Curriculum Design and Implementation
learning experiences
"The interaction between the learner and the external conditions in the environment to which he can read" Tyler, 1949
View of Mauritz Johnson, Jr (1967)
"only possible source [of the curriculum] is the total available culture"; only organized subject matter/ the disciplines can be a source of curriculum, not the interests of learners nor society
curriculum
"planned learning outcomes for which the school is responsible" (Popham & Baker, 1970) i.e. intentions and instruction
Critical Inquiry
"rigorous, time-consuming, collaborative, informed, school-based dialectic around generic questions" (Kenneth A Sirotnik, 1998); at the heart is "willingness and ability of people to engage in competent discourse and communication" (Sirotnik, 1998);
Philosophy of Education
"statements of aims of education are positions taken that are based on a set of beliefs" (Green, 1973); stem from philosophies of life
Three conceptions of sequencing
(Orlosky and Smith, 1978) a. sequencing according to need b. macrosequencing - the organization of knowledge and the formulation of instruction to coincide with the different stages of the individual's development c. microsequencing - the organization of subject matter according to the prerequisite knowledge required of each unit of content.
Characteristics of Curriculum goals
- Relate to the aims, mission, or education philosophy -they speak to one o r more areas of the curriculum, but they do not delineate the specific courses or specific items of content - reference is to the accomplishment of all students rather than the achievement of individual students - They are broad enough to lead to specific curriculum objectives or standards
self-actualization
- acceptance and expression of the inner core of self, - minimal presence of ill health, neurosis, psychosis, or loss or diminution of basic human and personal capacities
Two ways curriculum guides are used
- provides suggestions to teachers who wish to use it for developing their own instructional units and lesson plans, in less structured situations -In more structured situations, specifies standards or objectives to be mastered within a grade or subject area; provides a sequence of instruction for a time period or which ones to cluster together
Statements of curriculum goals can...
- stress of the role of the curriculum of the school or school district - focus on student learning
Direction of learning experiences
-also called implementation of instruction -occurs btwn selection and organization, and the evaluation of student achievement
Issues with Tyler's Model
-apparent linear structure -lack of interdependence betwn different components - not meant to be followed strictly
Attention should be given to learning experiences that...
-develop thinking -develop information gathering -develop social dispositions -expand interests
Significance of psychological screen
-enables us to distinguish changes in human beings that can be expected to result from a learning process from those that cannot -enables us to distinguish goals that are feasible from those that are likely to take a very long time or are almost impossible of attainment at the age level contemplated -gives us some idea of the length of time required to attain an objective and the age levels at which the effort is most efficiently employed
Why focus on student learning is preferable?
-places student at the center of learning, philosophically -its in keeping with instructional design, which focuses on student learning outcomes, rather than on the performance of the teacher/school -student outcome statements parallel writing instructional goals and instructional objectives or learning targets -evaluation design can be aligned for systematic curriculum and instruction and serve as feedback
Order of Taba Model
1. Create learning units for each grade level or subject area 2. Practice experimental units 3. Revise and merge 4. Determine a structure 5. Introduce and implement new units
Ways of sequencing
1. From the simplest to the most complex 2. In chronological order 3. By theme 4. Geographically 5. Concrete to the abstract 6. General to specific 7. Groupings of similar topics, readings, & skills
Variables that effect balance
1. The learner-centered and the subject-centered curriculum 2. The needs of society and needs of the learner 3. General and specialized education 4. Breadth and depth 5. three domains may create a three-way balance 6. Individualization and general education 7. Innovation and stability 8. The needs of the exceptional and non-exceptional student 9. Within and across disciplines
aims procedure
1. general, all-inclusive aim stated 2. First statement is broken into small number of highly generalized statements 3.Small number of aims divided to suit the administrative organization 4. Aims of each division further broken up by stating objective by each subject 5. Subject objectives divided into objective for each grade
3 elements that can turn a curriculum goal to an objective
1. performance or behavioral terms. IE those skills and knowledge the students are expected to demonstrate at the level of proficiency 2. Precise degree of mastery or proficiency 3. conditions under which the performance will take place
4 characteristics of the perceptual field that underlie the behavior of truly adequate persons
1. positive view of self 2. identification with others 3. openness to experience and acceptance 4. possession of a rich field of perceptions gained from both formal schooling and informal sources
Four major philosophies of education
1. reconstructionism 2. progressivism 3. essentialism 4. perennialism
Order of Tyler's Curriculum Rationale
1. source general objectives from students, society, and subject matter 2. Use these to form general objectives 3. Screen general objectives through educational philosophy and learning psychology 4. Use this to form precise instructional objectives
Order of Tyler's Curriculum Rationale (Expanded)
1. source general objectives from students, society, and subject matter 2. Use these to form general objectives 3. Screen general objectives through educational philosophy and learning psychology 4. Use this to form precise instructional objectives 5. selection of learning experiences 6. organization of learning experiences 7. direction of learning experiences 8. Evaluation of learning experiences
Tyler Model for curriculum development
Based on the book "Basic principles of curriculum and instruction" (1949) written by Ralph W. Tyler; recommend that curriculum developers gather data from 1. the learners, 2. contemporary life outside school, 3. the subject matter; Objectives filtered by a) educational and social philosophy of the school, and b)the psychology of learning;
General Systems theory
Based on the concept that each part has only a unique impact but that all parts of a system are interdependent and therefore, the combination into a functioning system has an exponential impact on outcomes
School District level of curriculum development
Can function as an isolated unit; Conducted through various teams; consider problems such as: -adding new programs -abandoning programs -implementing standards-based curriculum and instruction -creating items for progress monitoring or EOC exams -Writing or reviewing proposals for state, federal, and private foundation grants -articulating programs between levels
Step Model of Curriculum Development
Classroom (Team, Grade, and Department) Individual School School district State Nation International
Taba Model of Curriculum Development
Created by Hilda Taba; an inductive approach to curriculum development; creativity promoted at the teacher/local level; learning experiences are a major strategy; teachers involved in the process of curriculum design; order in decision making; process that takes variables into consideration resulting in a more thoughtfully planned and dynamic curriculum; professional learning for teachers should be provided so they can implement the units in their classroom
Interlocking model
Curriculum and instruction are independent but there is an integrated relationship between them at certain points. The relationship is interconnected but not holistically so.
Concentric Model
Curriculum and instruction are not independent of each other. One is a subsystem of the other, contained within
Cyclical Model
Curriculum and instruction are separate entities that impact each other in a continuous, repetitious, never-ending cycle.
Dualistic Model
Curriculum and instruction remain separate; developers/designers don't engage with teachers; standards discussions divorced from classroom implementation
School level of curriculum development
Curriculum is articulated and integrated and school leaders and staff should hold themselves accountable for the implications of curriculum decisions
Stuart vs. School District No.1 1874
Decided that school boards can spend public funds to provide a secondary school education to the youth of their district
The Olivia Model for Curriculum development
Deductive model; consists of 12 components;feedback cycles back from the evaluation of the curriculum to the curriculum goals and from the evaluation of the instruction to the instructional goals; emphasis of continuous revision of the components of their respective 2 sub-cycles
National level of curriculum development
Divided into US Congress, US department of Education, & US supreme court;
Models of Curriculum-Instruction Relationship
Dualistic Interlocking Concentric Cyclical
Allure of Essentialism
Easier to understand, simplest to organize and administer; tidiness and relative ease of measuring achievement of subject matter;
Reconstructionism
Most liberal of the 4 philosophies of education; doesn't have widespread endorsement; schools are used to achieve what is considered to be improvements in society; school should do more than transmit the cultural heritage or simply student social problems, instead becoming an agency for solving political and social problems; subject matter with which the student should be engaged consists of unsolved, often controversial, problems of the day, i.e. unemployment, health, housing, and urbanization; the solutions to the problems are found through group consensus; fear of indoctrination
Regional level of Curriculum development
Not comparable to lower-level planning; occasionally, curriculum specialists of a particular area may assemble and develop curriculum materials that they may use in their schools
Concepts of Curriculum Construction
Scope Relevance Balance Integration Sequence Continuity Articulation Transferability
Team, Grade, and Department Level of Curriculum Development
Specific curriculum innovations are discussed primarily to delineate the process of curriculum development and to help leader to impact and evaluate curriculum change.
Balance
Structure and order of curriculum in its scope and sequence result in the achievement of educational objectives (Halverson, 1961); Results in a curriculum that completely fits a learner in terms their particular educational needs at that time (Doll, 1996)
Constructivism
Teacher is a facilitator of learning; students must be taught to take responsibility for their own learning; learning is an active process; complemented by experimentalist and gestalt psychology under progressivism education philosophy
psychological screen of Tyler Model
Teachers clarify the principles of learning that they believe to be sound; involves a unified formulation of a theory of learning that helps to outline the nature of the learning process, how it takes place, under what conditions, what sort of mechanisms operate, and the like; effective application presupposes adequate preparation in educational psychology and in human growth and development by those charged with the task of curriculum development
Philosophical screen of Tyler Model
Teachers should form an educational and social philosophy; developer should review general objectives and omit those that don't agree with it; include democratic goals: - the recognition of the importance of every individual human regardless of race or national, societal, or economic -opportunity for wide participation in all phases of activities in the social groups in society -encouragement of variability rather than demanding a single type of personality -faith in intelligence as a method of dealing with important problems rather than depending on the authority of an autocratic or aristocratic group
Integration
The blending of disciplines; an optional and controversial discipline to undertake; To some it occurs at the individual level, meaning methods must be developed to help learners develop a unity of knowledge (Taba, 1962); Relating the subject to one another while still maintaining their separateness
perennialism
The most conservative of the 4 educational philosophies; doesn't have widespread endorsement; sees the aim of education as the disciplining of the mind; believe that truth is eternal, everlasting, and unchanging; eschewed immediate needs of the learners, specialized education, and vocational or career education; "It is an education calculated to develop the mind" (Robert M. Hutchins, 1963); would create an education suitable to a small percentage of students who have interest and aptitude to pursue the intended learning; Eastern writings are completely ignored.
Sequence
The order in which the organizing elements or centers are arranged by the curriculum planners; i.e. pacing guide; determined after the scope;
State Level of Curriculum development
These departments and/or agencies are directly responsible for the educational matters within their borders; governed by a board of education, which is often comprised of elected members or appointed members by the governor, or a combination of both; operate curriculum development through a number of channels within and outside of education that directly and indirectly impacts the curriculum for that area; Members help to: - set curriculum standards -review and adopt instructional materials -establish graduation requirements -oversee funding' -appointing board members to military and special school districts -provide final review of rules in educator certification -review the commissioner's proposed award of new charter schools, with authority to veto recommended applicant
Instructional Evaluation
Type of assessment decision concerning whether to continue or change instructional procedures that have been initiated with students; assesses individual students directly and programs indirecty
Course (of) Study
a curriculum guide that relates to a single course
The tyler Curriculum Rationale
a process for selecting educational objectives; widely known and has been practiced in curriculum circles all over the world
Curriculum Guide
a single course or subject area at a particular grade level; all subjects at a particular grade level; a sequence in a discipline; or an area of interest applicable to two or more courses or grade levels
philosophy
a way of framing distinctive sorts of questions having to do with what is presupposed, perceived, intuited, believed, and known (Greene, 1973)
secular perennialists
advocate a highly academic curriculum with emphasis on grammar, rhetoric, logic, classical and world languages, mathematics, and, the great books of the Western world, including the Bible and theological writings; Eastern writings are completely ignored.
Instruction evaluation implementation
assessing the learner on entry skills and knowledge before the start of instruction; progress monitor students; write and administer classroom level assessments, and interpret resulting data and evidence to further inform instruction; the assessment of student achievement before, during, and at the end of instruction; the assessment of the effectiveness of the instructor through student learning outcome;
Curriculum System
blends the entire process of curriculum development including a feedback loop, into one model as a holistic approach that is more impactful than as individual components
scope
breadth of the curriculum; "the focal points of learning through which the school's objectives are to be attained" (Goodlad, 1963); includes the focal points, the basic concepts or skills to be taught, and the knowledge that will be included in the curriculum( Tyler, 1949); Can be divided into general statements, administrative organization, subject and grade respectively
Behaviorism
casts the learner in the passive role as the recipient of the many stimuli to which they must respond; aka connectionism, association, S-R bond (stimulus-response bond), and conditioning; uses drilling, programmed instruction, teaching machines, standardized testing, and behavioral objectives; teachers break content into logical, sequential pieces and prescribe the pieces the learner will study by giving learners a rule, concept or model, then provide opportunities to practice/drill using the guide; if the content has been properly mastered, it can be easily remembered as a part of long-term memory
Sequencing centered on learners
choosing emphases in keeping with the learners' growth and development
The Eight-Year Study
conducted by the Progressive Education Association between 1933 and 1941; the cooperation of >300 colleges and universities allowed a limited number of high school graduates to be accepted in without regard for the usual college entrance requirements for a 5 year period while the schools these graduates came from were able to modify their programs as they saw fit; WIlford M. Aikin, H. H. Giles, S.P. McCutchen, Ralph W. Tyler, and A.N. Zechiel helped conduct the study; graduates of the experimental schools did as well or better than their counterparts in college; graduates of experimental schools excelled in scholastic honors, leadership positions, study habits, intellectual curiosity, and extra class activities; This showed a single pattern of required courses is not essential for college success
Gestalt Psychology
contrasts the behaviorist's idea of presenting subject matter in parts; concentrates on wholes, the big picture; determined that subject matter should be organized in a way that learners could see the relationships among the various parts; matches the progressivist concern for the whole child
School improvement team
data-centric and focuses on improving student achievement; reactive in its approach to solving student performances issues; will recommend a plan of action with timelines and metrics to create an immediate change but will not develop the curriculum
Curriculum evaluation implementation
determining if programs are valid, relevant, feasible, of interest to the learners, and meet the rigor of the standards; also when reviewing the voices of delivery systems, materials, and resources and examine the finished curriculum documents and artifacts they have created i.e. guides, unit plans, and lesson plans
Student as source for Tyler Model
developer must gather and analyze data relevant to student needs and interests; total range of needs: educational, social, occupational, physical, psychological, and recreational; evidence should include teacher observations and student/parent interviews
Society as source for Tyler Model
developers create a classification scheme dividing life into diff aspects, i.e. health, family, recreation, vocation, religion, consumption, and civic roles; past and present trends
Articulation
element of sequencing that is increasing in importance and frequency with the expectation that graduates are college and career ready
Screening process of Tyler model
eliminates unimportant and contradictory objectives
The Gordon Taylor Model of Curriculum System Development
encapsulates the idea that all components identified as a part of curriculum or that influence curriculum are included;
Experimentalist Psychology
encourages active involvement of the learner in all their capacities in the educational process; a part of the progressivist education philosophy
Curriculum leadership team
focuses on curricular issues and is both proactive and reactive in its manner of operating; ensures articulation between and among the various teams, grades subjects, and departments of the class; make certain that teachers are following agreed-upon sequences and meeting expectations of aligned standards-based curriculum, instruction, and assessment; also generates its own proposals and possible solutions to curricular issues
Perceptual Psychology
focuses on the development of the learner's self-concept/self-actualization; focus on developing persons who feel positive about themselves; Per progressivism, teachers are willing to help students to develop a positive concept of themselves and to deal with both their perceptions of the world and the world as it is
Instructional objectives
general objectives that have passed the screening process; now referred to as goals, educational ends, educational purposes, and behavioral objectives
Vertical Articulation
grade to grade
Artifacts
guides, formative assessments, and alignment tables used in curriculum implementation
Proficiency levels
indicate progress towards proficiency on standards are set by the state for state standardized assessments and state end of course exams; may also be set for school district developed summative and formative assessments.
grass roots model
initiated by teachers in individual schools, employs democratic group methods of decision making, proceeds on a "broken front" and is geared to the specific curriculum problems of particular schools or even classrooms -curriculum can be successfully implemented only if the teachers have been intimately involved in the construction and development - students, parents, and other lay members of the community must be included in the curriculum planning process
Transferability
learning in school should have applicability in either a broad or narrow sense outside the school or after school years; principle of both instruction and curriculum;
Sector development of curriculum
majority of curriculum development takes place by teachers and curriculum specialists in the classroom, team, or grade, school, and school district; decreasing amounts of curriculum development takes place in sectors beyond the school district boundaries.
Subject matter as a source for Tyler Model
mathematics, audio-lingual foreign language programs, and science programs that came from subject-matter specialists
Essentialism
one of the 4 educational philosophies; has widespread endorsement; aim is the transmission of the cultural heritage, seeking to preserve society & adjusting men and women to society; organized courses are the vehicle for transmitting the culture, and emphasis is placed on the subject matter; students made to fit the curriculum; curriculum consists of the reading, writing, arithmetic, and academic subjects; mainly uses the technique of Assign-Study-Recite-Test; erudition highly valued; education is seen as preparation for a future purpose; fits well with centralized administrative structures as represented in European style ministries of education; students can be rewarded and promoted based on their mastery of subject matter; follows the behavioristic school of psychology
progressivism
one of the 4 educational philosophies; has widespread endorsement; led by John Dewey, William H. Kilpatrick, John Childs, and Boyd Bode; subject matter is subordinate to the learner; advocates rearing a child in a relaxed environment without forcing learning; the needs and interest of learners are considered and it is recognized that learners bring their bodies, emotions, and spirits to school along with their minds; students learn best when actively experiencing their world, instead of passively absorbing preselected content; shows concern for the student, society, and subject matter but student is at the center of the learning process; faith in democracy; Cooperation is fostered in the classroom; individual growth is greater than growth in comparison to others; Learn by Doing; is complemented by critical inquiry, constructivist psychology, experimentalist psychology, and gestalt psychology; scientific method is a general method to be applied in any area of human endeavor
Sequencing centered on subject matter
placing subject matter at the grade level at which it is assumed learners will be able to master it.
Validation
process of determining whether the curriculum goals and curriculum objectives are accepted as appropriate for the school proposing them
Curriculum Goal
purpose or end stated in general terms without criteria of achievement; derived from a statement of philosophy, defined aims of education, and data on student needs and their achievement BUT leaves instructional decision making to others
Curriculum objective or standard
purpose or end stated in specific, measurable terms with the intention that students will develop proficiency; derived after the curriculum goals.
descriptive model
recommends an approach in more general terms; curriculum developer relies on a practice they are familiar with and do no necessarily follow an exact approach; control of outcomes are less predictable in this model
prescriptive model
recommends what should be done and is seen as a standard in the industry by many curriculum developers; outcomes are achieved in a more controlled manner
Hierarchical development of curriculum
responsibility for curriculum development is spread across the levels of classroom, school, school district, and state; Each level possesses the power to approve or reject the curriculum proposals of the levels below it; Doesn't hold true beyond the state level.
Learning targets
short-term measurable instructional objectives. Provide the direction for instructional planning and formative assessments, usually made by teachers but may also be developed at the school district level.
Decline of Progressivism Cause
some aligned schools went to extremes to cater to the interests and needs of children; some seemed to sacrifice long-range needs and interests of which the young learner was unaware; perception that graduates weren't learning basic skills or elements of the nation's heritage; can appear disorganized and impossible to navigate; seemed to be usurping the functions of the home and some teachers agreed;
Deductive approach to curriculum design
start with the general design and work toward the specifics
inductive approach to curriculum design
start with the specifics and build up to a general design and working to the specifics
Aim of education
statement of beliefs central to the author's philosophical creed that is directed to the mission of the school or school district; "must be derived from more fundamental and general thinking about value, reality, and knowledge" (J. DOnald Butler, 1968);
Classroom Level of Curriculum Development
teachers carry out curriculum design when they review the target standards and align instructional goals and instructional objectives with them. Extend the design by incorporating subject matter, choosing materials, and identifying resources in the school and community.
Erudition
the ability to reproduce that which has been learned
Curriculum evaluation
the assessment of programs, processes, and curricular documents, and artifacts; assesses programs directly and individual student performance indirectly; assessment of achievement of the specified curriculum objectives or standards
instruction
the means of providing knowledge, i.e. pedagogy, delivery mode, or implementation
Macrosequencing
the organization of knowledge and the formulation of instruction to coincide with the different stages of the individual's development
Microsequencing
the organization of subject matter according to the prerequisite knowledge required of each unit of content.
Determining priority
the placing of the curriculum goals and objectives in order of relative importance to the data informed needs of students
Continuity
the planned repetition of content at successive levels, each time at an increased level of complexity; vertical reiteration of major curriculum elements; Concepts, skills, and knowledge are introduced and reintroduced; repetition with increasing levels of complexity of thinking and appropriate resources at each stage;
Relevance
the utility of knowledge within everyday activities; the difficulty with defining this principle is how it's determined and by whom;
Horizontal Articulation
within a grade