cumulative psyc
who are popular, proud, and socially dominant victims?
increasingly skilled at avoiding adult awareness, picking victims, and using nonphysical methods to avoid adult punishment
what is the infant brain inborn with?
infant brain has an inborn readiness to learn
what is the synaptic gap?
the pathway across which neurotransmitters carry information from the axon of the sending neuron to the dendrites of the receiving neuron
what is puberty?
the period of rapid growth and sexual development that begins in adolescence - puberty usually lasts three to five years. many more years are required to achieve psychosocial maturity
what is conditioning?
the processes by which responses become linked to particular stimuli and learning takes place. emphasizes the importance of repeated practice
what is bed-sharing?
when two or more people sleep in the same bed
what is doula?
woman who helps with the birth process. offers support: massage, breast-feeding, etc (not the same as a midwife)
How can adults achieve a healthy weight?
- Mediterranean diet (fish, fiber, olive oil) - Nuts (reduce obesity and mortality in all ethnic groups) - Surgery for morbid obesity
What are the trends of friendship with the elderly?
- Members of the current oldest generation who never married are usually content, not lonely - Well-being similar to married people - Research shows that we need close friends in later life - Don't realize the importance of social relationships until they end - Successful aging requires reduction in social isolation - Quality of friendship is crucial
What factors protect health in adulthood?
- Money - Education - Intelligence
what are manifestations of depression?
- eating disorders, school alientation, sexual risk-taking, self-harm, cutting
What do work schedules look like in adulthood?
- In the US, only about 66% of all employees work M-F, 8-5 - Evenings, nights, weekends - Job satisfaction linked with employees setting their own hours
How does appearance in shape and agility change in adulthood?
- Increase in waist circumference - Muscles weaken - Stoop when standing - People lose an inch of height by age 65 - Compression of spinal discs - Harder to rise from sitting
What are health risks of hormone replacement therapy (HRT)?
- Increased risk of heart disease, stroke, breast cancer - Breast cancer risk has been confirmed
What do you need to note about intimacy?
- Intimacy needs are lifelong - Every adult seeks connection
What are trends with work seen in older employees?
- Less likely to be late/absent to work - More motivated - Mentor others - More pride in job well done
What are other types of NCDs?
- Lewy body disease - Huntington disease - Multiple sclerosis - Traumatic brain injury - Repeated concussions (athletes and soldiers) - Last stages of syphilis - AIDS - BSE
What are other conditions that mimic dementia?
- Malnutrition - Dehydration - Brain tumors - Physical illness - Overmedication - Polypharmacy
What factors accumulate by old age and create huge discrepancies?
- Many minorities work in jobs that don't pay social security - No pension - Repeated stress causes hypertension and obesity
what did lev vygotsky emphasize?
- emphasis on how the social aspects of development rather than Piaget (individual) - every aspect of children's cognitive development is embedded in a social context
what is cognitive theory?
- in cognitive theory, a set of assumptions that the individual uses to organize perceptions and experiences - interpretation of experience is pivotal, not experience itself
how is education different with other nations?
- public education issues are controlled by the central government - similar resources and standards across schools
what are the two main theorists of psychonalalytic theory?
1. sigmund freud - psychosexual stages 2. erik erikson - psychosocial stages
what are the DSM-5 symptoms of anorexia?
1. significantly low body weight for developmental stage (BMI of 17 or lower) 2. intense fear of weight gain 3. disturbed body perception and denial of the problem
what are the five stages of social play by mildred parten?
1. solitary play: child plays alone, unaware of other children playing nearby 2. onlooker play: child watches other children play 3. parallel play: children play with similar objects in similar ways, but not together 4. associative play: children interact, sharing material, but their play is not reciprocal 5. cooperative play: children play together, creating dramas or taking turns
what are the two kinds of play?
1. solitary pretend play 2. social play
how is play similar in every culture?
1. throwing and catching 2. pretending to be adults 3. drawing with chalk, markers, sticks, whatever
what is treatment of ADHD?
1. training for family and child 2. special education for teachers 3. medication - Ritalin, Concerta, Strattera, Adderall, Focalin, Vyvnase
what are the three levels of substance abuse?
1. use - experimental 2. abuse - experiencing harm 3. addiction - needing the drug to avoid feeling, nervous, anxious, or in pain
What is the statistic of infertility in adults?
12% of all adult couples are infertile - age correlated with infertility - males: low sperm count, older than 45, pollution, STI, stress - females: diseases, smoking, dieting, obesity, PID, age, STI
What is the relationship of adults and antidepressant drug use?
12% of young adults; 20% of 45-64 year old's take antidepressants
how much do newborns sleep?
15 to 17 hours of sleep/day
what is the age range for emerging adulthood?
18 to 25 years
What is neuroticism?
Anxious, moody, self-punishing, critical
What is neurocognitive disorder (NCD)?
Any of a number of brain diseases that affect a person's ability to remember, analyze, plan, or interact with other people
How are experts intuitive?
Experts rely on their past experiences and on immediate contexts, and their actions are more intuitive and less stereotypic - Novices follow formal procedures and rules
what is the science of human development?
the science that seeks to understand how and why people of all ages and circumstances change or remain the same over time
Who are caregivers for the elderly?
- Spouse is typically caregiver - Siblings - Adult daughters - Sons - Daughters-in-law - Adult grandchildren
What does vocational identity in emerging adulthood look like?
- Between the ages of 18-27, the average US worker holds 8 jobs - Want interesting jobs, coworkers with similar values, do not want to climb ladder rung by rung
what occurs in autonomy vs shame and doubt in erikson's psychoanalytic theory?
- 1 to 3 years - erikson's second crisis of psychosocial development. toddlers either succeed or fail in gaining a sense of self-rule over their actions and their bodies
what occurs in the anal stage in freud's psychoanalytic theory?
- 1 to 3 years - primary pleasure moth = anus - toilet training - if frustrated - anal retentive - seeks control, overly regulated
what are the results of the rovee-collier experiement?
- 1 week later (most started to kick immediately, they remembered) - 2 weeks later (random kicking, forgotten) - reminder session (watched mobile move, but not tied to mobile, next day, tied to mobile, and remember how to move via kicking)
what is stranger wariness?
- 1 year - fear of unfamiliar people, especially when they move too close, too quickly - anything unexpected - infant expresses concern
what are the statistics of bulimia?
- 1-3% of female teenagers and young adults - three times as common as anorexia
What is the attitude of premarital sex in emerging adulthood?
- Contraception: premarital sex is more accepted - Cohort shift: living together before marriage is more accepted - Most US women under age 30 who had babies in 2011 were not married
What occurs when families need a nursing home for their elder?
- Coordinate - Supplement - Fund
What is the effect of cognitive flexibility in emerging adulthood?
- Countering stereotypes - Less prejudiced than parents - As postfrontal cortex, people rethink stereotypes
how to peers influence behavior with romantic partners?
- influence each other on a wide variety of things - typically first occur in high school - selection fluidity and rapidity mitigate against permanency - peer support help coping - perception of peer sexual activity influential
what happens in the rovee-collier experiment?
- three months old - mobile-and-ribbon apparatus tied to infants leg - taught to move mobile via kicking leg
what is the age range for infancy?
0 to 2 years
how does implantation occur?
1 week following conception - 100 cells - separate into two masses - outer cells form shell = placenta (grows first) - inner cells from nucleus = embryo
what are the four obstacles to logic that are evident in the mistake?
1. centration 2. focus on appearance 3. static reasoning 4. irreversibility
What are the four types of stratification?
1. Age 2. Gender 3. Ethnicity 4. Income/SES
What are the three types of intelligence proposed by Robert Sternberg?
1. Analytic intelligence 2. Creative intelligence 3. Practical intelligence
What are the three facts about intimate partner violence in emerging adulthood?
1. Emerging adults experience more intimate partner violence than those over 25 2. Alcohol and drug abuse increase likelihood and severity 3. Rates are high, but accurate reporting is difficult
What are the three roles of emerging adulthood?
1. Employee 2. Spouse 3. Parent
What are the four self-theories?
1. Erikson - Integrity vs. Despair 2. Holding on to One's Self 3. Socio-emotional Selective Theory 4. The Positive Effect
What are the three aspects of body function?
1. Organ reserve 2. Homeostasis 3. Allostatic load
What are the ways to be generative in adulthood?
1. Parenthood 2. Caregiving 3. Employment
What are Sternberg's three aspects of love?
1. Passion 2. Intimacy 3. Commitment
what is the embryonic period?
3rd - 8th week
Who is Charles Spearman?
A British psychologist who suggested that the behaviors we consider as intelligence are all based off a single ability or general factor.
What is a kinkeeper?
A caregiver who takes responsibility for maintaining communication among family members - An example would be a middle-aged mother
What is Parkinson Disease?
A chronic, progressive disease that is characterized by muscle tremor and rigidity and sometimes major NCD - Caused by reduced dopamine production in the brain - DA-producing neurons degenerate - Impaired motor control - May or may not develop NCD - 3%
What is elderspeak of ageism?
A condescending way of speaking to older adults that resembles baby talk, with simple, short sentences, exaggerated emphasis, repetition, slower rate and higher pitch than used in 'normal' speech - Elderspeak reduces communication; Higher frequencies are harder for the elderly to hear
What is allostasis?
A dynamic body adjustment to long-term biological conditions of a person's life.
what is the developmental theory?
A group of ideas, assumptions, and generalizations that interpret and illuminate the thousands of observations that have been made about human growth. A developmental theory provides a framework for explaining the patterns and problems of development.
What is assisted living?
A living arrangement for elderly people that combines privacy and independence with medical supervision
What does a long-term committed partnership correlate with in adulthood?
A long-term committed partnership correlates with health and happiness throughout life
What is naturally occurring retirement community (NORC)?
A neighborhood or apartment complex whose population is mostly retired people who moved to the location as younger adults and never left - Community - Friends - Home-repair - Housework - Gardening
What are instrumental activities of daily life (IADLs) of elderly?
Actions (budgeting, preparing food) that are important to independent living and that require some intellectual competence and forethought. The ability to perform these tasks may be even more critical to self-sufficiency than ADL ability - Evaluating nutrition - Grocery shopping - Preparing income tax forms - Using appliances - Keeping appointments - Keeping a budget - Cooking, laundry, household chores
What is cohabitation?
An arrangement in which a couple live together in a committed romantic relationship but are not formally married
When should you report elder abuse?
Adult Protective Services - duty to report - Research says that up to 25% of elders are vulnerable to abuse, but don't report!
What is ecological validity?
Cognition should be measured in settings that are realistic as possible and the abilities measured should be those needed in real life
How is parenthood generative?
Bearing and rearing children are labor-intensive expressions of generative - Children reorder adult perspectives - Less focused on personal identity - Adults must care more for children than vice versa - Values may change (gender roles)
What is social convoy?
Collectively, the family members, friends, acquaintances, and even strangers who move through the years of life with a person, all aging together
What is massive open online courses (MOOCs)?
College courses that are offered solely online. Typically thousands of students enroll.
What is the relationship between comorbidity and NCDs?
Comorbidity is common, meaning more rapid progression
What is integrated care?
Cooperative actions by professionals, friends, family members, and the care receiver to achieve optimal caregiving
What is the effect of diversity?
Deeper thought and advanced cognition
What is the most common reversible condition mistaken for dementia?
Depression
what is the myelin sheath?
a fatty substance that coats an axon, that speeds the transmission of nerve impulses from neuron to neuron
What does drug abuse look like in emerging adulthood?
Drug abuse is when a drug impairs the user's biological or psychological well-being - largely connected to thrill - illegal drug use peaks at age 20 and then declines sharply - more common among college students - restriction of alcohol on campuses
When is elder abuse likely?
Elder abuse is likely if - The caregiver suffers from emotional problems or substance abuse - The care receiver is frail, confused, and demanding - The care location is isolated, where visitors are few
What is young-old?
Generally, ages 65-75 - Largest group of older adults, few people notice them - Healthy, active, financially secure and independent
What is old-old?
Generally, those over 75 - Suffer losses in mind, body or social support - Care for themselves
What is oldest-old?
Generally, those over 85 - Dependent on others for almost everything (nursing homes or hospitals) - A small group, easy to notice
What is genetic adaptation?
Genese of an entire species as well as genetic differences with a species - Some genes cause premature aging (Progeria) - Some allow long life (alleles common among people who live to be 100) - ApoE1 (protective- longer life in men) - ApoE4 (increased risk of AD, heart disease, stroke)
What do good health habits and favorable genes favor in late adulthood?
Good health habits and favorable genes favor the potential for no intellectual decline
How to habits before 30 affect health?
Habits before after 30 affect health after age 60
What is choice overload?
Having so many options makes a thoughtful choice difficult. Regret after making a choice is more likely.
What improves during emerging adulthood?
Health
How can risk-taking be destructive for emerging adulthood?
High rate of severe injury in emerging adults, accidental death is more common
What can intimate partner violence look like?
Hitting, kicking, breathing, strangling, choking, burning, threatening, emotional, sexual, physical, psychological
What is the 5th stage of Erikson's theory, in adolescence?
Identity versus Role-Confusion
What is the stereotype threat of memory in late adulthood?
If older people suspect their memory is fading, anxiety itself impairs memory
What is the relationship of adults and illegal drug use?
Illegal drug use declines almost always by 40 - Prescription drug abuse is increasing
What is openness?
Imaginative, curious, artistic, creative, open to new experiences
What is the current law with retirement?
In the 1980s, the US outlawed mandatory retirement (exceptions - jet pilot)
When do emerging adults typically get married?
In the US, most people in their 20s are not married - Average age in 2010 is 27
What does ageism affect?
Income and health
What is integrity?
Integrity = wholeness - Integration of death and the self are crucial accomplishments - Acceptance of death and the life review are important to integrity
What are cognitive artifacts?
Intellectual tools, such as writing, invented by one generation and then passed down from generation to generation to foster learning within societies - Universal education - Immunization - Clean water - Electricity - Global travel - The Internet
How have intergenerational relationships become important?
Intergenerational relationships are becoming more important as many grandparents have only one or two grandchildren
What is the 6th stage of Erikson's theory, in emerging adulthood?
Intimacy versus Isolation
What is major neurocognitive disorder?
Irreversible loss of intellectual functioning caused by organic brain damage of disease. Formally called dementia, major NCD becomes more common with age, but it is abnormal and pathological even in the very old.
What is the effects of sitting for long hours?
It correlates with almost every unhealthy condition
What is agreeableness?
Kind, helpful, easygoing, generous
How is the care of the older generation?
Many adults do not need to provide extensive care for older generation
What is the trend of NCDs?
NCDs increase every decade after age 60
what is knowledge base?
a body of knowledge that makes it easier to learn new information in a particular area. factors affecting knowledge base: past experience current opportunity and personal motivation
What is the frail elderly?
People older than 65, and often older than 85, who are physically infirm, very ill, or cognitively disabled - 30% of elders become infirm for at least 1 year before they die
What is holding on to one's self?
People tend to maintain a strong sense of self. As we age, objects and places become more important than in early life
What are fictive kin?
People who become accepted as part of a family who have no genetic or legal relationship to that family - Adults benefit from kin, fictive or not
What is implicit memory?
Recognition and habits
What is age in place?
Remaining in the same home and community in later life, adjusting but not leaving when health fades - 83% of those 55-64 prefer to stay in their own homes when they retire
How does adoption look like in adulthood?
Rough 1/3 of all North American adults become stepparents, adoptive parents, or foster parents - Advantage to stepparents and foster parents - Legally connected to child for life - Child is wanted - "Open" adoption helps with coping - Strong bonds (especially when adopted at infants) - First years at institution - May struggle with secure attachment
how does STEM combine piaget and vygotsky?
STEM learning (science, technology, engineering, math) - begins with curiosity (piaget/discovery) - includes social learning (vygotsky/scaffolding)
What is demography?
Science that describes population, usually by cohort, age, gender, or region
What is the strength of the sexual-reproductive system in emerging adulthood?
Sexual-reproductive system is strongest during emerging adulthood - Miscarriages are less common - Serious birth defects unlikely
What is assisted reproductive technology (ART)?
The manipulation of sperm and/or egg in the absence of sexual intercourse that may involve a third party - 40% of IVF result in successful births - Success decreases with age - 97% of births have no defects - Increased risk of prematurity and low birth weight
what is the difference-equals-deficit error?
The mistaken belief that a devotion from some norm is necessarily inferior to behavior or characteristics that meet the standard
What is Alzheimer's Disease?
The most common cause of major NCD, characterized by gradual deterioration of memory and personality and marked by the formation of plaques of beta-amyloid protein and tangles of tau in the brain - Severe memory loss (main symptom) - Diagnosis not definitive until autopsy - Plaques and tangles
What is Hayflick Limit?
The number of times a human cell is capable of dividing into two new cells. The limit for most human cells is approximately 50 divisions, an indication that the life span is limited by our genetic program
What is average life span?
The number of years the average person in a particular population group is likely to live - 2015 US = 8- (77 for men, 82 for women)
What is filial responsibility?
The obligation of adult children to care for their aging parents - Members of the older generation are LESS likely to say that their children should provide substantial care for them
What is the relationship between expertise and age?
The relationship between age and expertise is age- and task-related - Experienced adults often use selective optimization with compensation in becoming experts - The brain adapts as people become experts
What is Generativity vs. Stagnation?
The seventh of Erikson's eight stages of development. Adults seek to be productive in a caring way, often as parents. Generativity also occurs through art, caregiving, and employment. - It is a way of establishing and guiding the next generation
What is intimacy versus isolation?
The sixth of Erikson's eight stages of development. Adults seek someone with whom to share their lives in an enduring and self-sacrificing commitment. Without such commitment, they risk profound aloneness and isolation.
What is activity theory?
The view that elderly people want and need to remain active in a variety of social spheres—with relatives, friends, and community groups—and become withdrawn only unwillingly, as a result of ageism. - Being active lengthens life (happier, more alert, less depressed)
What is churning?
When couples live together, then break up, then get back together. - High rates of verbal/physical abuse - More likely with cohabitation because the partners are less committed to each other
What is linked lives?
When the success, health, and well-being of each family member are connected to those of other members
What does work do for adults?
Work improves esteem, wellness, and is a prime source for generativity
what is XY?
a 23rd chromosome pair that consists of an X-shaped chromosome from the mother and a Y-shaped chromosome from the father - XY zygotes become male
the younger the drug use...
addiction is more likely
what psychological problems does drug use cause?
anxiety, depression, rebellion
what does BMI look like at age 5 and 6?
average BMI is lower at age 5 and 6 than any other time of life
what are sex differences?
biological differences between males and females, in organs, hormones, and body shape
what is center day care?
children care in a place especially designed for the purpose. several paid adults care for many children, usually grouped by age. the day-care center is licensed, and providers are trained and certified in child development
what is preconventional moral reasoning?
first level = emphasizing personal rewards and punishments - self-centered level - similar to preoperational thought, egocentric, children seek pleasure and avoid pain rather than focusing on social concerns - ex: Heinz dilemma - he should = heinz needs his wife to take care for him - against = he will go to jail
what is palmar grasping reflex?
if something touches the palm, infant will grip tightly
what are synapse?
intersection between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites of other neurons
what is induced labor?
labor is started, speeded, or strengthened with a drug - 20 to 25%
what is neurological plasticity?
neurogenesis in adulthood
what is immediacy of peeres?
peers nearby at moment are most influential
what is scaffolding?
temporary support that is tailored to a learner's needs. helps them master the next task in a given learning process. - novice and mentor in learning zone together
what is wasting?
tendency for children to be severely underweight for their age as a result of malnutrition
what is an intelligence quotient test?
test designed to measure intellectual aptitude, or ability to learn in school - mean = 100 - SD = 15
What is the most pivotal influence on well-being of the elderly?
Financial - Income correlates with gender, ethnicity, and age - Low SES - Less education - Worse health - Poorer work history - Fewer benegits - No pension - Increased risk for diabetes and early death - Cumulative stress of poverty (becomes very great by late adulthood) - Change earlier in life to help reduce problems later - Retirement income worth less
What is a hysterectomy?
Surgical removal of the uterus, usually includes removal of the ovaries. This causes sudden menopause if the woman has not experienced it naturally. - 1 in 4 women
What is the effect of college in emerging adulthood?
Tertiary education improves health and wealth - Education, not just potential, makes the difference - American with master's earns twice as much as HS diploma - Men $17,558 - Women $10,393 - College graduates are healthier - live 10 years longer
What is maximum life span?
The oldest possible age that members of a species can live under ideal circumstances. For humans, that age seems to be 122 years
What is senescence?
The process of aging - Occurs in everyone and in every body part - The rate of decline is variable within and between persons - no primary because of genes; nurture
what are alternatives to college?
- 1/3 of hs graduates do not enter college - 3/4 enter community colleges and do not complete an associate degree in three years - only 37% of US adults have a bachelor degree - high school graduates are unprepared for jobs
what are the statistics of autism spectrum disorder?
- 1/59 8-year-olds in US (1/38 boys, 1/151 girls) - 5X higher in boys than girls - 1/3 higher among european americans than hispanic, asian, or african americans
what occurs during stage 5 of tertiary circular reactions?
- 12 to 18 months - new means via experimentation - experimentation and creativity - all new, creative, exploration
what is the statistics of embryos at conception?
- 120:1000 male to female at conception (male swim faster) - male embryos are more vulnerable - about 104:100 male to female at birth (exception: underdeveloped countries)
what are the statistics of drug use and alcohol use?
- 16% of HS seniors had five drinks in a row in the past two weeks - 2% daily cigarette smokers - 6% daily marijuana users
what occurs during stage 6 of tertiary circular reactions?
- 18 to 24 months - new means via mental combinations - considering before doing
What demographic statistics in 2020 is concerning?
- 2% of population is over 85, this does not overwhelm the other 98% - 3% of those over 64 are in nursing homes or hospitals - More commonly caregivers than care receivers
What are the statistics of demography, in the past and current?
- 200 years ago: 20X more people under 15 than over 64 - Current: 3X under 15 than over 64 - 9% of world population is over 64 - 17% in US, 18% in Canada, 23% in Italy
what is the brain weight in development?
- 25% of adult weight at birth - 75% of adult weight at 2 - grows more rapidly than any other organ
what occurs during stage 3 of secondary circular reactions?
- 4 to 8 months - making interesting sights last - infant attempts to produce exciting experience; continuing experience
what are the statistics of anorexia?
- 5 to 20% death by organ failure or suicide - rate of anorexia spikes at puberty and again in emerging adulthood
what are the time stages for smiling and laughing?
- 6 weeks: social smile - 3 months: laughter, curiosity - 4 months: full, responsive smiles - 6 months: laughs loudly
what occurs during stage 4 of secondary circular reactions?
- 8 to 12 months - new adaptations and anticipations - deliberate and purposeful - initiate and anticipate experience (goal-directed) - ex: putting mom's hands together to make her play patty cake
what is sequence of puberty of boys?
- 9 1/2 = testes increase production of testosterone - 10 = testes and scrotum grow larger - 11 1/2 = pubic hair begins to appear - 12 = penis growth begins - 12 1/2 = spermarche (first ejaculation); weight spurt begins - 13 = peak height spurt 14 = peak muscle and organ growth; shoulders become noticeably broader - 15 = voice lowers; visible facial hair - 18 = final pubic-hair pattern
what is the sequence of puberty of girls?
- 9 = ovaries increase production of estrogen and progesterone - 9 1/2 = uterus and vagina begin to grow larger - 10 = breast "bud" stage - 11 = pubic hair begins to appear; weight spurt begins - 12 = peak muscle and organ growth; hips become noticeably wider - 12 1/2 = menarche (first menstrual period) - 13 = first ovulation - 14 = voice lowers - 15 = final pubic-hair pattern - 16 = full breast growth
what occurs by age 6 in brain development?
- 90% of adult brain weight
what occurs in the first three months in development?
- 9th week = sex organs develop - 3 months = 3 oz, 3 in - sex organs are visible by the end of the 3rd month (12 weeks)
What is death likely from in emerging adulthood?
- Accidents - Suicide - Homicide
What is the relationship between adult children and parents in adulthood?
- Adult children living with parents has more to do with finances than affection - Relationships strengthened by living apart - Percentage of adults living with the parents was 20% in 2008 and 11% in 1980 - Parents provide more financial and emotional support to their adult children than vice versa
What is the advantage and disadvantage of cohabitation?
- Advantage: financial (people save money by living together) - Disadvantage: less commitment if children are born and children repeat the structure of youth
What's the harm in ageism?
- Ageism impairs daily life - Ageism idolizes the patterns of the young - Sleep patters: early waking, napping - Lack of exercise: sports leagues, bike lanes - Unfair expectations
What is the relationship of adults and alcohol use?
- Alcohol can be beneficial in moderation - No more than 2 drinks per day - Wine, beer, or spirits in moderation - Alcohol reduces coronary heart disease and strokes - Excessive drinking is harmful - Destroy brain cells, liver damage
What factors affect the relationship between parents and adult children?
- Assistance arises both from need and from the ability to provide - Frequency of contact is related to geographical proximity, not affection - Love is influenced by interaction remembered from childhood - Sons feel stronger obligation, daughters feel stronger affection - Financial assistance and emotional support flow more often from the idler generation down
How does stepparenting look like in adulthood?
- Average age of new stepchildren is 9 - Unrealistic expectations for blended family - Divorce is more common in second marriages, especially when they have stepchildren
What are the tends in diet for adults?
- Between ages 20-60, metabolism decreases by age 30% - 2/3rd overweight (BMI over 25) - 1/3 obese (BMI over 29) - Obesity rates have plateaued in US
What is current context of college?
- Critical thinking, analysis, communication - Only half as much as 20 years ago - Students study less - Less proficient at reading, math, etc - Academic expectations are reduced - Fewer students enroll in classes that are challenging
What are the menopause symptoms?
- Disturbed body temperature - Hot flashes, flushes, cold sweats - Depression and mood changes
What do you need to note about Erikson's stages of adulthood?
- Earlier stages are linked to chronological age, but adult stages do not occur in a linear pattern - Adults may be in any of these stages at any given age or time - Circumstances may determine developmental stages
How does ethnic background affects every aspect of development lifelong?
- Education - Health - Place of residence
What factors are linked to the big five?
- Education (conscientious people are more likely to complete college) - Cheating on exams (low on agreeableness) - Marriage (extroverts more often marry) - Divorce (more likely for neurotics) - IQ (higher in openness) - Political views (conservatives are less open)
What does political activity look like in elderly?
- Elderly people people rarely attend political rallies - More write letters to their representatives, vote, and identify with a political party - Elderly are more likely to monitor the news
What is the effect of diversity in the workplace in adulthood?
- Employment discrimination in gender and ethnicity is still present, but to a much smaller degree than 50 years ago - Less gender segregation in specific jobs (male nurse) - More culturalism and openness to different ethnic groups in the work place - 1960: 36% women, 11% non-white vs 2012: 47% women, 35% non-white
How does the exosystem compensation the senses look like?
- Every sense becomes slower and less sharp with each passing decade - Touch (fingers) - Taste (sour and bitter) - Smell, pain, sight, hearing - Many devices compensate for aging - Hearing aids, eye glasses - Without compensation of sensory decline, can lead to isolation, depression, less movement, and less intellectual stimulation
What does religious involvement look like in the elderly?
- Faith and praying increase with age - Religious practices are correlated with physical and emotional health - Religion may be a factor in maintaining mental health and preventing deterioration
What is important to not about friendships in adulthood?
- Friends provide practical help and useful advice when serious problems arise - Friendships IMPROVE with age - By adulthood, most friendships are rated as close and not problematic - Friendships help with mental health and physical health - Health suffers in adulthood if a person does not have friends
How do gender roles and discrimination signal people to treat men and women differently?
- Gender based fear can limit women's independence and delay care for men - Women are asked to live with family more than men - Research suggests it's more dangerous for men to live alone than women - Women usually outlive men - Men are thought to suppress emotions and not seek medical care (men more vulnerable in old age)
What factors affect diseases in adulthood?
- Genetics - Pollution/neighborhood - Stress - Drug abuse - Nutrition - Exercise - Regular screenings
What trends have been seen with intergenerational relationships?
- Good relationships with adult children increases well-being for older adults - Poor relationships can cause negative outcomes for everyone
How does brain efficiency look like in late adulthood?
- Higher education and vocational challenge correlate with less decline - Protective and flexible - Exercise - Nutrition - Normal blood pressure - All influence brain health
What is changing status in emerging adulthood look like?
- Identity becomes deeper, more reflective and meaningful in 20's - Determination to have career and children is part of identity achievement; high emotional satisfaction
What are Erikson's stages of adulthood?
- Identity vs. Role-Confusion - Intimacy vs. Isolation - Generativity vs. Stagnation - Integrity vs. Despair
What are the three harmful consequences of ageism?
- If people of any age treat older people as if they are frail and confused, that treatment itself makes them become more dependent - If people believe that the norms for young adults should apply to apply to everyone, the needs of elders will be ignored - If older adults focus on what they have lost instead of what they have gained, they lose the joy of old age
What is the trend of marriage in adulthood?
- Later marriage than earlier generations - Less common - Most adults still find marriage desirable - Adults thrive is someone is committed to their well-being - Gender differences in satisfaction - 40% of new marriages have at least one partner that was married before
What is the demographic rectangle?
- Less babies - More elders - Early death is uncommon
What is the relationship of adults and tobacco and smoking?
- Long-term effects = cancer, heart disease, stroke, emphysema - 22% of adult men, 18% of women, rates peak during the 20s - "the single largest preventable cause of death and chronic diseases in the world today"
What are the benefits of exercise in adults?
- Lower blood pressure - Stronger heart and lungs - Intensity is unnecessary - Regular exercise is key - Reduced risk of almost every disease - Including depression, diabetes, heart disease, cancer
How do you prevent impairment of NCDs?
- Medication to prevent stroke - Ongoing research - Improving overall health - Healthy diet - Social interaction - Exercise - Brain health - Early diagnosis is effective treatment
What is the relationship between emerging adults and friendships?
- More friends than any other time of life - Friends strengthen mental and physical health - Chosen (selection) - Friends provide companionship if postponing commitment - Social media (maintaining friendships) - Internet use does not diminish friendships
What are personality trends in emerging adulthood?
- More in control of their lives - Able to make their own decisions - Improved self-esteem - More open to new experiences - Self-efficacy and accomplishment - Personality CAN shift after adolescence
What is the effect of postformal thinking?
- More open to new ideas - Less concerned with right/wrong - Embracing gray areas
What is the diversity of college?
- More than half of college students are female - Ethnic, economic, religious, and cultural backgrounds more varied - Majors that were traditionally male now include many women - All more diverse than 50 years ago
What is the shift in family skills in adulthood?
- More women are working in occupations traditionally held by men - Domestic work has gained new respect - It is no longer assumed that a "maternal instinct" is innate to every mother
What is Pick's Disease?
- Most common form of frontotemporal NCDs - Main symptoms - Emotional and social changes (amygdala and PFC deteriorate) - Compassion, self-awareness, judgement - Begins before age 70, progresses rapidly
How does foster parenting look like in adulthood?
- Most difficult form of parenting - Emotional and behavior needs - Early attachment to birth parents - Abuse or neglect from birth parents - Connection may be severed unexpectedly - Frequent moves
What is the trend of work in elderly?
- Most older adults work part-time - More likely to be self-employed
How does the microsystem compensation of sex look like?
- Most people are sexually active throughout adulthood - Tendency is for sex to become less frequent among couples with age - Desire correlates with sexual satisfaction and quality of life more than frequency - Each older person chooses whether and how to be sexual - Optimize by other types of physical interaction (i.e. cuddling) - Kissing and hugging, not intercourse, predicted happiness in long-lasting relationships
What do you need to note about Maslow's sequential stages?
- Movement occurs when people have satisfied their needs at one level and are ready for the next step - In his later years, Maslow reassessed his final level, self-actualization, suggesting another level after that called self-transcendence
How does the brain slow with age in adulthood?
- Neurons fire more slowly - Reaction time lengthens - Multitasking becomes harder
What changes occur in the brain during late adulthood?
- New neurons and dendrites grow in adulthood, but growth is slow - Brain becomes less efficient; overall slowdown - Reduction in production of neurotransmitters - Neural fluid decreases - Thinning of myelin - Some areas of the brain shrink in size (hippocampus, prefrontal cortex) - Volume of gray matter (crucial for processing new experiences) in all areas of the brain is reduced
What is the destructive protection of ageism?
- Older adults are discouraged from leaving home due to potential danger - Serious crime unlikely; homicide rate low - Elders are more in need of exercise and walking
What do non-traditional students look like?
- Older than 24 - Non-European - Part-time - Parents
What is the output of information processing in late adulthood?
- Output is usually verbal- less likely to speak if no one listens - Output in all five primary mental abilities declined (SLS) - Verbal meaning, spatial orientation, inductive reasoning, number ability, word fluency - Gradual decline - Motivation is crucial
What is a nursing home?
- Outright abuse is rare - Many activities - Care varies based on facility - Average annual nursing home cost in US in 2011 was $85,775 (private room)
What changes occur in an adult diet?
- Overweight increases as nations become richer - Obesity increases the risk of every disease - In the U.S. adults gain 1 to 2 pounds/year
What is the relationship between love and marriage in emerging adulthood?
- Parents arrange marriage - Parents supervise interactions - Young adults choose marriage partners - Dependent on era and culture
What is the relationship between emerging adults and parents?
- Parents today are more important to emergent adulthood - May be most important bond in emerging adulthood life - Many still live at home - Parents underwrite independent living - Visits several times per week/phone visits - Relations tend to improve when emerging adults leave home
What are the trends of diseases in adulthood?
- People in the richest nations live 25 years longer than those in the poorest nations - In the US, adults (age 25) with a college degree live an average of nine years longer than those with no HS diploma - As SES gap widens, so do health disparities - The connection between SES and health is ambiguous
What are Abraham Maslow (1954) five sequential stages?
- Physiological needs - Safety and security - Love and belonging - Esteem - Self-actualization
What are the problems of early retirement?
- Private pensions are connected to the stock market, which has declined - Many "baby boomers" have lost a substantial amount of their pensions - Public pensions (social security) don't cover the cost of expenses - People live longer, do not anticipate inflation - No money to travel or meet daily expenses
What has research shown about cohabitation in emerging adulthood?
- Research is based on people 10-20 years ago - Current research shows that there are less negative outcomes
What is the relationship between volunteer work and elderly?
- Research shows there is a link between health and volunteering - Reduces the odds of death, adds time to life - Fosters social connecitons - 75% of people over age 65 don't volunteer
How does changing jobs look like in adulthood?
- Resignations, firings, and hirings occur more often - Temporary employees are more common - People who frequently change jobs by age 36 were three times more likely to have various health problems by age 42
what are the peers influence on romantic partners?
- STRONG influence - much more likely to trust peer influence especially if parents are silent - partners teach each other more about pleasure than consequences
What do same-sex couples look like in adulthood?
- Same norms as heterosexual partners - The US now recognizes same-sex marriage - Main struggle with families is SES status (which is typical)
How does sexual responsiveness change in adulthood?
- Sexual responsiveness slows with age - Orgasm takes longer - Sexual activity may decrease, but satisfaction may increase - Improved communication - Emotional, mental, and physical intimacy are connected
What are the statistics of divorce and remarriage in adulthood?
- Since 1980, almost half as many divorces or permanent separations have occurs than marriages - More than 1/3 of first marriages end in divorce. With each subsequent marriage, odds increase. - Income, self-esteem, and family welfare are lower among the formerly married than among people of the same age or are still married or single
How does appearance in skin and hair change in adulthood?
- Skin is the first visible sign of aging - Skin becomes dryer and rougher - At age 30, wrinkles become visible around the eyes - Face is susceptible to aging because of exposure - By age 60, all faces are wrinkled - Hair grays and thins usually by 40 - "Male pattern baldness"
What does work provide for elders?
- Social support - Status - Increased self-esteem - Continued generativity - Means for supporting the self
What do long-term relationships look like for elderly?
- Spouses buffer against the problems of old age, extending life - Married older adults are healthier, wealthier, and happier than unmarried people their age - ONLY true if marriage is satisfying - 1 in 6 are not satisfying, increasing neither health or happiness - Happiness INCREASES with length of relationship
What is the second most common cause of neurocognitive disorder?
- Stroke (obstruction of blood vessel in brain) - Transient ischemic attack (ministroke) - Reduces oxygen, destroys brain
What are comment tends of college?
- Student can be anywhere - Work done off-campus - Most successful if students are highly motivated - Face-to-face improves motivation and learning
What do you need to note about the big five?
- Traits exist on a spectrum - Extremely high to extremely low
What are trends of cohabitation in emerging adulthood?
- Two-thirds of all newly married couples in the US lived with their partner before marriage - Acceptance within a nation affects happiness - Cultural influences - Living together before marriage does not prevent problems - Research suggests those who live together before marriage were more likely to divorce - Less likely to pool money - Less likely to have close relationships (parents, partner's parents) - Less likely to take care of their partner's health - More likely to break-up
What are the statistics of adults attending college?
- US = 32% of 25-29 year old's have a bachelor's degree - More college student in China, India, and other parts of the world
What is the strategy for selective optimization?
- Unpleasant experiences are reinterpreted as inconsequential - Helps preserve the self - Enables elderly person to be undisturbed by whatever happens - Maintain emotional health via positive self-perception
What should you know about memory in late adulthood
- Vocabulary and words, even capable of learning new words and phrases - Tend to rely on prior knowledge, general principles, familiarity, and rules of thumb - Output in all five primary mental abilities declines (SLS) - Verbal meaning, spatial orientation, inductive reasoning, number ability, word fluency - Gradual decline - Motivation is critical
How does the macrosystem compensation of driving look like?
- With age, sign reading takes longer - Head turning is reduced - Reaction time slows - Night vision worsens - Elderly compensate by avoiding night driving, driving more slowly - Societies need to compensate for those who do not recognize them - Renew licenses without testing, even at 80 - Larger print, mirrors that replace need to turn neck, nonglare headlights, etc
What are the attitudes of unwanted pregnancies in emerging adulthood?
- abortions or birth of unwanted child - contraception takes planning and money
how do allergies look like in early childhood?
- about 3-8% of all young children have a food allergy - milk, eggs, peanuts, tree nuts, soy, wheat, shellfish
what is the statistic of average words in early childhood?
- age 2 = 500 words - age 6 = 10,000 words - six new words per day on average
what is the behaviorists perspective?
- all gender roles, values, and morals are learned - parents are most gender-typed at this stage - ongoing reinforcement and social learning
what does poverty look like for family trouble?
- any risk factor damages a family only if it increases the stress on that family - adults' stressful reaction to poverty is crucial in determining the effect on children
what should you know about tasting?
- appreciate what the mother eats - aid survival: hot spices preserve food and prevent food poisoning - preference endures when migrate to other culture - obesity epidemic and past and past starvation (high-fat foods)
what are the two types of cognitive adaption?
- assimilation - accommodation
when does puberty begin?
- average girl is two years ahead of average boy in height - female height spurt before menarche, boys after spermarche - 2/3rds of the variation in age of puberty is genetic - heavy girls reach menarche years earlier (over 100 lbs) - malnourished youths reach puberty at 15 or later in parts of Africa - less important in males, study shows that body fat delays puberty in males
what do babies prefer listening to?
- babies prefer to listen to the language their mother spoke - high-pitched, simplified, and repetitive speech - child-directed speech (motherese)
what happened to the adoptees from romania?
- banned abortions or birth control - 170,000 children sent to orphanages - no synchrony, play or conversation - if 6 months or younger, they have better outcomes - if more than one year - they are overly friendly to strangers - average IQ - 85 - impulsive, angry teenagers - attachment effects early brain development - insecure attachment correlates with later problems
why is there increased health?
- better medical care = reduction in chronic health conditions - immunization has drastically reduced death - lethal accidents and fatal illness are less common - children have better health - ex: hand-washing - better hygiene via education - more access to medical care and programming - health in middle childhood predicts health outcomes in later life
what are the benefits of active play in middle childhood?
- better overall health, less obesity - cooperation and fair play, problem-solving abilities - sportsmanship/cultural sensitivity
what are the type types of anorexia?
- binge-purge type - restricting type
what is the psychological impact of sexual maturation?
- biology causes all sex characteristics, but psychology determines their impact - sex hormones affect the brain and many culturally influenced thoughts and behaviors reflect an increased understanding of sexuality - masturbation is common for both sexes
what occurs during stage 1 of primary circular reactions?
- birth and 1 month - reflexes: sucking, grasping, staring, listening
what is synchrony?
- birth to 1 year - a coordinated, rapid, and smooth exchange of responses between a caregiver and an infant - experience-expectant
what occurs in trust vs mistrust in erikson's psychoanalytic theory?
- birth to 1 year - erikson's first crisis of psychosocial development. infants learn basic trust if the world is a secure place where basic needs (food, comfort, attention, and so on) are met
what occurs in the oral stage in freud's psychoanalytic theory?
- birth to 1 year - primary pleasure point = mouth - sucking and weaning - if frustrated = oral fixation, stuck or fixated at the oral stage - ex: drinks, eats, smokes, talks excessively
what is a chromosomal miscount?
- born with wrong number of chromosomes - cells usually auto abort - less than 1% born
what are the reflexes that maintain oxygen supply?
- breathing reflex: begins before umbilical cord is cut - hiccups and sneezes - thrashing: moving arms and legs if something covers the face
what is the effect of the social experiences in epigenetics?
- can silence or amplify human genes - lifelong
what is the long-term effects of authoritarian parenting?
- children become conscientious, obedient, quit - not happy - guilty or depressed - internalizing - self-blame - adolescents rebel, leave home early
what is the evidence of latency?
- children prefer the company of their own sex - more same sex friendships - temporal antipathy "boys stink" - shift away from sexual interests, reversed during puberty
what are the signs of psychosocial maturation developing between ages 6 and 11?
- children responsibly perform specific chores - children make decisions about a weekly allowance - children can tell time, and they adhere to set times for various activities - children have homework, including some assignments over several days - children are less often punished than when they were younger - children try to conform to peers in clothes, language, and so on - children express preferences about their after-school care, lessons, and activities - children are responsible for younger children, pets, and in some places, work - children strive for independence from parents
what is multi-directional development?
- continuity: growth is gradual and steady (ex: children grow several inches every year during childhood) - discontinuity: growth is rapid and dramatic (ex: puberty and a butterfly) - stability: no change (ex: chromosomal sex) - changes produce gains and losses
what are the reflexes that maintain constant body temperature?
- cry - tuck their legs - push away blankets and stay still
what are serious health risks?
- damage to gastrointestinal system - cardiac arrest from electrolyte imbalance - compulsive d/o - depression - suicidality
what are positive trends of sex in adolescence?
- decreased teen births - increased use of protection - decreased teen abortion
what is operant conditioning?
- developed by B.F. skinner - the learning process by which a particular action is followed by something desired (reinforcement) or by something unwanted (punishment) in order to promote or prevent an action
what is social learning theory?
- developed by albert bandura - an extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence that other people have over a person's behavior. even without specific reinforcement, every individual learns many things through observation and imitation of other people - learning via modeling
what is social learning?
- developed by albert bandura - emotions and personality are molded as parents reinforce or punish child - the acquisition of behavior patterns by observing the behavior of others - ex: BoBo doll experiment
what is evolutionary theory?
- developed by charles darwin - nature ensures that each species does two things, survive and reproduce
what is classical conditioning?
- developed by ivan pavlov - a learning process in which a meaningful stimulus (such as the smell of food to a hungry animal) gradually comes to be connected with a neutral stimulus (such as a particular sound) that had no special meaning before the learning process began
what is cognitive theory?
- developed by jean piaget - theory of human development that focuses on changes in how people think over time. according to this theory, thoughts shape attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors
what does the teacher-directed approach look like?
- direct instruction - teacher as formal authority - students learn by listening - classroom is orderly and quit - teacher fully manages lessons - fosters autonomy of each individual - encourages academics - students learn from teacher
what occurs in the middle three months (4-6) in development?
- drastic increase in brain development (6X) - divides into hemispheres - begins to fold and wrinkle
what are sexual problems in adolescence?
- earlier puberty and sex before age 15 correlate - unmarried, single teen mothers - grandmother support limited or not available - STIs
when is the best time to learn languages?
- early childhood is the best time to learn languages - proficiency is related to how much language is heard
what are factors linked to resiliency?
- easygoing temperament - high IQ - participating in community activities - social support (relatives, teachers, mentors) - religion, prayer
what is ethnic identity?
- ethnic and racial identity development is not separate from overall identity development, but basic to it, both explicit and implicit process - chronosystem, the macrosystem, and the microsystem all contain implicit racial bias
what is the nonbinary perspective?
- every aspect of human brains, behavior, and bodies is somewhere along a continuum - gender traits overlap between males and females - perspective is prominent in human brain studies
what is the still-face technique?
- experimental practice - adult keeps his or her face unmoving and expressionless in face-to-face interaction with infant - measures synchrony
what does family trouble look like for family trouble?
- family conflict harms children, especially when adults fight about child rearing - fights are more common in stepfamilies, divorced families, and extended families - although genes have some effect, conflict itself is often the main influence on the child's well-being
what is the stepparent structure?
- financial advantage over single-parent - sometimes difficult to develop a parental relationship - age 2 or younger (good transition) - harmony and stability difficult to create with blended family
what is the sexual intercourse impact on sexual maturation?
- finnish researchers found sexually experienced 13-year-olds were more depressed, rebellious, and drug abusing; trend reversed at age 19 - sexual activity of friends is one of the best predictors of sexual activity of adolescent - every gender, ethnic, and age group has become less active than the previous cohort
What is the marital happiness after the wedding stages over the years?
- first 6 months: honeymoon period (happies of all) - 6 months to 5 years: happiness dips (divorce is more common now than later in marriage) - 5 to 10 years: happiness holds steady - 10 to 20 years: happiness dips as children reach puberty - 20 to 30 years: happiness rises when children leave home - 30 to 50 years: happiness is high and steady, barring serious health problems
what occurs during stage 2 of secondary circular reactions?
- first acquired adaptations - 1 to 4 months - begin to interpret perceptions - sucking pacifier differently than nipple
what is the average length of active labor?
- first birth = 12 hours - subsequent births = 7 hours
what occurs in the first month of infant life?
- first month is the most hazardous - public health improvements, clean water, immunization, better access to medical care, medications, and maternal education can affect this result
what does work to prevent drug use?
- florida and california campaigns appealing to the young - graphic image ads - parental example and social changes
what do friendships look like in middle childhood?
- friends teach academic and social skills - more intense over middle childhood - more demands (loyalty) - having no close friends at age 11 predicts depression at age 13 - choose friends whose interest, values, and backgrounds are similar - all kids want "best friend" - same sex, age, ethnicity, and SES (harmony)
what does wealth look like for family trouble?
- generally more income correlates with better family functioning - score gap between schools with high- and low-income children is larger in the United States than in other nations - reaction to wealth may cause difficulty; parental reaction is key
what are the causes of bullying?
- genetic predisposition - brain abnormality - insecure attachment - stressful home life - lack of emotional regulation and effortful control - ineffective at discipline - hostile siblings - negative peer groups
what factors contribute to childhood obesity?
- genetics - family/culture
what is skipped-generation family?
- grandparents as adoptive parents, no biological parents present - common form of foster care - usually average lower incomes, more health problems, and less stability
what occurs in the eight week in development?
- grows 1 gram and 1 inch - all organs and body parts - minus the sex organs are developed - moves 150X per hour
what are childhood risk factors for delinquency and defiance (psychosocial)?
- having deviant friends - having few connections to school - living in a crowded, violent neighborhood - using drugs and alcohol - having close relatives (especially siblings) in jail - more prevalent among low-income, urban adolescents
what does social comparison do?
- helps children value themselves - affirming pride - self-criticism and self-consciousness rise from 6 to 11 - concrete thinking means materialism increases - self-esteem become fragile - need praise for accomplishment
what are the psychological effect of puberty?
- hormones instigate attraction and precipitate emotions - genes and earlier experiences interact with hormones - more moodiness and psychopathy at extremes - boys = schizophrenia (twice as likely) - girls = severe depression (twice as likely)
what are the statistics for having the baby?
- hospital = 94% - birthing centers = 5% - home = less than 1% (half planned, half unexpected)
what are inborn impulses?
- humans depend on protection and cooperation for one another - body produces hormones that push people towards love, trust, and morality
what is cross-sequential research?
- hybrid - researches first study several groups of people of different ages (cross sectional) then follow those groups over the years (longitudinal)
is preschool cruicial?
- if the home educational environment is poor, a good preschool program aids health, cognition, and social skills - if the family provides extensive learning opportunities, preschool is less crucial
what is the long-term effects of neglectful/uninvolved parenting?
- immature - sad and lonely - risk of injury or abuse
how does child's interpretation/perception affect cumulative stress?
- impacts severity - can influence biological response - higher cortisol for negative interpretation
what is tabacco?
- impairs digestion and nutrition - slows growth - damage developing heats, lungs, brain, and reproductive system
what is part of infant memory?
- implicit memory (evident by 3 months, begins to stabilize by 9 months, and lifelong) - explicit memory (longer to emerge, and language-dependent)
where is spanking more frequent?
- in the southern US than in New England - by mothers than fathers - among conservative christians than among non-religious families - among african americans than among european americans - among european americans than among asian americans - among US born hispanics than among immigrant hispanics - in low-SES families than in high-SES families
what is the effect of the microbiome in epigenetics?
- includes all microbes that have their own DNA; live within the body - affects nutrition; gut bacteria
what doesn't work to stop bullying?
- increasing awareness of bullying - zero tolerance of fighting - bully groups - talking to parents
what is theory one of language development?
- infant needs to be taught - parents are expert teachers - frequent repetition of words is instructive - well-taught infants become well-spoken children
how is phenotype only affected in gene disorders?
- inherited gene is dominant - both parents carry the same recessive gene and the zygote inherits from both - multiple additive gene combine to cause a problem
what is a strange situation?
- laboratory procedure for measuring attachment by evoking infants' reactions to stress of adults coming and going in an unfamiliar playroom - developed by mary ainsworth - researches focus on exploration of toys - reaction to the caregiver's departure - reaction to the caregiver's return
what do birthing positions do?
- largely depends on culture - sitting, squatting, lying down, warm water
what is disorganized attachment?
- later discovered - bowlby - a type of attachment that is marked by an infant's inconsistent reactions to the caregiver's departure and return
what should you know about seeing?
- least mature sense at birth - newborns can see 4 to 30 inches - improves rapidly
what are the responsibilities of the right and left side of the brain?
- left = logical, reasoning, analysis, language - right = emotions, creativity, art, music
what changes occur throughout adolescnce?
- less confidence - more moments of unhappiness
how does obesity look like in early childhood?
- less outside play - haven't adjusted to food availability - decreased from 12.1% to 8.4%
what is the relationship between COVID-19 and early childhood?
- less physical activity, less social development, more parental stress - more screen time occurs than recommended
what is brain development during puberty?
- limbic system (fear, emotional impulses) matures before the prefrontal cortex (planning ahead, emotional regulation) - prefrontal cortex limited in connections and engagement and may be overwhelmed with impulses
what are the risks of active play in middle childhood?
- loss of self-esteem - injuries - increased stress
what are other risk factors of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)?
- low birthweight - exposure to cigarette smoke - blanket or pillows - bed-sharing - abnormalities in the heart and brain stem
what occurs in the body system to grow and change?
- lungs triple in weight - heart doubles in size - endurance improves - skin becomes oiler, sweatier, acne - hair becomes coarser and darker - new hair growth
what occurs in high school?
- many of the patterns and problems of middle school initially continue in high school - after maturation reduces sudden growth and sexual impulses of puberty, adolescents are better able to cope with school - by the end of high school years, most adolescents are increasingly able to think abstractly, analytically, hypothetically, and logically, as well as subjectively, emotionally, intuitively, and experientially
how does family/culture contribute to childhood obesity?
- more common if infants are not breast-fed and if they are fed solids before 4 months - preschoolers who watch TV in their bedrooms and drink soda - school-children who have insufficient sleep, extensive screen time, and little active play - "pester power"
what are recessive gene disorders?
- more common- people are unaware they are carriers - cystic fibrosis, thalassemia, sickle-cell anemia (1/12 north americans) - ex: sickle cell and malaria
what is marijuana?
- more likely to drop out of school - more likely to become teenage parents - more likely to be unemployed - affects memory, language proficiency, and motivation - occasion marijuana use (once/week) before age 20 affects development for up to 10 years
how does genetics contribute to childhood obesity?
- more than 200 genes affect weight - not primary culprit
what is religious identity?
- most adolescents question some aspects of their faith, but their religious identity is similar to the one they have grown up with - the most common pattern for religious identity is rebellion. attendance at churches, temples, and mosques decreases when parents no longer enforce it
what should you know about hearing?
- most developed sense at birth - develops during the last trimester of pregnancy - heartbeat is soothing (kangaroo care) - can recognize mother's voice - development of language
what is alcohol?
- most frequently abused drug among North American teenagers - heavy drinking may permanently impair memory and self-control by damaging the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex - adolescents typically deny that they experience any harm or could ever become addicted
what occurs by age 2 in brain development?
- most neurons are connected to other neurons - pruning has occurred - 75% of adult brain weight
what did research find out about shared and nonshared environments?
- most personality traits and intellectual characteristics are the produces of genes and nonshared environment (psychopathology, happiness, sexual orientation) - children are less affected by shared environment than by non shared environment - parents are important, but it's possible to have nonshared environments in the same home - siblings may not share the same environment. experience different for eldest to the youngest - examples of nonshared: relocation, divorce, unemployment, schools, neighborhoods
how do playmates look like in early childhood?
- most productive and enjoyable activity children undertake - young children play best with peers - better at play as they age
What are the society benefits from risk-taking for emerging adulthood?
- moving to a new state, getting married - enrolling in college - enlisting in the army - joining the peace corps
what are the initiative benefits from brain maturation?
- myelination of the limbic system - growth of the prefrontal cortex - longer attention span
what occurs in the final three months (6-9) in development?
- neurological, respiratory, cardiovascular maturation - gains 4 1/2 pounds during this time - lungs expand and contract - 28th week = hearing develops and knows mother's voice
what should you know about pain?
- newborn infants feel less pain - begin to show signs of pain weeks after birth - digestion and teeth
what is the universal sequence of language?
- newborn: reflexive communications - 2 months: meaningful noises - 3 to 6 months: new sounds, squeals - 6 to 10 months: babbling - 12 months: first spoken words - 18 months: naming explosion - 21 months: two-word setences - 24 months: multiword sentences
what is the best for of infant care?
- no matter what form of care is chosen, individualized care with stable caregivers is best - by age 3, children with unstable care histories are likely to be more aggressive than those with stable nonmaternal care
what is separation anxiety?
- normal at 1 and intensifies by 2 - clinging and crying, distress, when a familar caregiver is about to leave - not considered an issue until age 3
how many children require particular education educational strategies?
- obvious physical disabilities = 1% - something unusual in brain = 10 to 20% - comorbidity considered the rule, not the exception
what is physical punishment?
- occurs more often in young children than infants - children who are physically punished are more likely to become bullies, delinquents, and abusive adults. - correlation between spanking and later aggression (all ethnic groups) - they are less likely to learn in school and attend college - physical punishment correlates with delayed theory of mind and increased aggression - longitudinal research finds that children who are not spanked are more likely to develop self-control
what are the long-term effects of child maltreatment?
- often abuse drugs or alcohol - enter unsupportive relationships - become victims or aggressors - sabotage careers and relationships - eat too much/too little - engage in other self-destructive patterns - higher risk of emotional disorders and suicide attemps
what are monozygotic (identical) twins?
- originate from one zygote that splits apart very early in development - incomplete split results in conjoined twins - same genotype but slight variations in phenotype are possible due to environmental influences
what is the relationship of peers in adolescence?
- peers do not negate need for parental support - healthy parent-adolescence relationships enhance later peer friendships and more reciprocal romance - parental buffering of stress is less effective in adolescence
what are fine motor skills?
- physical abilities involving small body movements, especially of the hands and fingers - small movements = drawing, picking up a coin, feeding
what are the various names for early education/care?
- pre-school - nursery school - pre-primary - pre-K
what is social awareness?
- pride, shame, embarrassment, guilt, jealousy - by age 2, children display the entire spectrum of emotions
what are dizygotic (fraternal) twins?
- result from fertilization of two separate ova by two separate sperm - dizygotic twins have half their genes in common and occur twice as often as monozygotic twins - incidence is genetic and varies by ethnicity and age
what are the periods of cognitive development according to piaget?
- sensorimotor - preoperational - concrete operational - formal operational
what are dominant gene disorders?
- serious dominant disorders are rare- rarely live to become parents - all common dominant gene disorders either begin in adulthood (Huntington) or have relatively mild symptoms (Tourette's)
what are the consequences of bullying?
- serious psychological disorders by age 18 - impaired social understanding, lower school achievement, relationship difficulties, and higher adult mental illness rates
What are the attitudes of sexual diseases in emerging adulthood?
- sexual freedom increases increases infection - young adults are prime STI vectors - globalization accelerates disease
what does evolutionary theory show in becoming boys and girls?
- sexual passion is basic human drive to reproduce - seek to attract the opposite sex
what are childhood risk factors for delinquency and defiance (brain based)?
- short attention span - hyperactivity - inadequate emotional regulation - slow language development - low intelligence - early and severe malnutrition - autistic tendencies - maternal cigarette smoking - severe child abuse - TBI - m ore common among boys than girls
what does physical education in school look like in middle childhood?
- significant decline - of 10,000 third graders in US, 30% had less than 15 min of recess per day - research indicates exercise in school can improve academic performance
from ages 2 to 6, what notable benefits occur from the maturation of the prefrontal cortex?
- sleep becomes more regular - emotions become more nuanced and responsive - temper tantrums decrease or subside - uncontrollable laughter and tears are less common
what should you know about smelling?
- smell preference, even 2 years later - recognize scent - associate parent with scent - prefer to sleep next to caregiver - reduction of fear of bathing if parent joins baby in tub
what is theory two of language development?
- social impulses foster infant language - infants communicate in every way they can because humas are social beings - early communication focuses on function of speech and not the words
what does same-sex romance look like?
- some cultures accept and others criminalize youth who are gay, lesbian, bisexual, or transgender - parental and peer support help, but there is a higher risk of depression and anxiety
how many chromosomes are in sperm and ovum?
- sperm: male (23 chromosomes) - ovum: female (23 chromosomes)
what is the secondary prevention of child maltreatment?
- spotting warning signs and intervening - parent/child teaching at home programs - free preschool programs
what is the externalizing problem of depression?
- starts as low self-esteem and suicidal ideation - behaviors can range from slamming doors to destroying problem - both prevelence and incidence of crimial actions are highest among adolescents - most adolescents do not break major laws or commit serious crimes
when does puberty occur?
- starts sometime between 8 and 14 - most physical changes are completed within 4 years - age of puberty is declining - begins with hormonal increase - 2 to 3 years before first visible signs - can continue until age 20
what do teacher-directed programs look like?
- stress academics - one adult to the entire group - reading, math, and science emphasized - good behavior is reinforced - specific outcomes and concepts are taught
what is stresses role in puberty?
- stress hastens the hormonal onset of puberty - puberty will arrive if the environment is stressful - sexual abuse will cause puberty to occur 1 year earlier
what is the long-term effects of authoritative parenting?
- successful - articulate - happy with themselves, generous with others - liked by teachers and peers
what are the reflexes that manage feeding?
- sucking reflex (sucking anything that touches their lips) - swallowing - crying (when stomach empty) - spitting up (when too full) - rooting reflex (turn mouths toward anything that brushes their cheeks and start to suck)
what are the statistics of suicide in adolescence?
- suicidal thoughts are most common at 15 - completed suicides are uncommon - adolescents are less likely to kill themselves than adults - gender differences (males versus female)
what occurs with family relationships in adolescence?
- supportive relationships with parents will indicate similar relationships with their peers - minor disputes with parents are normal - conflicts peak in early adolescence - relationship improves over time - bickering
what are the trends of fathers as social partners?
- synchrony, attachment, and social referencing are sometimes more apparent with fathers. may elicit more smiles and laughs due to play - within every ethnic group in the US, contemporary fathers tend to be more involved with their infants than in the past
what does the child-centered approach look like?
- teacher as facilitator - teacher as delegator - students learn actively - classroom is designed for collaborative work - students influence content - fosters collaboration among students - encourages artistic expression - students learn from each other
what are the statistics of divorce?
- the US leads the world in the rates of marriage, divorce, and remarriage, with almost half of all marriages ending in divorce - single parents, cohabiting parents, and stepparents sometimes provide good care, but children tend to best in nuclear - divorce often impairs children's academic achievement and psychosocial development for years, even decades (lack of stability)
what is the long-term effects of permissive parenting?
- unhappy children - lack self-control - problems with sharing, peer relationships - inadequate emotional regulation - immature, problems with friends - dependent on parents into early adulthood
What are common destructive risks in emerging adulthood?
- unprotected sex with a new partner - driving fast without a seat belt - carrying a loaded gun - abusing drugs - addictive gambling
how do adolescents use social media to strengthen existing friendships?
- use a lot - internet may provide support for non-normative adolescents
what should you know about touch?
- visibly relax when held securely by caregiver - heart rate lowers, muscle relax when stroked gently - experience-expectant
what is the role of instruction in middle childhood?
- vygotsky believed instruction is crucial - believed education occurs everywhere - mentoring is important - children who begin school at ages 4 to 5, not 6 to 7, tend to be ahead in academic achievement
what growth change happens every year in early childhood?
- weight = gain 4 1/2 pounds - height = 3 inches
what are the symptoms of asthma?
- wheezing, shortness of breath, chest tightness, and coughing - 1/10 children (5-11) in the US have asthma, tripled 1970-2000, decreased some 2000-2010 - highest rates among school-age children
what are the statistics of infant care?
- worldwide, only 15% of infants receive daily care from a nonrelative who is paid - cultural differences = government subsidized - economic and policy issues connected with maternity leave - north america - US = 20% of infants cared for exclusively by mother - Canada = 70% exclusively by mother
What are the two theories of intelligence?
1. Fluid and crystalized intelligence - Cattell and Horn 2. Three Forms of Intelligence - Robert Sternberg
What are the four aspects of expert thought?
1. Intuitive 2. Automatic 3. Strategic 4. Flexible
What are the three aspects of postformal thinking?
1. Less impulsive 2. Flexible 3. Practical
What are three examples of the phenomenon of selective optimization with compensation?
1. Microsystem Compensation: Sex 2. Macrosystem Compensation: Driving 3. Exosystem Compensation: The Senses
What did demography used to look like?
1. More babies born that replacement rate of each adult 2. People die at every age, illnesses used to be fatal
What are the three reasons religious practices correlate with physical and emotional health?
1. Religious prohibitions encourage health 2. Joining a faith community increases social relationships 3. Beliefs give meaning to life and death, reducing stress
What are the reasons job changes or losing a job are stressful in adulthood?
1. Seniority brings higher salaries, more respect, and greater expertise; workers who leave a job they have had for years lose these advantages 2. Many skills required for employment were not taught decades ago, and many employers are reluctant to hire and train older workers 3. Age discrimination is illegal, but workers are convinced that is common, especially after 50. Even if this is not true, we know from stereotype threat threat that it undercuts success in job searches 4. Relocation reduces both intimacy and generativity
What are the four causes of severe brain loss before late adulthood?
1. Traumatic rain injury 2. Drug abuse 3. Poor circulation 4. Viruses 5. Genes
What are the three theories of aging?
1. Wear and Tear 2. Genetic Adaptation 3. Cellular Aging
what are the four general principles?
1. abnormality is normal 2. disability changes year by year 3. plasticity and compensation are part of human nature 4. diagnosis and treatment reflect social context
what are the three main areas of the limbic system?
1. amygdala 2. hippocampus 3. hypothalamis
what are the three common eating disorders in adolescence?
1. anorexia nervosa 2. bulimia nervosa 3. binge-eating disorder
what are the three parenting styles?
1. authoritarian parenting 2. permissive parenting 3. authoritative parenting
what are the reflexes that signify brain and body functionality?
1. babinski reflex 2. stepping reflex 3. swimming reflex 4. palmar grasping reflex 5. moro reflex
what are five steps of the scientific method?
1. begin with curiosity 2. develop at hypothesis 3. test the hypothesis 4. draw conclusions 5. report the results
what are the three symptoms of bulimia?
1. binging and purging at least once a week for three months 2. uncontrollable urges to overeat 3. sense of self inordinately tied to body shape and weight
what are the three domains of human development?
1. biological (body) development - physiology, neuroscience, medicine 2. cognitive (mind) development - psychology, linguistics, educations 3. psychosocial (social world) development - economics, sociology, history
what are piaget's four limitations to logical thought?
1. centration 2. focus on appearance 3. static reasoning 4. irreversibility - makes logic difficult until age 6!
what are the types of schools other than public?
1. charter schools 2. private schools 3. home school
what are the two types of maltreatment?
1. child abuse 2. child neglect
what are the two general categories of early childhood education?
1. child-centered programs 2. teacher-directed programs
how is childhood obesity an example of the scientific method?
1. childhood obesity is a health risk? 2. hypothesis: being overweight impairs adult health 3. assessed weight in childhood and adulthood 4. 83% maintained relative weight 5. reported: overweight children are likely to become obese adults
what are the two examples of concrete (logical) opereations
1. classification 2. seriation
what are the five specific strategies that aid reading?
1. code-focused teaching (letters and sounds) 2. book reading (increases vocabulary and conversation) 3. parent education (parents stimulate cognition) 4. language enhancement (within ZPD) 5. preschool programs (teachers, songs, excursions, peers)
what are the four aspects of family closeness?
1. communication 2. support 3. connectedness 4. control
what are the three ways of studying development over the life span?
1. cross-sectional research 2. longitudinal research 3. cross-sequential research
what are the four aspects of the life-span perspective?
1. development is multi-directional 2. development is multi-contextual 3. development is multi-cultural 4. development is plastic
what are the aspects of resiliency?
1. dynamic 2. positive adaptation 3. significant adversity
what are the three successful ways to stop bullying?
1. everyone in the school must change, not just the identified bullies 2. intervention is more effective in the earlier grades-multi-cultural sensitivity 3. evaluation is critical; programs that seem good might be harmful
what are the four dimensions of parenting?
1. expressions of warmth 2. strategies for discipline 3. communication 4. expectations for maturity
what are three factors interfere with family function in every structure, ethnic group, and nation?
1. frequent changes 2. low income (poverty) 3. high conflict
what are the three aspects of adolescent egocentrism?
1. imaginary audience 2. personal fable 3. invincibility fable
what are the four general types of aggression in early childhood?
1. instrumental aggression 2. reactive aggression 3. relational aggression 4. bullying aggression
what are the two types of thinking?
1. intuitive thought 2. analytical thought
what are the theorists for beviorism?
1. ivan pavlov - classical conditioning 2. b.f. skinner - operant conditioning 3. albert bandura - social learning
what are the two types of popular children?
1. kind, trustworthy, cooperatively, friendly 2. athletic, cool, dominant, arrogant
what are the two types of offenders?
1. life-course persistent offender 2. adolescence-limited offender
what are the three categories of low birth weight, according to world health organization?
1. low birthweight 2. very low birthweight 3. extremely low birthweight
what are facets of sex eduaation?
1. media 2. parents 3. peers 4. schoo;
what are the five ecological system?
1. microsystem - immediate surroundings 2. exosystem - local institutions 3. macrosystem - larger social system 4. mesosystem - connections between systems 5. chronosystem - systems over time
what problems with ADHD increase incidence?
1. misdiagnosis = treatment may make problem worse 2. drug abuse 3. normal behavior considered pathological
what are the three types of unpopular children?
1. neglected, not rejected 2. aggressive-rejected 3. withdrawn-rejected
What are the three protective reflexes ensure?
1. oxygen supply 2. constant body temperature 3. feeding
what are the three forces that increase moral development?
1. peer culture (being loyal to friends) 2. personal experience (multicultural/multiethnic) 3. empathy (stronger in MC, increased awareness of each other)
what are the four types of bullying?
1. physical = hitting, pinching, kicking 2. verbal = testing, taunting, or name-calling 3. relationship = destroying peer acceptance and friendship 4. cyber = using electronic means to harm another
what are five needs of children in middle childhood?
1. physical necessities = families furnish food, clothing, and shelter 2. learning = families support, encourage, and guide education. prime learning years! 3. self-respect = families provide opportunities for success 4. peer relationships = families foster friendships via play dates, group activities, etc. 5. harmony and stability = families provide protective, predictable routines within a home that is a safe haven
what are the three main types of discipline?
1. physical punishment 2. psychological control 3. time out/induction
what are the three characteristics of autism spectrum disorder?
1. poor social understanding 2. impaired language 3. unusual play patterns - hypersensitive sensory cortex
what are the three levels of prevention?
1. primary prevention 2. secondary prevention 3. tertiary prevention
what are the signs of attachment?
1. proximity-seeking 2. contact-maintaining - typically mutual
what are the five developmental theories?
1. psychoanalytic theory - freud, erikson 2. behaviorism - watson, pavlov, skinner, bandura 3. cognitive theory - piaget, beck 4. humanism - maslow 5. evolutionary theory - darwin
what are the four arenas of identity formation?
1. religion 2. political 3. vocational 4. gender identity
what are the type kinds of active play?
1. rough-and-tumble play (most common) 2. sociodramatic play
what are the three basic research designs?
1. scientific observation 2. scientific experiment 3. survey
what are the two types of social fear?
1. separation anxiety 2. stranger wariness
what are the two types of protein-calorie malnutrition?
1. stunting 2. wasting
what are the three conclusions of a stable, familiar pattern?
1. synchrony and mutual attachment are beneficial 2. quality of consistent care matters 3. babies need loving and responsive caregivers
what is the average growth in middle chldhood?
2 inches, 5 pounds per year
what is the age range for early childhood?
2 to 6 years
why is early childhood characterized as avoidable injury?
2-6 year olds are more likely to be seriously injured than 6-10 year olds - immature prefrontal cortex - impulsive - curious - high rates of poisoning and drowning
what is early childhood?
2-6 years
how many genes were identified in the human genome project?
20,000 to 23,000 genes
What is considered adulthood?
25 to 65 - Four decades of life - Contribute more to society than any other age
what is adulthood?
25 to 65 years
What is the relationship between online dating and emerging adulthood?
30% of all marriages in the US are the result of online matches between people unknown to friends or parents
when is a baby born?
38 weeks after conception (40 weeks)
What is the relationship of adults and prescription drug use?
39% of 25-44, 66% of 45-64 take prescription drugs - RX medication has cut the adult death rate in half - vitamins - analgesics - laxatives - antihistamines - psychoactive drugs - coffee
when does anger and sadness?
6 months = anger evident, triggered by frustration - anger = healthy response to frustration - sadness = withdrawal, increase in cortisol
what is the age range for middle childhood?
6 to 11 years
what is late adulthood?
65 years and older
What is the statistic of major NCD?
8% of aged population have a major NCD
what is the fetal period?
9th week - birth
What is the Seattle Longitudinal Study?
A major cross-sequential study of adult intelligence. This study began in 1956 and has been repeated every 7 years - People improve in most mental abilities during adulthood when assessed via cross longitudinal research - ex: vocabulary ability is likely to improve; speed begins decreasing at 30 - gradual improvement then eventual decline for everyone around age 60, typical decline in one
What is postformal thought?
A proposed adult stage of cognitive development. Postformal is more practical, flexible, and dialectical (i. e. more capable of combining contradictory elements into a comprehensive whole) than earlier cognition
What is hookup?
A sexual encounter between two people who are not in a romantic relationship. Neither intimacy nor commitment is expected. - 50% of all emerging adults have hooked up - Sexual interaction without knowing each other well - More common among first-year college students - More males than females (heterosexual and homosexual)
What is demographic shift?
A shift in the proportions of the populations of various ages
What is In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)?
A technique in which ova are surgically removed from a women and fertilized with sperm in a laboratory. After the original cells have divided, they are inserted into the woman's uterus
What is andropause?
A term coined to signify a drop in testosterone levels in older men, which normally results in reduced sexual desire, erections, and muscle mass - male menopause - men produce viable sperm throughout their lives
What is wear and tear?
A view of aging as a process by which the human body wears out because of the passage of time and exposure to environmental stressors - Organ reserve and the repair process wear out as decades pass (ex: continuous stress on joints indicating knee problems) - True for some body parts, but others BENEFIT from use - Exercise (heart and lung function) - More likely More likely to "wear out" because of disuse than use! - Old theory - Explains some body parts but not all
What are frontotemporal NCDs?
Brain disorders that occur with serious impairment of the frontal, cause 15%
What happens by age 22?
By age 22, full adult body shape is present for both sexes
What is the favorite activity of the elderly?
Caring for the home - Both men and women do more housework after retirement - Gardening is a popular hobby - 50% of elderly - Productive activity - Exercise and social interaction - More challenging hobbies correlate with less dementia and longer life
who created the experiment measured implicit memory?
Carolyn Rovee-Collier
How are experts automatic?
Experts process incoming information more quickly and analyze it more efficiently than nonexperts. Then, they act in well-rehearsed ways that appear unconscious
What is Erikson's Intimacy vs. Isolation?
The sixth of Erikson's eight stages of development. Every adult seeks close relationships with other people in order to live a happy and healthy life
What is allostatic load?
The stresses of basic body systems that burden overall functioning, such as hypertension.
What is the extrinsic rewards of work?
The tangible benefits, usually in the form of compensation (salary, health insurance, pension), that one receives for doing a job
What is the positivity effect?
The tendency for elderly people to perceive, prefer, and remember positive images and experiences more than negative ones
What is selective optimization with compensation created by Paul and Margret Baltes?
The theory that people specialize in some abilities to ameliorate any physical and cognitive losses they may experience - Gains and losses - Probable explanation for continued intellectual ability of adults
What is stereotype threat?
The thought that one's appearance or behavior might confirm another person's oversimplified, prejudiced attitudes, a thought that causes anxiety even when the stereotype is not held by other people. Mere possibility undermines performance.
What is menopause?
The time in middle age, usually around age 50, when a woman's menstrual periods cease and the production of estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone drops. Menopause is dated one year after a woman's last menstrual period, although many months before and after the date are considered part of the period of menopause - Occurs naturally between ages 42 to 58 - Average age is 51
What is emerging adulthood?
The transition from adolescence to adulthood is now taking longer. Emerging adulthood is the period from age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many young people are not yet fully independent. But critics note that this stage is found mostly in today's Western cultures.
What is compulsive hoarding?
The urge to accumulate and hold on to familiar objects and possessions, sometimes to the point of their becoming health/and or safety hazards. This impulse increases with age - Viewed as an attempt to preserve the "self" and identity
What is disengagement theory?
The view that aging makes a person's social sphere increasingly narrow, resulting in role relinquishment, withdrawal, and passivity - Traditional roles become unavailable, social circle shrinks, coworkers stop relying on them, adult children turn away from them to concentrate on own children
What is cellular aging?
The ways in which molecules and cells are affected by age. Many theories aim to explain how and why aging causes cells to deteriorate - Toxins damage cells over time, minor errors in copying accumulate - Cells can't repair all error = aging (ex: cancer in which aging immune system is unable to control abnormal cells)
What are self-theories?
Theories of late adulthood that emphasize the core self, or the search to maintain one's integrity and identity
What are stratification theories?
Theories that emphasize that social forces, particularly those related to a person's social stratum or social category, limit individual choices and affect a person's ability to function in late adulthood because stratification continues to limit life in various ways - Emphasis is on SOCIAL FORCES (inequality)
What is living apart together (LAT)?
Third alternative for romantic relationships. Couple has separate residences but function as a couple, sometimes for decades - Cohabitors are more likely to marry if they have children - Many LAT couples maintain separate households to not upset adult children
What is fluid intelligence?
Those types of basic intelligence that make learning of all sorts quick and thorough. Abilities such as short-term memory, abstract thought, and speed of thinking are all usually considered part of fluid intelligence.
What is crystallized intelligence?
Those types of intellectual abilities that reflect accumulated learning. Vocabulary and general information are examples of crystalized intelligence
What are the activities of daily life (ADLs) for elderly?
Typically identified as five tasks of self-care that are important to independent living - Eating - Bathing - Toileting - Dressing - Transferring from a bed to a chair * Inability to perform any of these tasks is a sign of frailty
What is the statistic of unemployed adults and death?
Unemployed adults are 60% more likely to die than other people their age, especially if they are younger than 40
What is unemployment in adulthood associated with?
Unemployment is associated with higher rates of - domestic abuse - substance use (almost 2x) - depression (2x) - social and mental health problems
What is the ageism of words?
Unhelpful words - Senile (Senility) - Dementia (DSM-IV) DSM-V - Major NCD (previously dementia) - Mild NCD (previously mild cognitive impairment)
How does employment meet generativity needs for adults?
Work meets generativity needs by allowing people to - Develop and use their personal skills - Express their creative energy - Aid and advise coworkers, as mentor or friend - Support the education and health of their families - Contribute to the community by providing goods or services
what is head-sparing?
a biological mechanism that protects the brain when malnutrition disrupts body growth. the brain is the last part of the body to be damaged by malnutrition.
what is spermarche?
a boy's first ejaculation of sperm. erections can occur as early as infancy, but ejaculation signals sperm production. may occur indirectly (sleep) or directly (stimulation) - average = 13 years
what is transgender?
a broad term for people whose gender identity and/or gender expression differ from what is typically expected of the sex they were assigned at birth
what is focus on appearance?
a characteristic of preoperational thought in which a young child assumes that the visible appearance of someone or something is also their essence - ex: girl with short hair will worry she has turned into a boy
what is centration?
a characteristic of preoperational thought in which a young child focuses (centers) on one idea, excluding all others - ex: egocentrisim
what is static reasoning?
a characteristic of preoperational thought in which a young child thinks that nothing changes. whatever is now has always been and always will be - ex: can not imagine parents as children
what is withdrawn-rejected children?
a child who avoids social interaction with peers. other children do not want to be friends with such a child because of his or her timid, isolative, and anxious behavior
what are aggressive-rejected children?
a child who is not liked by peers because of his or her provocative, confrontational behavior
what is fetal alcohol syndrome?
a cluster of birth defects, including abnormal facial characteristics, slow physical growth, and intellectual disabilities, that may occur in the child of a woman who drinks alcohol while pregnant
what is attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)?
a condition characterized by a persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactive behaviors - interferes with a person's functioning or development - symptoms must start before 12 (DSM-5) - must impact daily life - often comorbid - 7% of 4 to 9 year olds - 13% of 10-13 year olds - 15% of 14-17 year olds
what is protein-calorie malnutrion?
a condition in which a person does not consume sufficient food of any kind. deprivation results in illness, weight loss, and death - 30% of world's children
what is down syndrome (trisomy-21)?
a condition in which a person has 47 chromosomes instead of the usual 46, with 3 rather than 2 chromosomes on the 21st site, resulting in distinctive characteristics
what is the circaidain rhytm?
a day-night cycle of biological activity that occurs approximately every 24 hours
what is time-out?
a disciplinary technique in which a child is separated from other people and activities for a specified time. - one minute for each year of life - favorable by experts in US, effect of time-out depends on how it's used
what is psychological control?
a disciplinary technique that involves threatening to withdraw love and support and that relies on a child's feelings of guilt and gratitude to the parents - reduces academic achievement and emotional intelligence, can depress achievement, creativity, and social acceptance - more likely to be relationally aggressive rather than physically aggressive
what is extrinsic motivation?
a drive, or reason to pursue a goal, that arises from the wish to have external rewards, perhaps by earning money or praise
what is intrinsic motivation?
a drive, or reason to pursue a goal, that comes from inside a person, such as the joy of reading a good book
what is a polygamous family?
a family consisting of one man, several wives, and their children
what is extended family?
a family of three or more generations living in one household
what is a nuclear family?
a family that consists of a father, mother, and their biological children under age 18 (55% of US school-age children) - function best - achieve higher grades with fewer psychological problems - education, earning potential, and emotional maturity all correlate with marriage lasting - highly educated (78% married) poorly educated (11%) - positive parental alliance - divorce weakens alliance
what is a single-parent family?
a family that consists of only one parents and his/her biological children, under age 18 (31%) - income and stability lower on average - single-parent has many roles - difficult to provide steady support - community support makes a difference - church, other family, school
what are reggio emilia schools?
a famous program or early-education that originated in the town of reggio emilia, italy. it encourages each child's creativity in a carefully designed setting
what is head start?
a federally funded early-childhood intervention program for low-income children in the US - began in 1965 = funded by the federal government - low income 3-4 year olds
what is kinship care?
a form of foster care in which a relative of of a maltreated child, usually a grandparent, becomes the approved caregiver - in the US, there are 500,000 children in foster care per year
what is an additive gene?
a gene that contributes to the phenotype, usually with other additive genes - add up to make the phenotype - ex: height = 180 genes
what is menarche?
a girl's first menstrual period, signaling that she has begun ovulation. pregnancy is biologically possible, but ovulation and menstruation are often irregular for years after menarche - average = 12 years, 4 months
what is race?
a group of people who are regarded by themselves or by others as distinct from other groups on the basis of physical appearance. - social scientists think race is a misleading concept
what is a language acquisition device (LAD)?
a hypothesized mental structure that enables humans to learn language, including basic aspects of grammar, vocabulary, and intonation - proposed by Noam Chomsky
what is a least restrictive environment (LRE)?
a legal requirement that children with special needs to be assigned to the most general educational context in which they can be expected to learn - inclusion classes - 1975 education to all handicapped children act - no segregation
what is shaken baby syndrome?
a life-threatening injury that occurs when an infant is forcefully shaken back and forth. ruptures blood vessels in the brain and breaks neural connections
what is the corpus callosum?
a long, thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain and allows communication between them - grows and myelinates rapidly during 2-6 - communication between hemispheres is more efficeint - increased coordination of two sides
what is specific learning disorder?
a marked deficit in a particular area of learning that is not caused by an apparent physical disability, by intellectual disability, or by an unsually stressful home environment - learning disability - can involve reading, writing, and or math
what are achievement tests?
a measure of mastery or proficiency in reading, mathematics, writing, science of some other subject - compares scores to norms for each grade - ex: STAAR test - achievement and IQ scores strongly correlate - IQ is not fixed, can change over lifespan - brain structures grow and shrink depending on past experience
what is scientific observation?
a method of testing a hypothesis by unobtrusively watching and recording participants' behavior in a systemic and objective manner - in a natural setting, in a laboratory, or in searches of archival data
what are vouchers?
a monetary commitment by the government to pay for the education of a child. vouchers vary a great deal from place to place, not only in amount and availability, but in who gets them and what schools accept them
what is correlation?
a number that indicates the degree of relationship between two variables, expressed in terms of the likelihood that one variable will (or will not) occur when the other variable does (or does not). a correlation indicates only that two variables are related, not that one variable causes the other to occur - + 1.0 - -1.0 - positive correlation (age and height) - negative correlation (age and sleep) - correlation is NOT causation (age and toes)
what is insecure-avoidant attachment (type A) attachment?
a pattern of attachment in which an infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver's presences, departure, or return
what is insecure-resistant/ambivalent (type C) attachment?
a pattern of attachment in which an infant's anxiety and uncertainty are evident, as when the infant becomes very upset at separation from the caregiver and both resists and seeks contact on reunion
what is a reminder session according to rovee-collier?
a perceptual experience that is intended to help a person recollect an idea, a thing, or an experience, without testing whether the person remembers it at the moment
what is a balanced bilingual?
a person who is fluent in two languages, not favoring one over the other
what is an adolescence-limited offender?
a person whose criminal activity occurs only during adolescence - stopping by age 21
what is a life-course persistent offender?
a person whose criminal activity typically begins in early adolescence and continues throughout life; a career criminal
what is a carrier?
a person whose genotype includes a gene that is not expressed in the phenotype. such an unexpressed gene occurs in half the carrier's gametes and thus is passed on to hald the carrier's children
what is body image?
a person's idea of how his or her body looks, especially related to size and shape - adolescents exaggerate body imperfections and will sacrifice future health to improve current body image - girls want to be thinner (2/3 HS trying to lose weight) - boys want to be taller and stronger
what is socioeconomic status?
a person's position in society as determined by income, wealth, occupation, education, and residence (social class)
what is self-awareness?
a person's realization that he or she is a distinct individual whose body, mind, and actions are separate from those of other people - 15 to 24 months - "mirror test"
what is fender identity?
a person's self-perception as male, female, both or neither - most difficult identity for adolescents - in contemporary society, the analytic, hypothetical thinking of adolescents makes them question that binary, rejecting traditional ideas of proper dress, hair, and aspirations - gender dysphoria (only when person is distressed by their biological gender)
what is the theory of mind?
a person's theory of what other people might be thinking. children gradually realize that other people do not always know and think what they themselves do. that realization is seldom achieved before age 4 - maturation (piaget) - social experience (vygotsky)
what is self-concept?
a person's understanding of who he or she is, incorporating self-esteem, physical appearance, personality, and various personal traits, such as gender and size - self-concept is typically good during this age - ex: strong, smart, good-looking
what is body mass index (BMI)?
a person's weight in kilogram divided by the square of height in meters
what is percentile?
a point on a ranking scale of 0 to 100. the 50th percentile is the midpoint; half the people in the population being studied rank higher and half rank lower. expresses where a particular baby ranks on a specific measure compared with other babies of the same age
what is immunization?
a process that stimulates the body's immune system to defend against attack by a particular contagious disease - naturally = having disease - vaccination = injection, swallowed, spray - ex: smallpox, polio, measles, chicken pox
what is charter school?
a public school with its own set of standards that is funded and licensed by the state or local district in which it is located - exempt from some regulations - 5% of US children - private money and sponsors
what is the apgar scale?
a quick assessment of a newborn's health given twice (at one minute and five minutes after birth) - color, heart rate, cry, muscle tone, breathing - score: 0, 1, 2, maximum score of 10 - results: 5 minute > 7 = OK
what is secure attachment (type B) attachment?
a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver. caregiver is a base for exploration - positive outcomes for future relationships
what is longitudinal research?
a research design in which the same individuals are followed over time and their development is repeatedly assessed
what is cross-sectional research?
a research design that compares groups of people who differ in age but are similar in other important characteristics
what is a survey?
a research method in which information is collected for a large number of people by interviews, written questionnaires, or some other means
what is an experiement?
a research method in which the researcher adds one variable (called the independent variable) and then observes the effect on another variable (called the dependent variable) in order to learn if the independent variable causes change on the dependent variable
what occurs in adolescence?
a search for self understanding
what is deferred imitation?
a sequence in which an infant first perceives something done by someone else and then performs the same action hours or even days later
what is a holophrase?
a single word that is used to express a complete, meaningful thought - ex: dada
what is threshold effect?
a situation in which a certain teratogen is relatively harmless in small doses, but becomes harmful once exposure reaches a certain level (the threshold)
what is a social smile?
a smile evoked by a human face, normally first evident in full-term infants about 6 weeks after birth
what is dyscalculia?
a specific learning disorder characterized by difficulty with math
what is dyslexia?
a specific learning disorder characterized by unusual difficulty with reading - most common type of specific learning disorder
what is a hypothesis?
a specific prediction that can be tested
what is rapid eye movement (REM) sleep?
a stage of sleep characterized by flickering eyes behind closed lids, dreaming, and rapid brain waves - 50% of newborn sleep - 25% of children under age 3 have sleeping problems
what is immersion?
a strategy in which instruction in all school subjects occurs in the second (usually the majority) language that a child is learning
what is bilingual schooling?
a strategy in which school subjects are taught in both the learner's original language and the second (majority) language
what is posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)?
a stress disorder that develops as a delayed reaction to having experienced or witnessed a shocking or frightening event. it's symptoms may include flashbacks, hypervigilance, anger, nightmares, and sudden terror
what is a naming explosion?
a sudden increase in an infant's vocabulary, especially in the number of nouns, which begins at about 18 months of age
what is culture?
a system of shared beliefs, norms, behaviors, and expectations that persist over time and prescribe social behavior and assumptions
what is reinforcement?
a technique for conditioning behavior in which that behavior is followed by something desired, such as food for a hungry animal or a welcoming smile for a lonely person
what is the brazelton neonatal behavioral assessment (NBAS)?
a test often administered to newborns that measures responsiveness and records 46 behaviors, including 20 reflexes
what is psychoanalytic theory?
a theory of human development that holds that irrational, unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhood, underlie human behavior
what is the sensitive period?
a time when a certain type of development is most likely to happen or happens most easily, although it may still happen later with more difficulty - ex: language learning and early childhood
what is the critical period?
a time when a particular type of developmental growth (in body or behavior) must happen for normal development to occur. or the only time when an abnormality can occur - ex: fetal development, thalidomide poisoning
what is guided participation?
a universal process used by mentors to teach cultural knowledge, skills, and habits. can occur via school instruction but more likely in informal settings
what is allele?
a variation that makes a gene different in some ways from other genes for the same characteristics. any of the possible forms of a gene. each version is called an allele.
what is dynamic-systems theory?
a view of human development as an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between the physical and emotional being and between the person and every aspect of his or her environment, including the family and society - every aspects is always in flux and interacting - change in one area affects all of the others!
what is the scientific method?
a way to answer questions using empirical research and data-based conclusions
what happens in middle school?
academic achievement slows down and behavioral problems increase - increased bullying - less protective parenting (kids want independence) - declining achievement - complicated friendships
what is attachment?
according to ainsworth, "an affectional tie" that an infant forms with a caregiver - a tie that binds them together in space and endures over time - basic to survival of humans
what is antisocial behavior?
actions that are deliberately hurtful or destructive to another person - ex: antipathy
what is prosocial behavior?
actions that are helpful and kind but that are of no obvious benefit to the person doing them - ex: empathy
what is secondary prevention?
actions that avert harm in a high-risk situation, such as stopping a car before it hits a pedestrian or installing traffic lights at dangerous intersections - ex: school crossing guard
what is primary prevention?
actions that change overall background conditions to prevent some unwanted event or circumstance, such as injury, disease, or abuse - altering the macrosystem, making harm less likely and reducing risk - ex: vaccination, public policies, sidewalks, traffic lights, speed
what is tertiary prevention?
actions, such as immediate and effective medical treatment, that are taken after an adverse event (such as illness, injury, or abuse) occurs and that are aimed at reducing the harm or preventing disability - ex: speedy ambulance
what is intersectionality?
added to the specific aspects of identity, awareness of family social status affects adolescent health, education, and other aspects of their future social status matters much more at age 18 than at age 12 - crucial factor is perception, not objective SES
what is adolescent egocentrisim?
adolescents thinking intensely about themselves and what others think. more special, admires, unique or despised than others - proposed by david elkind
what is logical extension?
after learning a word, children use it to describe other objects in the same category - ex: dalmatian cows
when does the prefrontal cortex advance?
age 4-5
what is the age of viability?
age when the fetus can survive outside the mother's uterus if specialized medical care is available - 22 weeks after conception (theoretically)
what is nurture?
all environmental influences that affect development (after conception) - ENVIRONMENT!
what do all social emotions?
all social emotions shape the brain
how does grammar look?
all the methods (word order, verb forms, and so on) that languages use to communicate meaning, apart from the words themselves - 18 to 24 months
what is defined as due date?
although a specific due date based on the LMP is calculated, only 5 percent of babies born on that exact day. babies born between two week before and one week after that after the due date are considered full term. because of increased risks for postmature babies, labor is often induced if the baby has not arrived within seven days after the due date, although many midwives and doctors prefer to wait to see whether labor begins spontaneously
what is neglectful/uninvolved parenting?
an approach to child rearing in which the parents are indifferent toward their children and unaware of what is going on in their children's lives
what is authoritative style?
an approach to child rearing in which the parents set limits and enforce rules but are flexible and listen to their children
what is the authoritarian style?
an approach to child rearing that is characterized by high behavioral standards, strict punishment or misconduct, and little communication from child to parent
what is the permissive style?
an approach to child rearing that is characterized by high nurturance and communication byt little discipline, guidance, or control
what is the life-span perspectives?
an approach to the study of human development that takes into account all phases of life, not just childhood or adulthood
what is bulimia nervosa?
an eating disorder characterized by binge eating and subsequent purging, usually by induced vomiting and/or use of laxatives - closer to normal weight, difficult to detect
what is permanency planning?
an effort by child-welfare authorities to find a long-term living situation that will provide stability and support for a maltreated child - a goal is to avoid repeated changes of caregiver or school, which can be particularly harmful to the chld
what is reactive aggression?
an impulsive retaliation for another person's intentional or accidental action, verbal or physical - indicates a lack of emotional regulation, characteristic of 2-year-olds - a 5-year-old can usually stop and think before reacting
what is case study?
an in-depth study of one person, usually requiring personal interviews to collect background information and various follow-up discussions, tests, questionnaires, and so on
what is trends in math and science study (TIMSS)?
an international assessment of math and science skills of 4th and 8th graders. although the TIMSS is very useful, different countries' scores are not always comparable because sample selection, test administration, and content validity are hard to keep uniform
what is national assessment of educational progress (NAEP)?
an ongoing and nationally representative measure of US children's achievement in reading, math, and other subjects over time - nicknamed "The Nation's Report Card" - variability in states test and standards let to the development of common core standards used nationwide
what is a genotype?
an organism's entire genetic inheritance, or genetic potential
what is a reflex?
an unlearned, involuntary action or movement in response to a stimulus. occurs without conscious thought. - varies depending on genes and overall health
what are teratogens?
any agent or condition, including viruses, drugs, and chemicals, that can impair prenatal development, resulting in birth defects or complications
what is parasuicide?
any potential lethal action against the self that does not result in death - also called attempted suicide or failed suicide
what is the superego?
arises from the phallic stage. in psychoanalytic theory, the judgemental mental part of the personality that internalizes the moral standards of the parents. marks beginning of morality
what is the norm?
average, or standard, measurement. calculated from the measurement of many individuals within a group or population
what are freud's psychosexual stages?
birth - 1 year - oral stage - primary pleasure point: mouth, lips, tongue, gums - development crisis: weaning 1 - 3 years - anal stage - primary pleasure point: anus - developmental crisis: toilet training 3 - 6 years - phallic stage - primary pleasure point: phallus - developmental crisis: male roles 6 - 11 years - latency - primary pleasure point: none - developmental crisis: sexuality issues 11 years - - genital stage - primary pleasure point: genitals - developmental crisis: sexual pleasure
what are erikson's psychosocial stages?
birth - 1 year = trust vs mistrust 1 - 3 years = autonomy vs shame and doubt 3 - 6 years = initiative vs guilt 6 - 11 years = industry vs inferiority 11 - 19 years = identity vs role-confusion 24 - 64 years = generativity vs stagnation 64 years - death = integrity vs despair
what are piaget's periods of cognitive development?
birth - 2 years - sensorimotor intelligence: senses and motor movement to understand the world 2 - 6 years - preoperational intelligence: magical thinking, no logic 6 - 11 years - concrete operational intelligence: logic is applied 12 years - - formal operational intelligence: abstractions and hypothetical reasoning
what is preterm?
birth that occurs at two or more weeks before the full 38 weeks of typical pregnancy - 36 or fewer weeks after conception (formerly called premature)
what do body image problems correlate with?
body image problems correlate with low self-esteem
what is small for gestational age (SGA)?
body weight at birth is significantly lower than expected given time since conception - protective factors: maternal education, household income, social support
what is extremely low birthweight (ELBW)?
body weight at birth of less than 2 pounds, 3 ounces
what is very low birthweight (VLBW)?
body weight at birth of less than 3 pounds, 5 ounces
what is low birthweight (LBW)?
body weight at birth or less than 5 1/2 pounds
what occurs with instrumental and reactive aggression?
both happen less often when children develop emotional regulation and theory of mind
what is the hypothalamus?
brain area that responds to the amygdala and hippocampus as well as various experiences to produce hormones that activate the pituitary and other parts of the brain and body
what is the process of plasticity?
brain damage/injury -> the brain is plastic, able to reassign neurons -> change may occur, some functions may be restored
what is experience-dependent?
brain functions that depend on particular, variable experiences and therefore may or may not develop in a particular person - ex: languages, how emotions are expressed
what is experience-expectant?
brain functions that require certain basic common experiences (which an infant can be expected to have) in order to develop normally. must happen! - ex: see things, manipulate objects, experience love
what is the hippocampus?
brain structure that is a central processor of memory, especially memory for locations
what occurs in the fifth week in development?
buds that become the arms and legs emerge, webbed
when can bullies and victims be identified?
bullies and victims can be identified in the first grade
what is cyberbullying?
bullying that occurs when one person spreads insults or rumors about another by means of social media posts, e-mails, text messages, or cell phone videos
what is gaze-following?
caregiver gaze following instinctively without cues
what is proximal parenting?
caregiving practices that involve being physically close to the baby, with frequent holding and touching
what is distal parenting?
caregiving practices that involve remaining distant from the baby, providing toys, food, and face-to-face communication with minimal holding and touching
what are english language learners (ELLs)?
children in the united states whose proficiency in English is low - usually below a cutoff score an oral or written test. - many children who speak a non-English language at home are also capable in English, they are not ELLs
what is the cognitive perspective?
children see gender differences. they view things using egocentrism and genders are opposites. gender rigidity.
what do children value?
children tend to develop their own morality guided by peers, parents, and culture - once children understand moral equity, they may be more ethical than adults - when children discuss moral issues with other children, they develop more thoughtful answers to moral questions
what is asthma?
chronic disease of the respiratory system in which inflammation narrows the airways from the nose and mouth to the lungs, causing difficulty breathing
what is the human genome project?
completed in 2003 - similarity between two people: 99.5% - similarity between humans and chimpanzees: 98% - similarity between humans and every other mammal: 90%
what is the germinal period?
conception - 2 weeks
what is ethics?
conde of ethics - set a moral principles and specific practices within a scientific culture to protect the integrity of research
what is cumulative stress?
cumulative stress, that builds over time, is more devastating that an isolated major stress - ex: child soldiers
what is co-sleeping?
custom in which parents and their children (usually infants) sleep together in the same room
how does self-esteem vary
decreases in every ethnicity/gender - lower in girls than boys - parents and peers affect self-esteem
what is child sexual abuse?
defined as any sexual activity (including fondiling and photogaraphing) between a juvenile and an adult - arouses the adult - excites, shames, or confuses the child - whether or not the victim protests - linked to wide host of subsequent problems (pregnancy, drug abuse, eating disorders, suicide) - most frequently affect adolescents (forced marriage, sex trafficking)
what is child abuse?
deliberate action that is harmful to a child's physical, emotional, or sexual well-being
what is deviancy training?
destructive peer support in which one person shows another how to rebel against authority or social norms
what are gender differences?
differences in male and female roles, behaviors, clothes, and so on that arise from society, not biology
what is dysgraphia?
difficulty in writing
what is corporal punishment?
discipline technique that hurting the body (corpus) of someone, from spanking to serious harm, including death
what are psychoactive drugs?
drugs that affect the mind, both illicit drugs as well as legal drugs and prescriptions - prevalence and incidence of drug use increases every year from age 10 to 25, then decreases - use before 18 predicts later abuse
what is herd immunity?
each vaccinated child stops transmission of the disease and protects others who are vulnerable. proof of immunization is required
what is home schooling?
education in which children are taught at home, usually by their parents, instead of attempting any school, public or private - more common for younger children - 4% of US children in 2012 - requires an adult at home - problem is mainly social
what is secondary education?
education that follows primary education (elementary or grade school) and precedes teriary education (college). it usually occurs from about age 11 to age 19, although there is some variation by school and by nation
what is institutional review board?
educational and medication institutions have a group that permits research that follows certain guidelines, including informed consent
what is response to intervention (RTI)?
educational strategy that uses early intervention to help children who demonstrate below-average achievement. only children who are not helped are designated for more intense meawsures
what is itentidy achievement?
erikson's term for the attainment of identity; the point at which a person understands who he or she is as a unique individual, in accord with past experiences and future plans
what is initiative vs guilt?
erikson's third psychosocial crisis (3-6 years), in which young children undertake new skills and activities and feel guilty when they do not succeed at them, and proud if they do - parent's reaction is important
what are high-stakes test?
evaluation that is critical in determining success or failure - determines if a student will graduate - high school graduation rates increased every year in the past decase
what is empirical evidence?
evidence based on observation, experience, or data, not theoretical
when does fear appear?
evident at 9 months - can be a person, thing, situation
what are powerful predictors of resiliency?
expectations and interpretations are powerful predictors of resiliency
what is nonshared environment?
experiences in school, or the neighborhood, that differ between one child and another
what is the only way to infer causation?
experiments are the only way to infer causation
what is a buffer to cumulative stress?
family
what does family instability increase?
family instability increases children's internalizing and externalizing problems and health - homeless children - parental deployment - natural distaters - COVID-19
who determines the sex of zygote?
father
what is antipathy?
feelings of dislike or even hatred for another person
what is major depressive disorder?
feelings of hopelessness, lethargy, and worthlessness that last two weeks or more - must meet DSM-5 criteria - internalizing problem - rate of clinical depression doubles in adolescence and increases into adulthood - 1 in 5 girls and 1 in 10 boys - biological, psychosocial, and social etiology
how many fatal diseases and accidents occur in middle childhood?
fewer fatal disease and accidents
what are dendrites?
fibers that extend from neurons and receive electrochemical impulses transmitted from other neurons via their axons
what are axons?
fibers that extend from neurons and transmit electrochemical impulses from that neuron to the dendrites of other neurons
what occurs in the seventh-eight week in development?
fingers and toes separate - from 52 to 54 days
what is latency?
freud's term for middle childhood, during which children's emotional drives and psychosexual needs are quiet (latent). temporarily submerged.
what is the phallic stage?
freud's third stage of development, when the penis becomes the focus of concern and pleasure - psychoanalytic theory - ages 3 to 6
what is defined as the length of pregnancy?
full-term pregnancies last 266 days, or 38 weeks, or 9 months. if the LMP is used as the starting time, pregnancy lasts 40 weeks, sometimes expressed as 10 lunar months - a lunar month is 28 days long
what are the age norms (in months) for fine motor skills?
grasps rattle when placed in hand - 50% at 3 - 90% at 4 reaches to hold an object - 50% at 4.5 - 90% at 6 thumb and finger grasp - 50% at 8 - 90% at 10 stacks two blocks - 50% at 15 - 90% at 21 imitates vertical line (drawing) - 50% at 30 - 90% at 39
what is transient exuberance?
great but temporary increase in the number of DENDRITES that develop in an infant's brain during the first two years of life
what occurs in the 9th week until birth (38-40 weeks) until birth in development?
growth in size and matures in functioning
what physical change occurs by 24 months?
half of adult height, 1/5th of adult weight, four times heavier than birth - weight gain is drastic
what is reported maltreatment?
harm or endangerment about which someone else has notified the authorities - 2014 = 3.6 million
what occurs in the fourth week in development?
head, eyes, ears, nose, mouth form, blood vessel (heart) begins to pulsate
what occurs when there is fixation at the phallic stage?
homosexuality, homophobia, obsession with guns, prostitutes, or hell
what is oxytocin?
hormone that stimulates labor which the fetal brain signals
what is the role impulses, rewards, and reflection?
hormones, especially testosterone, fuel emotional impulses - driven by new experiences and sensations heightened arousal occurs in and influences the brain's reward center, especially risk-taking - when emotions are intense, the logical part of the brain is quiet social approval is crucial and rejection from peers is especially painful
what is plasticity?
human traits can be molded (as plastic can be), yet people maintain a certain durability of identity (as plastic does)
what is instrumental aggression?
hurtful behavior that is intended to get something that another person has and to keep it. common among small children - often increases from age 2-6 - involves objects more than people - quite normal - more egocentric than antisocial
what is the process of the hypothalamus releasing sex hormones?
hypothalamus signals pituitary -> to send hormones to the adrenals -> to enlarge the gonads -> that produce a rush of sex hormones gonads -> estrogen and testosterone adrenal glands -> adrenaline and cortisol
what is self-concept?
idea about the self - includes intelligence, personality, abilities, gender, ethnic background - forms life-long
what is moro reflex?
if startled, infant will fling out arms and bring them together again on chest
what is ultrasound/sonogram?
image of a fetus (or an internal organ) produced using high-frequency sound waves
what is motivation?
impulse that propels someone to act (person's desires or social context)
what is childhood overweight?
in a child, having a BMI above 85th percentile, according to the US CDC's 1980 standards for children of any given age - more than doubled since 1980 in all three countries in North America
what is an independent variable?
in an experiment, the variable that is introduced to see what effect it has on the dependent variable (also called experimental variable)
what is a dependent variable?
in an experiment, the variable that may change as a result of whatever new condition or situation the experimenter adds. the dependent variable depends on the independent variable.
what is formal operational thought?
in piaget's theory, the fourth and final stage of cognitive development, characterized by systematic logical thinking and by understanding abstractions - the capacity to think of possibility, not just reality - thinking deeply about the self
what is symbolic thought?
in preoperational intelligence, understanding that words can refer to things not seen and that an item, such as a flag, can symbolize something else (ex: country). once symbolic thought is possible, language becomes much more useful - ex: child can talk about a dog without actual dog
what is irreversibility?
in preoperational thought, the idea that change is permanent, that nothing can be restored to the way it was before a change occurred - ex: putting lettuce on sandwhich
what is identification?
in psychoanalytic theory, considering the behaviors, appearances and attitudes of someone else to be one's own - they try to become the same-sex parent exaggerating gender roles. why they have such sexist ideas
what is the zone of proximal development (ZPD)?
in sociocultural theory, a metaphorical area, or "zone", surrounding a learner that includes all the skills, knowledge, and concepts that the person is close ("proximal") to acquiring but cannot yet master without help - proposed by vygotsky - ideas and skills children are close to understanding
what does college prep look like in high school?
in the US, an increasing number of high school students are enrolled in classes that are designed to be more rigorous (AP and IB)
in the US, how many children speak a language other than english at home?
in the us, almost 1 school-age child in 5 speaks a language other than English at home
what is progress in international reading literacy study (PIRLS)?
inaugurated in 2001, a planned five-year cycle of international trend studies in the reading ability of fourth-graders
what is temperament?
inborn differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulation - measured by a person's typical response to the environment - temperament (shyness or aggression) = genetic - personality traits (honesty or humility) = learned - nature and nurture still interact
what is family day care?
includes several children of various ages, usually occurs in the home of a woman who is paid to provide it
what increases with brain maturation in early childhood?
increase in overall self-control - ex: marshmallow experiment
what is early logic?
infants have some innate logic
what is shared environment?
influences that arise from being in the same environment, such as two siblings living in one home, raised by their parents
what is an epidural?
injection in the spine to alleviate pain
what do the patterns of infant attachment look like in the strange situation?
insecure-avoidant - child plays happily in the play room - child continues playing when the mother leaves - child ignores her when the mother returns - 10-20% of toddlers secure - child plays happily in the play room - child pauses and is not happy when the mother leaves - child welcomes her and returns to play when the mother returns - 50-70% of toddlers insecure-resistant/ambivalent - child clings and is preoccupied with mother in the play room - child is unhappy and may stop playing when the mother leaves - child is angry, may cry, hit mother or cling when the mother returns - 10-20% of toddlers disorganized - child is cautious in the play room - child may stare or yell that looks scared and confused when the mother leaves - child acts oddly-may scream, hit self, and throw things when mother returns - 5-10% of toddlers
what is defined as the trimester?
instead of germinal period, embryonic period, and fetal period, as used in this text, some writers divide pregnancy into three-month periods called trimesters. months 1, 2, and 3 are called the first trimester, months 4, 5, and 6, the second trimester, and months 7, 8, and 9, the third trimester
what is child maltreatment?
intentional harm to or avoidable endangerment of anyone under 18 years of age
what is a genome?
involves the full set of genes that are the instructions to make an individual member of a certain species
what are common diet deficiencies?
iron, calcium, zinc - iron deficiency more common for girls
why do children in early childhood have deficiencies?
it can be difficult to get them to eat
who conducted the studies for attachemnt?
john bowlby and mary ainsworth
what are the outcomes of obesity in adulthood?
less likely to marry, attend college, or find work that reflects their ability
what are the behavior implications of brain maturation in early childhood?
less likely to throw temper tantrums, provoke physical attack, erupt into hysterical giggles inappropriately
what are the benefits of breast-feeding?
less sickness, antibodies against disease, less obesity, helpful for preterm babies, adjusts to age of baby - no other foods for first 6 months
what is allocare?
literally, "other care" - the care of children by people other than the biological parents, especially other than the mother
what is lateralization?
literally, "sidedness" referring to the specialization in certain functions by each side of the brain, with one side dominant for each activity - the left side of the brain controls the right side of the body, and vice versa
what are sources of medicinal drugs causing prenatal harm?
lithium, ACE inhibitors, thalidomide, etc.
who funds education in the united states?
local jurisdictions provide most of the funds/guidelines
what is the limbic system?
major region of the brain crucial to the development of emotional expression and regulation
what is the gender binary display?
males and females are opposite
what is the independent variable?
manipulated variable
what is autism spectrum disorder (ASD)?
marked by difficulty with social communication and interaction and restricted, repetitive behavior, interest and activities
what are parents influence on romantic partners?
may discuss topic with children but may be embarrassed/disconnected and skip over vital issues - conversation needs to happen early
what are the negatives of technology?
may facilitate cyberbullying, sexting, online harassment or predation, or internet addiction - internet addiction almost always occurs with other disorders
what are sources of radiation causing prenatal harm?
medical x-rays
what is the primetime for moral development?
middle childhood
what is assimilation?
new experiences are interpreted to fit into, or assimilate with, old ideas
why is it important to know gene interactions?
no gene functions alone!
what is relational aggression?
nonphysical acts, such as insults or social rejection, aimed at harming the social connection between the victim and other people - involves a personal attack and thus is directly antisocial - can be very hurtful - more common as children become socially aware
are immunizations safe for newborns?
not safe for newborns or people with impaired immune systems
what is the dependent variable?
observed result or change
what is accommodation?
old ideas are restructured to include, or accommodate, new experiences
what is the healthiest periods of the entire lifespan?
one of the healthiest periods of the entire lifespan
what is significant about ongoing maltreatment?
ongoing maltreatment with no protector, is much more damaging than a single incident (no matter the level of injury)
what influences the outcomes of styles of caregiving?
outcomes are influenced by temperament, culture, ethnicity, and other factors
what is binge-eating disorder?
overeating to the point of discomfort; compulsive; does not purge - at least one time per week for several months - out of control -depressed
what are the outcomes of obesity in middle childhood?
overweight in childhood correlates with asthma, HBP, and elevated LDL - correlates with decreased academic achievement, low self-esteem, and loneliness
what are the expectations for maturity?
parents vary in expectations for responsibility and self-control
what is parental monitoring?
parents' ongoing awareness of what their children are doing, where, and with whom - positive = part of a warm, supportive relationship - negative = overly restrictive and controlling - worst = psychological when parents make a child feel guilty and impose gratefulness by threatening to withdraw love and support
what is a cohort?
people born within the same historical period. they experience historical events (such as wars), technologies (such as smartphones), and cultural shifts (such as women's liberation) at the same ages
what is middle childhood?
period between early childhood and early adolescence, approximately from ages 6 - 11
what does sexual orientation look like?
person's sexual and romantic attraction to others of the same sex, the other sex, or both sexes - sexuality is fluid in adolescence - 10% with same-sex partners, 1//3 of them identified as heterosexual
what are common physical characteristics and other problems with individuals with down syndrome (trisomy-21)?
physical - thick tongue - round face - slanted eyes - short stature - smaller brain (hippocampus) also common - hearing problems - heart abnormalities - muscle weakness - slow to develop intellectually
what is preoperational intelligence?
piaget's term for cognitive development between the ages of about 2 and 6. it includes language and imagination (which involves symbolic thought), but logical, operational thinking is not yet possible
what is concrete operational thought?
piaget's term for the ability to reason logically about direct experiences and perceptions - 3rd period of cognitive development - age 6 to 11 - logic is applied to visible, tangible, real things (not abstractions)
what is sensorimotor intelligence?
piaget's term for the way infants think - by using their senses and motor skills, during the first period of cognitive development)
what is egocentrism?
piaget's term for young children's tendency to think about the world entirely from their own personal perspective. to think about other people and their own experiences as if everything revolves around them - ex: daddy is a father, not a brother
what is the primary act of young children?
play is the primary activity of young children
what is rough-and-tumble play?
play that seems to be rough, as in play wrestling or chasing, but in which there is no intent to harm - helps prefrontal cortex to develop- regulate emotions, practice social skills, and strengthens body - may prevent anti-social behavior (boys and fathers) - ex: cops and robbers, tag
what is injury control or harm reduction?
practices that are aimed at anticipating controlling, and preventing dangerous activities. these practices reflex the beliefs that accidents are not random and that injuries can be made less harmful if proper controls are i nplace - reducing the potential negative consequences of behavior, such as safety surfaces replacing cement at a playground
what is defined as beginning of pregnancy?
pregnancy begins at conception, which is also the starting point of gestational age. however, the organism does not become an embryo until about two weeks later, and pregnancy does not affect the woman (and is not confirmed by blood or urine testing) until implantation. perhaps because the exact date of conception is usually unknown, some obstetricians and publications count from the woman's last menstrual period (LMP), usually about 14 days before conception
what is sociodramatic play?
pretend play in which children act out various roles and themes in stories that they create
what occurs in the third week in development?
primitive streak - a thin line down the middle of cell mass becomes the neural tube which later becomes the central nervous system
what do immunizations protect from?
protects not only from temporary sickness but also from complications: deafness, blindness, sterility, meningitis
what is x-linked?
referring to a gene carried on the X chromosome - if a male inherits an X-linked recessive, he expresses the trait, because the U has no counteracting gene - females are more likely to be carriers of X-linked traits but are less likely to express them (ex: color blindness)
what is bullying?
repeated, systematic efforts to inflict harm through physical, verbal, or social attack on a weaker person
what is rumination?
repeatedly thinking and talking about past experiences - can contribute to depression - more common in girls than boys
what is the tertiary prevention of child maltreatment?
reporting and substantiating abuse
what does research suggest about a father's absence during birth?
research suggests that father's absence correlates with increased birth complications (longer labor, C-section)
what is qualitative research?
research that considers qualities instead of quantities. descriptions of particular conditions and participants' expressed ideas are often part of qualitive studies
what is quantitative research?
research that provides data that can be expressed with numbers, such as ranks or scales
how is resilience a positive adaptation?
resilience is a positive adaptation. if parental rejection leads a child to closer relationship with another adult, that is positive adaptation. actively seeking out other supporters.
how is resilience dynamic?
resilience is dynamic, not a stable trait. a given person may be resilient at some periods but not at others. the effects from one period reverberate as time goes on.
how is resilience a significant adversity?
resilience is not a trait, but a reaction to significant adversity.
what are sources of diseases causing prenatal harm?
rubella, measles, chicken pox, syphilis, AIDS, zika
what is middle school?
school for children after elementary school and before high school, usually grades 6 through 8
how is middle childhood growth look like?
school-age children's growth is slow and steady
what are private schools?
schools funded by parents and sponsoring institutions. such schools have control over admissions, hiring, and specifics of curriculum, although some regulations apply - 11% of US children - most are church related
what are montessori schools?
schools that offer early-childhood education based on the philosophy of Maria Montessori (an Italian educator more than a contrary ago) - emphasizes careful work and tasks that each young child can do
what is conventional moral reasoning?
second level - emphasizing social rules - parent and community-centered level - similar to concrete operational thought in that it relates to specific practices; children try to follow what parents, teachers, and friends do - ex: Heinz dilemma - he should = people will blame him if he lets his wife die - against = stealing is against the law
what is social referencing?
seeking information about how to react to an unfamiliar or ambiguous object or event by observing someone else's expressions and reactions. the other person becomes the social reference - babies look to parents as reference
how does self-care look like in middle childhood?
self-care is easier - ex: brushing teeth, getting dressed
what are the benefits of productivity?
self-control, defense against early substance use and emotional problems
what is sexting?
sending sexual content, particularly photos or videos, via cell phones or social media
what are cluster suicides?
several suicides committed by members of a group within a brief period
what are the age norms (in months) for gross motor skills?
sit unsupported - 50% at 6 - 90% at 7.5 stands holding on - 50% at 7.4 - 90% at 9.4 crawls - 50% at 8 - 90% at 10 stands not holding - 50% at 10.8 - 90% at 13.4 walking well - 50% at 12 - 90% at 14.4 walk backward - 50% at 15 - 90% at 17 run - 50% at 18 - 90% at 20 jump up - 50% at 26 - 90% at 29
what do six major organizations recommend about screen time?
six major organizations recommend no electronic media at all for children under age 2 and less than 1 hour per day for 2-6 year olds - american psychological association - american psychiatric association - american academy of pediatrics - american medical association - the american academy of family physicians - the american academy of child and adolescent psychiatry
what does sociodramatic play allow for kids?
sociodramatic play lets kids - explore and rehearse social roles - learn how to explain their ideas and convince playmates to agree - practice emotional regulation by pretending to be afraid, angry, brave, etc - develop self-concept in a non-threatening context
how do some parents react to having a transgender child?
some parents accept their child's insistence that they are transgender, others do not - among adolescents studied, only a third of the mothers and a fourth of the fathers responded positively when their children first said they were transgender
what are expressions of warmth?
some parents are warm and affectionate, others are cold and critical
what is communication?
some parents listen patiently, others demand silence
what is a bully-victim?
someone who attacks others and who is attacked as well. also called provocative victim because they do things that elicit bullying (usually aggressive-rejected) - boys = physical aggression - girls = verbal aggression
what is a mentor?
someone who teaches or guides someone else, helping a learner master a skill or body of knowledge
what treatment is used for autism spectrum disorders if they are difficult?
special diets, vitamin supplements, medication, behvaioral treatments
what is a cesarean section?
surgical birth, in which incisions through the mother's abdomen and uterus allow the fetus to be removed quickly, instead of being delivered through the vagina - more than 1/3
what are the benefits of technology?
technology provides such things as tools for leanring amd medical monitoring
what is selection and facilitation?
teenagers select friends whose values and interests they share, abandoning former friends who follow other paths. then friends facilitate destructive or constructive behaviors
what is the HPA axis?
the HPA axis at puberty cause a phase delay in sleep-wake cycles - teens are wide awake and hungry at midnight, but very tired with little appetite or energy all morning - biological (circadian rhythms) and culture (parties and technology) work to make teenagers increasingly sleep-deprived with each year of high school - blue spectrum light from electronics have strong effect on the circadian system - insufficient sleep decreases learning and well-being
what does the US do now with the gifted and talented
the US does not include them as a special category - they have a high IG - they are divergent thinkers finding many solutions and questions for every problem - developmental problems with skipping grades - solution = teach all students together
what is emotional regulation?
the ability to control when and how emotions are expressed - primary psychosocial task between ages 2 and 6
what is binocular vision?
the ability to focus two eyes in a coordinated manner to see one image. - developed at 2 to 4 months
what does the ability to learn from mentors indicate?
the ability to learn from mentors indicates intelligence
what is impulse control?
the ability to postpone or deny an immediate response to an idea or behavior
what is effortful control?
the ability to regulate one's emotions and actions through effort, not simply through natural inclination
what is empathy?
the ability to understand the emotions and concerns of another person, especially when they differ from one's own
what is overregularization?
the application of rules of grammar even when exceptions occur, making the language seem more "regular" than it actually is - ex: foots, tooths, mouses, I goed to the store
what is the prefrontal cortex?
the area of the cortex at the front of the brain that specializes in anticipation, planning, and impulse control
what is the prefrontal cortex?
the area of the cortex at the very front of the brain that specializes in anticipation, planning, judgement, and impulse control. final part of brain to mature
what is mean length of utterance (MLU)?
the average number of meaningful sound combinations in a typical sentence (called utterance, because children may not use conventional words). MLU is often used to indicate a child's language development
what is animism?
the belief that natural objects and phenomena are alive in the way that humans are, as in a rock having having emotions and a spirit - no logic
what is a personal fable?
the belief that one's own emotions, experiences, and destiny are unique, more wonderful or awful than anyone else's
what is the central nervous system?
the brain and spinal cord
what is resilience?
the capacity to adapt well to significant adversity and to overcome serious stress
what is causation?
the cause-and-effect relationship between two things
what is the executive function?
the cognitive ability to organize and prioritize the many thoughts that arise from the various parts of the brain, allowing the person to anticipate, strategize, and plan behavior. - occurs in the prefrontal cortex
what is seration?
the concept that things can be arranged in a logical series, such as the number series or the alphabet
what is postpartum depression?
the deep sadness and inadequacy felt by some new mothers in the days and weeks after giving birth - aka baby blues-postpartum psychosis - due to rapid shift in hormones after birth; successful breast-feeding reduces depression - 8-15% of women
what determines the worsening of children's peer relationships?
the earlier the abuse, the longer it continues, the worse children's peer relationships
what is babbling?
the extended repetition of certain syllables that begins when babies are between 6 and 9 months old - ex: ba-ba-ba - learn relationship between mouth and movement sounds - gesturing
what is stunting?
the failure of children to grow to a normal height for their age due to severe and chronic malnutrition
what is an invincibility fable?
the fantasy that a person cannot be harmed by anything that might defeat a normal mortal, such as unprotected sex, drug abuse, or high-speed driving
what occurs in the germinal period?
the first two weeks of development after conception, characterized by rapid cell division and the beginning of cell differentiation - begins with stem cells (first cells, which are cells from which any other specialized type of cell came from) - duplication and division occurs - differentiation (an 8 cell stage, in which cells take on different forms like the eye, finger, etc)
what is industry versus inferiority?
the fourth of erikson's eight psychosocial crises, during which children attempt to master many skills, developing a sense of themselves as either accomplished or a failure, competent or incompetent - middle childhood 6 to 11 years - industrious (productive) or inferior (useless) - intrinsically motivated to learn - they enjoy collecting, categorizing, and counting whatever they accumulate - ex: collecting stamps, rocks, toys, dolls - how others view accomplishment is key to self-pride - most valuable judgements are from peers of the same sex
what is child culture?
the idea that each group of children has games, sayings, clothing styles, and superstitions that are not common among adults, just as every culture has distinct values, behaviors, and beliefs - examples: jump-rope rhymes, insults, etc. - encourages independence from adults - can be positive or negative - example: generational differences
what is generational forgetting?
the idea that each new generation forgets what the previos generation learned - the knowledge about the harm drugs can do
what is multiple intelligences?
the idea that human intelligence is comprised of a varied set of abilities rather than a single, all-encompassing one - Gardner: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, spiritual/existential
what is differential susceptibility?
the idea that people vary in how sensitive they are to particular experiences. often such differences are genetic, which makes some people affected "for better or for worse" by life events. - also called differential sensitivity
what is neurodiversity?
the idea that people with special needs have diverse brain structures, with each person having neurological strengths and weakness that should be appreciated, in much the same way diverse cultures and ethnicities are welcomed. particularly relevant to children on the autism spectrum
what is the dual-process model?
the idea that two modes of thinking exist within the human brain, one for intuitive emotional responses and one for analytical reasoning
what is dominant-recessive pattern?
the interaction between a pair of alleles where the phenotype reveals the influence of one allele (dominant gene) more than the other (recessive gene) - dominant gene = expressed - recessive gene = hidden
what is intersectionality?
the interconnected nature of social categorizations such as race, class, and gender as they apply to a given individual or group, regarded as creating overlapping and interdependent systems of discrimination or disadvantage - various identities need to be combined - systems of social categorization and group power intersect to influence everyone - this is important in determining if discrimination occurs
what is a motor skill?
the learned abilities to move some part of the body, in actions ranging from a large leap to a flicker of the eyelid. motor refers to movement of the muscles
what is family structure?
the legal and genetic relationships among family members. possible structures include nuclear, family, extended family, single-parent family, and many others
what is classification?
the logical principle that things can be organized into groups (or categories) according to some characteristics they have in common - ex: "family" includes parents, siblings, grandparents, experiment with flowers and daises
what is the embryo?
the name for a developing human organism from three to eight weeks after conception
what does the media education look like?
the negative possibilities that are associated with sex in REAL life are skipped over in television, movies, and book s(STI, pregnancy, protection) - sex content appears 7 times/hour on TV
what is phenotype?
the observable characteristics of a person, including appearance, personality, intelligence, and all other traits
what is imaginary audience?
the other people who, in an adolescent's egocentric belief, are watching and taking note of his or her appearance, ideas, and behavior - causes a significant increase in self-consciousness
what is aptitude?
the potential to master a specific skill or to learn a certain body of knowledge - ex: IQ test
what is pragmatics?
the practical use of language that includes the ability to adjust language communication according to audience and context - advance during middle childhood
what is pragmatics?
the practical use of language, adjusting communication according to audience and context
what is conversvation?
the principle that the amount of a substance remains the same (ex: conserved) even when its appearance changes
what is implantation?
the process beginning about 10 days after conception, in which the developing organism burrows into the tissue that lines the uterus, where it will be nourished
what occurs in myelination?
the process by which axons become coated with myelin, a fatty substance that speeds the transmission of nerve impulses from neuron to neuron (white matter) - speed of transmissions become important by age 6 - ex: see an object and name it imediately
what is object permanence?
the realization that objects (including people) still exist when they can no longer be seen, touched, or heard - stage 4 behavior - approximately occurs at 8 months
what is the flynn effect?
the rise in average IQ scores that has occurred over the decades in many nations - IQ tests are updated
what is a zygote?
the single cell that is formed from the fusing of two gametes, a sperm and an ovum
what is fast-mapping?
the speedy and sometimes imprecise way imprecise way in which children learn new words - by tentatively placing them in mental categories according to meaning
what is the embryonic period?
the stage of prenatal development from the end of the second week though the eight week after conception, during which the basic forms of body structures, including internal organs but not sex organs, develop
what is the little scientist?
the stage-five toddler who experiments without anticipating the results, using trial and error in active and creative exploration
what is epigenetics?
the study of how environmental factors affect genes and genetic expression - enhancing, halting, shaping, or altering the expression of genes
what is the immigrant paradox?
the surprising fact that immigrants tend to be healthier than U.S. born residents of the same ethnicity. - this was first evidence among Mexican Americans
what is just right?
the tendency for children to insist on having things done in a particular way - ex: clothes, food, bedtime, only eating out of a certain bowl
what is social comparison?
the tendency to assess one's abilities, achievements, social status, and other attributes by measuring them against those of other people, especially one's peers
what is the oedipus complex?
the unconscious desire of young boys to replace their fathers and win their mother's exclusive love
what is the hidden curriculum?
the unofficial, unstated, or implicit patterns within a school that influence what children learn - schedules - teacher characteristics (ethnicity, SES, gender) - discipline - teaching methods - extracurricular activities (recess, outdoor classrooms) - teach far more than formal curriculum
what is the ecological-systems approach?
the view that in the study of human development, the person should be considered in all the contexts and interactions that constitute a life - created by Urie Bronfenbrenner
what is intuitive thought?
thought that arises from an emotion or a hunch, a "gut feeling" beyond rational explanation, and is influenced by past experiences and cultural assumptions
what is analytical thought?
thought that results from analysis such as a systematic exploration of pros and cons, risk and consequences, possibilities and facts. depends on logic and rationality
what is reaction time?
time it takes to respond to a stimulus, either physically or cognitively
what is the amygdala?
tiny brain structure that registers emotions, especially fear and anxiety
what is the relationship between screen time and early childhood?
today, less active play and more screen time - reduction in conversation, imagination, and exercise - links to obesity, emotional immaturity, and less intellectual growth
what does oral health look like in early childhood?
tooth decay affects more than 30% of US young children. tooth decay correlates with obesity. adult teeth come in between 6 to 10
what is nature?
traits, capacities, limitations each individual inherits genetically from parents (at conception) - GENETICS!
what are sources of social and behavioral factors causing prenatal harm?
very high stress, malnutrition, excessive exercise
what is parentification?
when a child acts more like a parent than a child. this may occur if the actual parents do not act as caregivers, making a child feel responsible for the family
what is foster care?
when a person (usually a child), is cared for by someone other than the parents
what is overimitation?
when a person imitates an action unnecessarily; common among 2-6 year-olds when they copy adult actions that are irrelevant and inefficent
what is pruning?
when applied to brain development, the process by which unused connections in the brain atrophy and die - pruning increases brain power and efficency
what is swimming reflex?
when held horizontally, infants will stretch out their arms and legs as if swim
how do you test a hypothesis?
you gather empirical evidence
when are tertiary circular reactions?
stage five and stage six - stage 5 (12-18 months) - stage 6 (18 months-)
when are primary circular reactions?
stage one and stage two - stage 1 (birth - 1 month) - stage 2 (1-4 months)
when are secondary circular reactions?
stage three and stage four - stage 3 (4-8 months) - stage 4 (8-12 months)
What are analytic intelligence?
Intelligence that involves logic, planning, strategy selection, focused attention, and information processing
What is creative intelligence?
Intelligence that involves the capacity to be flexible and innovative, thinking unusual ideas
what is the gender schema?
a child's cognitive concept or general belief about male and female differences
what does appetite look like in early childhood?
appetite decreases between 2-6 years
what does discipline depend on?
discipline depends on values and culture
what is substantiated maltreatment?
harm or endangerment that has been reported, investigated, and verified - 2015 = 800,000 (4:5:1 ratio) - 1:90 children between 2-5
what is more crucial in middle childhood?
harmony and stability are the most crucial in middle childhood
what is theory three of language development?
language is genetically programmed. language is a universal human impulse, to imitate
who created the cognitive stages of moral reasoning?
lawrence kohlberg
what are sources of pollutants causing prenatal harm?
lead, mercury, pesticides, cleaning compounds
what is chromosome?
one of 46 molecules of DNA (in 23 pairs) that virtually each cell of the human body contains and that, together, contain all the genes. other species have more or fewer chromosomes
what is induction?
parents talk extensively with the offender, helping children understand why their behavior was wrong. - correlated with fewer externalizing problems in elementary school
what are strategies for discipline?
parents vary in how they explain, criticize, persuade, and pynish
what is an ethnic group?
people whose ancestors were born in the same region and who often share a language, culture, and religion. often share culture, but not a requirement.
what is bickering?
petty, peevish arguing, usually repeated and ongoing. - tends to reduce by age 18
what do you all young children do?
play
what is cortisol?
primary stress hormone in which fluctuations affect human emotions
what growth proportions do children by age 6 have?
the average child - weights 40 to 50 pounds - at least 3 1/2 feet tall - has adult like proportions
what is the cortex of the brain?
the outer layers of the brain in humans and other mammals. most thinking, feeling, and sensing involve the cortex.
What are the trends seen in empty nest?
- Often improves the relationship - Financial strain is reduced - Conflict is reduced - More time for each other
what are the three levels of moral reasoning?
1. preconventional moral reasoning 2. conventional moral reasoning 3. postconventional moral reasoning
how do children learn because of mentors?
1. present challenges 2. offer assistance (without taking over) 3. add crucial information 4. encourage motivation
What is ageism?
A prejudice whereby people are categorized and judged solely on their chronological age - Ageism becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy
what are gross motor skills?
- physical abilities involving large body movements - big movements = walking, jumping, cruising, crawling
what is the effect of methylation in epigenetics?
- the first major epigenetic influence on genes - occurs when methyl surrounding each gene impacts genetic instructions; continues throughout life
What are plaques?
Clumps of a protein called beta-amyloid, found in brain tissues surrounding the neurons
What happens to every body system at the beginning of emerging adulthood?
Every body system functions optimally at the beginning of adulthood. - Digestive - Respiratory - Circulatory - Sexual-reproductive
How are experts flexible?
Experts are creative and curious, deliberately experimenting and enjoying the challenge when things do not go according to plan
How are experts strategic?
Experts have more and better strategies, especially when problems are unexpected
What is source amnesia?
Forgetting the origin of a fact, idea, or piece of conversation (impressionable)
What is vascular disease?
Formerly called Vascular or multi-infarct dementia, vascular disease is characterized by progressive loss of intellectual functioning caused by repeated infarcts (strokes) or temporary obstructions of blood vessels
How do you treat NCDs?
No cure - Drugs slow progression - Treatment tailored to each person - Full-time care in specialized facility
What is conscientiousness?
Organized, deliberate, conforming, self-disciplined
What is extroversion?
Outgoing, assertive, active
What is polypharmacy?
Refers to a situation in which elderly people are prescribed several medications. The various side effects and interactions of those medications can result in NCD symptoms - Metabolism and digestion different in elderly - 8 doctor appointments per year
What is prospective memory?
Remembering to do something in the future
What is hormone replacement therapy (HRT)?
Taking hormones (in pills, patches, or injections) to compensate for hormone reduction. HRT is most common in women at menopause or after removal of the ovaries. Also used by men to help restore their decreased testosterone level.
What is selective optimization with compensation?
The elderly will compensate for any impairments or senescence and will excel (optimize) at whatever specific tasks they select
What is organ reserve?
The extra capacity built into each organ, such as the heart and lungs, that allows a person to cope with extraordinary demands or to withstand organ strain.
What is the immune system strength's during emerging adulthood?
The immune system is strong and severe health problems are rare
What is a helicopter parent?
The label used for parents who hover (like a helicopter) over their emerging adult children
What is socio-emotional selective theory?
The theory that older people prioritize regulation of their own emotions and seek familiar social contacts who reinforce generativity, pride, and joy - More appreciative with limited time
What is empty nest in adulthoold?
The time in the lives of parents when their children have left the family home to pursue their own lives
What are tangles?
Twisted masses of threads made a protein called tau within the neurons of the brain
what is XX?
a 23rd chromosome pair that consists of two x-shaped chromosomes, one each from the mother and the father - XX zygotes become females
what are neurotransmitters?
a brain chemical that carries information from the axon of a sending neuron to the dendrite of a receiving neuron
what is individual education plan (IEP)?
a document that specifies education goals for a child with special needs
what is a gamete?
a reproductive cell; that is, a sperm or an ovum that can produce a new individual if it combines with a gamete from the other sex to form a zygote
what is english as a second language (ESL)?
a strategy for teaching English where all children who do not speak English are placed together in an intensive course to learn basic English so that they can be educated in the same classroom as native English speakers
what is selective attention?
ability to concentrate on some stimuli while ignoring others. allows listening, note-taking, and ignoring distractions - improves markedly at about age 7 - improves with guidance and neurological maturation - listen, take notes, ignore distractions
what is correlated with active social play?
active social play correlates with peer acceptance and healthy self-concept
what are sources of psychoactive drugs causing prenatal harm?
alcohol, tobacco, marijuana, heroin, cocaine
what is anorexia nervosa?
an eating disorder characterized by severe calorie restriction and fear of being fat. affected individuals under eat, or eat and then over exercise or purge, depriving their vital organs of nutrition. - can be fatal
who was diana baumrind?
an influential researcher on parenting
what is dominant-recessive?
do not contribute equal shares
what is evolutionary theory?
emotions for survival - babies attract attention = crying, smiling, laughter - find typically unattractive things cute - parents have babies with no financial or power gain
what is emphasized in multi-contextual development?
emphasis on physical and social environments
what are waldorf schools?
emphasizes creativity, social understanding, and emotional growth - originated in Germany with Rudolf Steiner, and now is used in thousands of schools throughout the world
what do child-centered programs?
encourage artistic expression and development
what is peer pressure?
encouragement to conform to one's friends or contemporaries in behavior, dress, and attitude. this is usually considered negative, when peers encourage behavior that is contrary to norms or morals, but can also be positive
what is identity vs role confusion?
erikson's term for his 5th stage of development in which the person tries to figure out "who am i" but is confused as to which of the many possible roles to adopt
why is important to know gene disorders?
everyone carries alleles that could produce a serious disease
what is child neglect?
failure to meet a child's basic physical, emotional, or educational needs
what is more important function or structure?
function is more important than structure - harder to measure
what are neurons?
nerve cells in the central nervous system especially in the brain (86 billion at birth)
do vaccines cause autism?
no evidence that vaccinations cause autism
what is the recommendation of breast-feeding?
recommended exclusively for the first six months by the World Health Organization
adults are healthier and wealthier if they complete what?
secondary school
what is the primary prevention of child maltreatment?
social networks, parental education, income support
what is cognitive equilibrium?
state of mental balance
what is cognitive disequlibrium?
state of mental imbalance that initially creates confusion, leads to growth
what is political identity?
strong parental influence - more socially liberal than parents - party affiliation is weakening among adults
what is formal code?
style of speech, used in academic contexts
what is informal code?
style of speech, used with friends
what is couvade?
symptoms of pregnancy and birth experienced by fathers
what is stepping reflex?
the infant's legs move as to walk when touching a flat surface
what is a growth spurt?
the relatively sudden and rapid physical growth that occurs during puberty. each body part increases in size on a schedule: weight precedes heigh, and growth of the limbs precedes growth of the torso
what is replication?
the repetition of a study, usually using different participants, perhaps of another age, location, socioeconomic status (SES), or culture
what is perseveration?
the tendency to persevere in, or stick to, one thought or action for a long time
what is sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)?
the term used to describe an infant's unexpected death. when a seemingly healthy baby, usually between the ages of 2 and 6 months old, suddenly stops breathing and dies unexpectedly while asleep
what is the electra complex?
the unconscious desire of girls to replace their mothers and win their father's exclusive love
what is family function?
the way a family works to meet the physical and psychological needs of its members
what is behaviorism?
theory of human development that studies observable behavior. behaviorism is also called "learning theory" because it describes the laws and processes by which behavior is learned
what are neural impulses?
they turn on and off (activate-inhibit) - they cannot leap too quickly nor hesitate too long - opposite manifestations of an immature prefrontal cortex cannot halt inhibition or check activation
what is colostrum?
thick, high-calorie fluid secreted by the mother's breasts at birth. after 3 days, breasts begin to produce milk
what is suicidal ideation?
thinking about suicide, usually with some serious emotional and intellectual or cognitive overtones - common in adolescence
what is postconventional moral reasoning?
third level - emphasizing moral principles thought to be universal - centered on ideals - similar to formal operational thought, people use logic, questioning "what is" in order to decide "what should be" - ex: Heinz dilemma - he should = a human life is more important than obeying the law - against = for a community to function, no one should jeopardize another person's livelihood
what types of attachment did ainsworth identify?
types A, B, and C
what is bullying aggression?
unprovoked, repeated physical or verbal attack, especially on victims who are unlikely to defend themselves. done to dominate - in both bullies and victims, a sign of poor emotional regulation - adults should intervene before the school years
what is the schools influence on romantic partners?
very important to discuss in academic setting, often the curriculum is ineffective - more helpful when education precedes experience - abstinence only programming does not work
what type of language builds during middle childhood?
vocabulary, comprehension, and communication - prefixes/suffixes - compound words - phrases - metaphors
what is the sequence of growth?
weight - height - muscles (fingers and toes lengthen before hands and feet, etc.) - torso last to mature
how much does weigh change by month 4?
weight doubles by month 4
how much does weigh change by 1 year?
weight triples by 1 year
what is the babinski reflex?
when a newborn's feet are stroked, the toes fan upward
What factors make divorce more likely?
Before marriage - Divorced parents - Either partner under age 21 - Family opposed - Cohabitation before marriage - Previous divorce of either partner - Large discrepancy in age, background, interests, values (heterogamy) During marriage - Divergent plans and practices regarding childbearing and child rearing - Financial stress, unemployment - Substance abuse - Communication difficulties - Lack of time together - Emotional or physical abuse - Unsupportive relatives In the culture - High divorce rate in cohort - Weak religious values - Laws that make divorce easier - Approval of remarriage - Acceptance of single parenthood
What is the effect of regular exercise for adults?
Regular exercise protects against serious illness - Regardless of smoking, drinking, or overeating - 52% of adults (2014) - 150 minutes of moderate exercise - 75 minutes of intense exercise
What is an expert?
Someone with specialized skills and knowledge developed around a particular activity or area of specific interest
What is social network?
Any website that allows users to publicly share details of their daily lives and connect with large numbers of friends, acquaintances, and potential romantic partners
Why do some adults stay distant from their blood relatives?
Some adults stay distant from their blood relatives because they find them toxic
What is homeostasis?
The adjustment of all the body's systems to keep physiological functions in equilibrium, moment by moment.
What is telomeres?
The area of the tips of each chromosome that is reduced a tiny amount as time passes. By the end of life, the telomeres are very short - Longer telomeres = longer life - Women outlive men = longer telomeres
What is universal design?
The creation of settings and equipment that can be used by everyone, whether or not they are able-bodied and sensory-acute - Majority of products are designed for young adults with no impairments
What is integrity vs. despair?
The final stage of Erik Erikson's developmental sequence where older adults seek to integrate their unique experiences with their vision of community - The most comprehensive self-theory
What are the big five?
The five basic clusters of personality traits that remain quite stable throughout adulthood. They appear in every culture and era - Openness - Conscientiousness - Extroversion - Agreeableness - Neuroticism
What is a sandwich generation?
The generation of middle-aged people who are supposedly "squeezed" by the needs of the younger and older members of their families
What is general intelligence (g)?
The idea of "g" assumes that intelligence is one basic trait, underlying all cognitive abilities. According to this concept, people have varying levels of this general ability - Now called the intelligence quotient (IQ) - examples include vocabulary, memory, and reasoning
What is massification?
The idea that establishing higher learning institutions and encouraging college enrollment could benefit everyone (the masses), leading to marked increases in the number of emerging adults in college.
What is infertility?
The inability to conceive a child after trying for at least one year
What are the intrinsic rewards of work?
The intangible gratifications (job satisfaction, self-esteem, pride) that come from within oneself as a result of doing a good jon
What is practical intelligence?
The intellectual skills used in everyday problem solving. Tacit Intelligence. Particularly needed in adulthood.