rules, lexical- word bank
folk etymology
reanalysis - sometimes called pseudo-etymology, popular etymology, or analogical reformation - is a change in a word or phrase resulting from the replacement of an unfamiliar form by a more familiar one.[1][2][3] The form or the meaning of an archaic, foreign, or otherwise unfamiliar word is reanalyzed as resembling more familiar words or morphemes. Rebracketing is a form of folk etymology in which a word is broken down or "bracketed" into a new set of supposed elements. Back-formation, creating a new word by removing or changing parts of an existing word, is often based on folk etymology. The term folk etymology is a loan translation from German Volksetymologie, coined by Ernst Förstemann in 1852.[4] Folk etymology is a productive process in historical linguistics and language change. Reanalysis of a word's history or original form can affect its spelling, pronunciation, or meaning. This is frequently seen in relation to loanwords or words that have become archaic or obsolete. Examples of words created or changed through folk etymology include the English dialectal form sparrowgrass, originally from Greek ἀσπάραγος ("asparagus") remade by analogy to the more familiar words sparrow and grass,[5] or the word burger, originally from Hamburg + -er ("thing connected with"), but understood as ham + burger.[6]
Receptive language
refers to the process of understanding what is said to the subject.
Expressive language
refers to the use of words and sentences to communicate messages to others.
classification of speech acts
representatives, expressives, declaratives, directives, commissives Representatives: assertions claims reports Directives: suggestions requests commands Expressives: apologies complaint thanks Commissives: promises threats offers Declaratives: decrees declarations
level II Early Production Stage
second step of language dev. is marked by limited comprehension with one or two word reponses
Input for instruction
should be comprehensible input +1/zone of proximal development = input and instruction that is just above the students abilities hypothesis is Krashen's attempt to explain how the learner acquires a second language - how second language acquisition takes place. The Input hypothesis is only concerned with 'acquisition', not 'learning'. According to this hypothesis, the learner improves and progresses when he/she receives second language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence. For example, if a learner is at a stage 'i', then acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to 'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to level 'i + 1'. We can then define 'Comprehensible Input' as the target language that the learner would not be able to produce but can still understand. It goes beyond the choice of words and involves presentation of context, explanation, rewording of unclear parts, the use of visual cues and meaning negotiation. The meaning successfully conveyed constitutes the learning experience.
umlaut
sound change where a vowel sound was modified to conform more closely to the vowel in the next syllable ex; foot - feet (first occured in germanic lang 450AD) In historical linguistics, metaphony is a general term for a class of sound change in which one vowel in a word is influenced by another in a process of assimilation. The sound change is normally "long-distance" in that the vowel triggering the change may be separated from the affected vowel by several consonants, or sometimes even by several syllables.
Goal of Pragmatics
the ability to communicte in culturally sensitive and contextually appropriate ways is a subfield of linguistics and semiotics that studies the ways in which context contributes to meaning.______ encompasses speech act theory, conversational implicature, talk in interaction and other approaches to language behavior in philosophy, sociology, linguistics and anthropology.[1] Unlike semantics, which examines meaning that is conventional or "coded" in a given language, ________ studies how the transmission of meaning depends not only on structural and linguistic knowledge (e.g., grammar, lexicon, etc.) of the speaker and listener, but also on the context of the utterance, any pre-existing knowledge about those involved, the inferred intent of the speaker, and other factors.[2] In this respect, _________explains how language users are able to overcome apparent ambiguity, since meaning relies on the manner, place, time etc. of an utterance.[1]
semantics
the literal meaning of words, sentences and phrases ___________is primarily the linguistic, and also philosophical, study of meaning—in language, programming languages, formal logics, and semiotics. It focuses on the relationship between signifiers—like words, phrases, signs, and symbols—and what they stand for, their denotation.
Recursion
the repeated sequential use of a particular type of linguistice grammatical structure is the repeated sequential use of a particular type of linguistic element or grammatical structure. Also called linguistic recursion. Recursion has also been described more simply as the ability to place one component inside another component of the same kind. A linguistic element or grammatical structure that can be used repeatedly in sequence is said to be recursive. Recursion and Infinitude "[One] factor that encourages linguists to believe that human languages are infinite sets stems from a presumed connection between linguistic creativity and the infinite cardinality of languages. Note, for example, this statement by [Noam] Chomsky (1980: 221-222): . . . the rules of the grammar must iterate in some manner to generate an infinite number of sentences, each with its specific sound, structure, and meaning. We make use of this 'recursive' property of grammar constantly in everyday life. We construct new sentences freely and use them on appropriate occasions . . .
indirect speech act
the speakers communicates to the receiver more than he actually says.
pragmatics 1:2 language Use
the study of the use of language; deals with intentions being utterances ________is a subfield of linguistics and semiotics that studies the ways in which context contributes to meaning. ___________ encompasses speech act theory, conversational implicature, talk in interaction and other approaches to language behavior in philosophy, sociology, linguistics and anthropology.[1] Unlike semantics, which examines meaning that is conventional or "coded" in a given language, ________studies how the transmission of meaning depends not only on structural and linguistic knowledge (e.g., grammar, lexicon, etc.) of the speaker and listener, but also on the context of the utterance, any pre-existing knowledge about those involved, the inferred intent of the speaker, and other factors.[2] In this respect,__________ explains how language users are able to overcome apparent ambiguity, since meaning relies on the manner, place, time etc. of an utterance.[1] The ability to understand another speaker's intended meaning is called ____________ competence involves the rules for appropriate and effective communication.____________ involves three skills: using language for greeting, demanding etc., changing language for talking differently depending on who it is you are talking to; following rules such as turn taking, staying on topic.
universal grammar (Chomsky)
theory that proposes that that the ability to learn language is innate, distinctly human and distinct form all other parts of human cognition The nativist theory is a biologically based theory, which argues that humans are pre-programmed with the innate ability to develop language. Noam Chomsky is the main theorist associated with the nativist perspective. He developed the idea of the Language Acquisition Device (LAD).
metaphors /figurative language
this type of language become conventionalized leading to shifts in the meaning of those words
mechanisms by which language occurs
umulaut, phonological change, phonemic merger, phonemic split, borrowing, euphemism, folk etymologies, metaphors, taboos,
derivational morphemes
when combined with a root, change either the semantic meaning or part of speech of the affected word. For example, in the word happiness, the addition of the bound morpheme -ness to the root happy changes the word from an adjective (happy) to a noun (happiness). In the word unkind, un- functions as a " " morpheme, for it inverts the meaning of the word formed by the root kind. Generally the affixes used with a root word are bound morphemes.
constative utterance (speech act)
words that describe a situation;
performative utterance (speech act)
words that incite action; speech that constitutes an act "i do" in marriage ceremony
