Daily Life Review Certamen

Baths of Trajan, Caracalla, Diocletian

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Circus Maximus

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Cloaca Maxima

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Fora of Julius Caesar, Augustus, Nerva, Trajan

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MAJOR FEATURES OF ROMAN GOVERNMENT UNDER THE REPUBLIC

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ROMAN RELIGION

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SOME MAJOR FEATURES OF ROME

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Principal gods

12 OLYMPIANS (Greek equivalents in parentheses) Jupiter = Jove (Zeus): king of gods Juno (Hera): Jupiter's wife, presides over affairs of matrons Minerva (Athena): goddess of wisdom, crafts, war Mars (Ares): god of war Apollo (Apollo): god of archery, poetry, sometimes sun Diana (Artemis): goddess of the hunt, childbirth, the moon Mercury (Hermes): messenger god, god of commerce, thieves Ceres: goddess of grain Bacchus=Liber (Dionysus): god of wine Vulcan (Hephaestus): blacksmith god Neptune (Poseidon): god of the sea Venus (Aphrodite): goddess of love OTHERS Pluto= Dis (Hades): god of the underworld Vesta (Hestia): goddess of the hearth, and of the sacred flame in the Roman forum Quirinus (no Greek equivalent): deified Romulus Janus (no Greek equivalent): god of beginnings and endings Saturn (Uranus): father of Jupiter: Italian god of agriculture

Aqua Appia

1st major aqueduct (built 312 BC)

Assemblies

A. comitia centuriata: divided into centuries, or groups of one hundred: declares war, elects consuls, praetors, and censors, judges some cases B. comitia tributa: divided into tribes: votes on legislation, elects some magistrates, judges some cases C. concilium plebis: made up of only plebeians (i.e., no patricians), divided into tribes: elects tribunes of the plebs, votes on some legislation, judges some cases D. contio: an informal assembly with no power to judge, enact legislation, or elect anyone

Principal powers and duties of Senate

A. diplomacy B. appoints governors C. declares war (with approval of comitia centuriata) D. levies troops E. public finances F. must approve general's request for triumph H. sponsors religious festivals

Other class divisions

A. patricians: traditionally the highest class of Rome: originally the class holding almost all political power (by the middle Republic the wealthiest plebeians were virtually equal to the patricians) B. plebeians: everybody besides the patricians (though the term was also sometimes used to mean free persons of less wealth than the senators and equites) C. freedmen: former slaves D. slaves E. resident non-citizens

Major religious officials

A. pontifices: under leadership of pontifex maximus, these priests supervised all religious matters B. flamines: priests dedicated to specific gods (e.g., flamines martiales serve Mars) C. augurs: observe bird signs to see if conditions are propitious for such events as assemblies and the entering into office of new magistrates D. fetiales: perform rituals surrounding the declaration of war E. Vestal virgins: keep the sacred fire of Vesta F. haruspices: examine the entrails of animals to see if conditions are propitious for such events as assemblies and the entering into office of new magistrates; these seers, unlike the augurs, do not have official religious authority G. quindecimviri sacris faciundis: keep the Sibylline books, and consult them in response to prodigies

Two highest social classes

A. senate: members are magistrates, former magistrates, or descended from magistrates B. equites: members of wealthiest class not in the senate

Grammaticus

After the primary school for most Roman children their school career was finished, certainly for the girls. Only the upper-class children continued to be educated. A grammaticus took them under his wings. They went to him to be initiated into Greek and Roman literature. For the grammaticus the Greek literature was as important as the Roman literature. It was an odd habit that authors like Virgil, Cicero and Seneca were not read. The instruction was concentrated on their 'classics'. Teacher and pupil The grammaticus had a distinct preference for the old authors, like Livius Andronicus, Ennius and Terentius. Greek was the medium of communication in class. Just in the last quarter of the first century BC a freedman decided to start two revolutions: he decided to teach just in Latin and he would only read the works of recently died authors, like Virgil and Cicero. From that moment more and more people followed his example and even now these authors and poets are real favourites. The Romans had adopted their educational system from the Greeks. In the second century BC, when the Romans started meeting the Greeks both on the battlefield and as diplomats, they noticed that they were far behind in educational respect. The Romans felt they couldn't lag behind a people they politically dominated. That's why the ruling oligarchy supported the founding of schools according to Greek example. So the first teachers - the grammatici - came from Greece and the means of communication was Greek. As already stated, the grammaticus introduced the pupils to the Greek and Roman literature. Subject matter and content were considered subordinate to the form and function of words. The sciences like astronomy, mythology and geography were used as a means to practise comprehension. Real scientific interest was not that great, however. The pupils knew just enough about history to understand the Aeneid by Virgil and just enough about geography to follow Odysseus during his wanderings. The sciences were subservient to literature. The grammaticus had touched upon many things without considering things very deeply.

Calendar

After the reform by Julius Caesar in 46 BC, the Roman calendar was based on the time that the earth needs to revolve around the sun. This is exactly the system we have. We still have the same twelve-months sequence, the same length and names. All this is due to the genius of Caesar and the policy of August. The Roman calendar originates in Egypt, but because 'Julius' Caesar changed the calendar it was given the name 'Julian' calendar. The Romans already knew twelve months: Ianuarius, Februarius, Martius, Aprilis, Maius, Iunius, Quintilis (Iulius), Sextilis (Augustus), September, October, November, December. Since the imperial time the fifth en the sixth month are named after Caesar - Julius - and Augustus. Originally the year started on the first of March. The Roman way of counting is inclusive and regressive. Inclusive means that 'today' is also included in the counting forward. For example: if you say on Monday that you have to leave after four days, that means you will leave on Thursday. Every month has three fixed days: Kalendae: the first day of each month Nonae: the ninth day before the Idus Idus: the thirteenth day of the month; in March, May, July and October the fifteenth day of the month. Therefore the nonae are the fifth and the seventh day of the month. With dating one counts back from the first fixed day to come, Kalendae, Nonae or Idus. This is called regressive counting. Have a look at the following examples: April the first: Kalendae of April; Kalendae Apriles, abbreviation: K(al) Apr. March the 31st: The day before the Kalendae of April; Pridie Kalendas Apriles, pr. Kal. Apr. March the eleventh: five days (inclusive!) before the Idus of March (ante diem quintum Idus Martias, a.d. V Id. Mart.

Transport

All roads lead to Rome, the administrative centre of the Roman Empire . Rome was the centre of trade and commerce. The extensive network of highways supported the 'pax Romana', the Roman peace, which created stable conditions for a flowering trade. This network of roads was used for military and administrative purposes. Especially horse-drawn carts were important means of communication in the empire. They were used for special courier services. But no matter how important the roads were, they played a subordinate role in trade over long distances. Ox-carts were too slow and expensive for long journeys. It would take the six men and six boys that were needed to drive such a cart about twelve days to transport an olive press over a distance of eighty kilometres. If wheat were carried this way, the price would be doubled every 500 km. Therefore all heavy goods had to be sold direct or had to be transported by water. But this water trade also meant big risks: many ships were shipwrecked and there were still pirates around. Because of these problems the emperor gave special privileges to merchants and shipowners, who time and time again risked their lives, for instance during the transports of corn across the Empire. These merchants might be exempted from local import- or export duties.

Education

As soon as Roman children were old enough to go to nursery school the mother handed over the educational responsibilities to someone else. The well-off women entrusted the care of their loved ones to well-known educational professionals, Such a professional was called a 'paedagogus', a slave or freedman, that could cost a lot of money. All this was matter of private tuition. This was the sole privilege of the rich families. Most parents could only send their children to the primary school - the 'ludus litterarius'. These were private schools, founded by a teacher , a 'magister'. During the imperial era the 'ludi litterarii' were to be found all over Rome. School started at daybreak and would last until noon. The magister, his pupils - girls and boys, young and old - were all crowded under the awning of a shop, where the noise of the street could be heard very clearly. The furniture consisted of a chair for the magister and desks and stools for the pupils. You would also find a blackboard, washbasins and abacuses. Roman kids also had their holidays. Every eighth day was free, the so-called 'nundinae'. The 'quinquatrus'- the five days after a full moon - were free. They also had their summer holiday. Girls were instructed from the age of seven to thirteen, boys from seven to fifteen. They learnt reading, writing and arithmetics. However, the primary school in ancient Rome had a very low level. Pupils left the primary school with some basic and practical knowledge. Good lesson material was absolutely out of the question. A teacher's job was not well considered. The pupils hardly showed respect to their teachers, and neither did the teachers to their pupils.Teachers tried to discipline their students through corporal punishments, sometimes bordering on sadism.

Engagement & Marriage

Bfore the second century AD three different forms of marriage existed. The most important wedding celebration was the 'confarreatio', when a baked cake - the farreus panis - was sacrificed to Jove Capitolinus. The Pontifex Maximus and the priest of Jove - the flamen dialis - were always present. The 'coemptio' was a form of marriage which was achieved by a fake transaction. The coemptio was often used if an upper-class man married a woman of humble origin. Finally, there was the 'usus'. If a couple had lived together for at least a year, marriage was allowed and both partners obtained the same rights. The usus was often used if a man of humble origin married an upper-class woman. These three forms of marriage were replaced by a marriage, which resembles our marriage a lot, both regarding the rituals and the official part of the marriage. An engagement preceded a marriage. An engagement was agreed upon by a young couple and their fathers. After all an engagement didn't imply real obligations. An engagement was symbolised by a few expensive presents from the young man to his fiancée who also gave her a ring. The girl shoved this ring mostly gold - on the ring finger of her left hand. An engagement was very important in legal respect. What about a typical Roman wedding-day? That day the bride would put on her wedding dress. First of all underclothing without a hem -tunica recta- held up by a woollen belt with a double button, the cingulum herculeum. Then she put on a bright-yellow coat -a palla- and sandals on her feet. Round her neck she would hang a metal chain. The hair was covered by six hair-pieces, the seni crines, embellished by ribbons, the vittae. All this was covered by a bright orange veil which was called flammeum. A wreath was placed on top of the veil.When she was ready, she received the bridegroom and his family in her family. Then the company proceeded to a neighbouring sanctuary or to the atrium of the house to make sacrifices to the gods. Mostly a pig was sacrificed, sometimes a sheep or a bullock. After the offerings the auspex and the ten witnesses started action. The witnesses only had to imprint their seals on the official documents. The auspex, the leader of the wedding ceremony, investigated the intestines of the sacrificed animal and made sure that the signs were favourable. Without favourable signs the gods would reject the marriage. After this the bridal couple exchanged the marital pledges in the presence of the auspex. They swore mutual loyalty by the phrase: "Ubi tu Gaius, ego Gaia "where you are, Gaius, I, Gaia, will be). Until the early morning there would be a party, until the moment would come for the bridegroom to take away the daughter from her mother's arms to his house. Flute-players, followed by five men with torches, would open the procession. All the way all sorts of cheerful and sometimes naughty songs were sang. When the procession approached the house, nuts were thrown among the children, who had walked along with the procession. With these nuts the bride had played in her youth and their cheerful tapping- and rattling sounds on the street would promise her a future of fertility and good fortune. Arrived at the house of the husband, the most important bridesmaid- the pronuba- accompanied her to the bed of the husband, where the husband would invite her to take place. The others would leave the house.

Magistracies (all except censor and dictator have one-year terms)

CURSUS HONORUM (required progression from lowest to highest office) 1. quaestor: usually one's first magistracy: 20 quaestors serve as treasurers; minimum age 31 2. praetor: 8 praetors serve as judges, often become propraetors to govern provinces after office is completed; minimum age 40 3. consul: 2 consuls are chief executives: lead armies, preside over Senate and assemblies; often become proconsuls to govern provinces after office is completed; minimum age 43 OTHERS 1. aedile: often held between quaestorship and praetorship: four aediles oversee games and public works TExES Exam in Latin, Review materials 31 2. censor: held by seniorstatesman: 2 censors elected every 5 years for a 1 1/2 year term; oversee census and public works 3. dictator: appointed and given absolute power in time of emergency 4. magister equitum: assistant to dictator 5. tribune of the plebs: originally established to protect rights of plebeians against patricians; 10 tribunes (number varies) can veto legislation and can preside over senate

Chariot races

Circus Maximus is the most famous chariot racing stadium in Rome Italy.

Rhetoric

During the Imperial Era the impor-tance of rhetoric in politics became less. That is because the political system was changed. The knowledge of the rules of eloquence were still part of education. Eloquence was becoming an academic skill, however. Many different fictitious juridical and political speeches, used for instruction, have been preserved. Professors were appointed by the state. The first one was Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (about 35-95 AD). By his works, twelve books in all, we know more about the literary and historical side of rhetoric. In the second century AD rhetoric got a more archaic character. Roman upper-class boys were taught the techniques of rhetoric at school. Teachers in this field were highly respected and could earn a lot of money. Both in politics and in jurisdiction, rhetoric was often used. Rhetoric was also used for occasional speeches. An eloquent lawyer was able to get the judges on his side through skilful rhetoric. Also in politics, senators were influenced by eloquent speakers. The Romans copied the tricks and traps of eloquence from the Greeks. The art of rhetoric was highly developed in Greece. The Romans have brought this art to more perfection. A very prominent person in Rome was Cicero. Both in politics and in jurisdiction he was very active, and he was a formidable speaker.

ENTERTAINMENT

For a long time it was thought that the Romans had no feeling for music. But this is absolutely not true. The flute was the national instrument of the Romans and already in 364 BC the first music for the theatre was created. Besides music there were other things to entertain the people in ancient Rome. For the children there were many playthings. The little ones started playing with rattles. After that they played with dolls, nuts and a lot of other toys. Also the adults weren't forgotten. There were many games they made life pleasant with. If you wanted to see horse-races, you went to the chariot-racing contests. If you preferred people fighting each other in bloody fights, you went to the gladiator fights. For these games many theatres were built. Some of them we can still admire.

Forum

Forum: center of civic and commercial life: buildings included -Temple of Vesta -Temple of Castor and Pollux -Temple of Jupiter Stator -Basilicas -Sacra Via starts here and runs to Alba Longa

Tonsors

In Roman antiquity the barber (tonsor) was of great importance to a man. To him he entrusted the most important part of his cura corporis (care of the body), i.e. the care of his beard and hair. Someone who was rich enough to have a personal barber, was treated every morning. The ordinary Roman went to a barber in some kind of shop (taberna). Lower class people (including slaves) went to an open-air barbershop, in a square for instance. The open-air barbershop was a meeting place for people. They exchanged the latest news there. In a barbershop (tonstrina) there were benches for the customers to sit on and wait. There were mirrors on the wall. The customer whose turn it was, sat down on a stool and was given a cape to protect his clothes. The barber, surrounded by his assistants, cut his hair or only gave it the correct model. The barber made sure to cut and comb the hair in accordance with the latest fashion, which was determined by the way the emperor had his hair done. Up to the days of Trajan the emperors followed the example of August, who granted his barbers only little time and whose hairdo was rather simple as a result. Because of the fact that scissors were made of iron and lacked quality, it was probably impossible to cut very neatly. To conceal that, more and more Romans preferred a curly hairstyle. A Roman never shaved himself; because of the bad equipment and clumsy technique he left this job to the tonsor. Before the first century BC, Romans didn't shave. However, after that period a beard was considered improper. Caesar e.g. never appeared in the public unshaven. A 'dominus'(master of the house) had a personal barber and also his slaves went there. Being shaven wasn't fun. The Romans didn't have shaving soap and the razor blades were blunt. Being shaven in public was like hell. Any incident in the street might divert the barber's attention and could cause serious injury. Though archeologists have found a large number of Etruscan razors, they haven't found any Roman razors. At face value a rather odd situation. The explanation is simple: the razors of the Etruscans were made of bronze; those of the Romans were made of iron and, as result, disintegrated. Cutting and shaving was a barber's main job. But in the second century AD a couple of tasks were added: sprinkling the curly hair with paint and perfume, rubbing the cheeks with creams and covering up skin irregularities with small, round pieces of sticking plaster (splentia lunata). As a matter of fact shaving was a kind of ritual to the Romans. The first time a young man shaved his 'beard', there was a religious ceremony (depositio barbae). We know that Caligula and Nero celebrated 'depositio barbae' and 'toga virilis' at one and the same time. By the way, Nero put his shaven beard into a gold box and sacrificed it to Jupiter Capitolinus.

clients

In early Rome a client - cliens - was a free man who entrusted himself to someone else and hoped to enjoy protection in return. In the late Republic and early Empire, clientship was essentially practised on a hereditary basis and reflected in the law. The rules of the law were far more binding for the freedman, who was 'cliens' of his former owner. The ordinary client might receive daily food, money, or assistance in the courts. In return he helped his patron in his political and private life and showed him respect, especially by greeting him in the morning.Client and patron could not be used as witnesses against one another. Dyonisius records other rules, many of which were out of use or cannot be taken as facts. The client should try to ransom his patron, for instance. The Twelve Tables, the earliest Roman code of laws and the starting-point in the development of Roman law, recognized the relationship of clientship. In imperial times the client was practically confused with the parasite. Martial describes himself as a client. Clients were called 'salutatores' because of their duty of daily salution and 'togati' because custom compelled them to wear the toga, by that time out of fashion for a long time already.

Police

In the Republic, Rome didn't have many police services. As a result there were lots of rows and riots. The high magistrates had got their own 'lictores' and 'viatores', who protected the magistrate and took care of public order. The 'triumviri capitales' were responsible for the prison and executions. Augustus established three 'cohortes urbanae' in Rome. Later there were more of these cohortes. They did the real police jobs. The job of the fire-brigade was done by the 'vigiles'. The 'praefectus urbi' was in charge of all these public services. He also took care of the arsonists. The praefectus urbi worked together with the 'quaestiones perpetuae' in matters of law. He was some kind of public prosecutor. The daily supervision was the job of the 'aediles'. In the provinces the governor had to take care of the public order. He was ableto ask the army for assistance.

Women in Rome

In the first century BC married women kept part of their independence. With the most obliging form of marriage - sine manu - a woman remained a part of her family and officially she didn't stand under the authority of her husband. In case of a divorce the dowry could even be claimed back by her family. In spite of these rules, which looked rather friendly for women, marriage wasn't that nice for a lot of women. They were often married off when they were only twelve to fourteen years old to men who were much older. A married woman with a high social status was very busy with keeping the house. She had to organize a big household with many slaves. That took much time and was very demanding, especially if her husband served in the army. In ancient Rome women spent most of their time at home. During the late republic women more and more appeared in public. In sexual matters the Romans had very illogical ideas. Women were punished a lot harder for things like adultery than men. The late republic knew a lot of educated women. Most of the men, however, disapproved of too much intelligence on a woman's side. At first men were also negative about cosmetics, which arose in the second century BC. But after a while the protests died down. At the end of the republic the fashionable women made themselves up to a large extent. Cosmetics had become an important part of daily life. As far as hairstyle goes, during the late republic it was normal to tie your hair in a knot. On the wedding day the hair was split into six locks, which were tied together in the form of a cone on top of a woman's head.

Writing Materials

In the old Rome people wrote on papyrus and parchment. Those two were a lot more expensive than the paper we know now and besides they were scarce. The first workshops for making paper existed in Egypt After all the papyrus plant abounded on the banks of the Nile. But also in Rome there were paper-shops and small paper-mills. The size of the paper completely depended on what it was used for. There was writing paper and paper for scrolls. A scroll consisted of a couple of sheets, which were stuck together and curled up. People wrote with black ink, made from the soot of resin or pitch, wine deposits and sepia paint. Gum-containing substances were added. Usually the Romans wrote with pointed reeds or feathers. As parchment was a lot more expensive than papyrus, this was only used for a codex, a collection of parchment sheets. This was the precursor of the book. Both papyrus and parchment were too expensive for the normal Roman. He had to rely on other things he could write on like bits of wood, leather, material and wax tablets. These tablets were used for letters, short memos, notes and... magic. A woman who was skilled in magic wrote the name of her adulterous lover on a wax tablet and drew his picture in the wax. Then she would pierce the body with a long needle, somewhere near the liver, and the unhappy one could be sure a serious accident would happen to him. Usually the wax on the tablets had a dark colour. With thin pointed rods - a stilus - signs were put in the wax surface. Usually at the other end of the stilus there was some sort of flat scoop, so you could wipe out mistakes. The raised rims of the tablets were provided with holes, through which a cord could be threaded to tie different tablets together. Besides wax, stone and bronze were used Bronze was used for official announcements. Sand was also used at schools.

Coins

In the temple of Juno Moneta the first Roman coins were minted. The English word 'money' is derived from the word 'moneta'. Under emperor Augustus many coins were minted. The smallest coin was the brass 'quadrans'. Four quadrantes equalled one 'as'. The as was also made of copper. Four asses equalled one bronze 'sesterius' and four sesterii equalled a silver 'denarius'. Twenty-five denarii made one gold 'aureus'. The relative value of the coins rarely changed. Till the third century those coins were used in addition to the locally used coins. After this the system of the emperor was accepted throughout the empire. denarius Back side of a denarius. Roma renascens (Rome reborn) The bronze coins were also cast by the 'tresviri monetales'. Those coins were heavy and very impractical. From about 22 BC the big coins were replaced by little ones. The bronze coins lost their value. The silver and gold coins kept their value. Because the Romans wanted active trade with Greece and other areas in the East, they also silver coins minted, because they were used by the Greeks too. The coins were also used for reasons of propaganda. Augustus had special coins minted after the earthquake in Asia, to show his generosity to the cities that had plunged into misery. Important events were often depicted on the coins. Nero, for example, proclaimed his accession to the throne by means of coins. This way many facts became known about Roman history.

Hills of Rome

Palatine, Aventine, Caelian, Capitoline, Esquiline, Quirinal and Viminal.

PRINCIPAL ROMAN AUTHORS

Principal Roman Authors (all dates BC unless otherwise noted) T. Maccius Plautus died c. 184 B.C. 21 plays: most notably Menaechmi, Amphitruo, Aulularia, Mostellaria Quintus Ennius 239-169 plays, various poems including epic Annales (none of Ennius's works survive in full) P. Terentius 190-159 6 plays: most notably Eunuchus, Adelphoe M. Porcius Cato 234-149 De agricultura, speeches (now lost), Origines (a history of Rome; now lost) Cornelius Nepos c. 110-24 biographies M. Tullius Cicero 106-43 Speeches, most notably Pro Caelio, 4 speeches In Catilinam; philosophical and rhetorical works, most notably De amicitia, De officiis; letters C. Iulius Caesar 100-44 De Bello Gallico, De Bello Civili Titus Lucretius Carus 94-55 (?) De rerum natura C. Valerius Catullus 84-54 (?) 116 poems C. Sallustius Crispus 86-35 Bellum Catilinae, Bellum Iugurthinum, Historiae P. Vergilius Maro 70-19 Eclogues, Georgics, Aeneid Q. Horatius Flaccus 65-8 Odes, Epodes, Satires, Epistles, inc. Ars Poetica Titus Livius 59 BC-AD 17 (?) Ab urbe condita Albius Tibullus c. 55-19 BC 2 books of Elegies Sextus Propertius 50-2 BC 4 books of Elegies P. Ovidius Naso 43 BC- AD 17 Amores, Metamorphoses, Ars Amatoria, Heroides, Fasti, Tristia, Epistulae ex TExES Exam in Latin, Review materials 35 Ponto, other poems L. Annaeus Seneca AD 1-65 9 tragedies, philosophical letters and discourses Petronius Arbiter 1st century AD Satyricon M. Valerius Martialis AD 40-104 12 books of epigrams Cornelius Tacitus AD 56-115 Annales, Historiae, Agricola, Germania Decimus Iunius Iuvenalis early 2nd cent. AD 16 satires Suetonius Tranquillus early 2nd cent. AD biographies of 12 Caesars Apuleius late 2nd cent. AD Metamorphoses, other works Augustine 354-430 AD Confessions, De civitate dei

Playthings

Roman children knew many games and playing was seen as a natural part of their education. A young child's first toy mostly was a rattle (sistrum), usually in the form of an earthenware bird filled with small stones. When growing up a child got various little toys, called crepundia, which were threaded on a wire. Those were often hung round the child's neck. The Roman children also played with marbles, dolls, wooden animals and balls. Toy chariots must have been particularly valuable playthings. According to the works of Horatius the older children enjoyed themselves in many different ways. They made doll's houses, put mice to carts, played odds and evens, and rode horses on sticks. The boys loved playing gladiators, soldiers or judges, because it gave them the feeling of imitating adults. Very popular were nuts. These nuts were rolled like marbles and aimed at pottery vases and different targets. These nuts played such a big part in the lives of children that 'surrendering the nuts' became a standard expression. 'Surrendering the nuts' was the phrase used for 'going to school for the first time'. The two most popular board games in Rome were called 'little robbers' - a game like chess - and 'twelve lines' - something like backgammon. The girls got dolls. Nearly all those dolls have gone lost, except for some wooden dolls and a few rag dolls from Egypt. Just before their marriage girls dedicated their dolls to Venus, to indicate that they were going to start a new stage in their lives. Children must have loved their toys very much, because if they died, they were very often buried with their favourite doll or toy.

Pantheon

Roman structure that was a temple to the gods.

Theater of Pompey

Rome's 1st stone theatre, built 55 BC

Tabernae

The 'tabernae', or market booths, of the Forum existed since the beginning of the Republic. Farmers from Rome's countryside, butchers and money-lenders from inside the city, and merchants of every kind sold their wares in these booths, lining both the north and the south side of the Forum. At festivals, people would climb to the top of these booths to watch the festivities and, likewise, people would watch local fights and battles from the tops of these tabernae. At first, the tabernae were divided into two sets of booths: the 'tabernae veteres' - the 'old booths' - and the 'tabernae novae' - the 'new booths'. In 318 BC, Maenius had galleries built as shelters for the already existing tabernae. In this way more spectators could watch the games that were held at the Roman Forum.

slaves

The First Punic War- 264-241 BC - brought 17.000 slaves to Rome and in the first part of the second century BC there came another 250.000. The original inhabitants of Rome, who were a bit old fashioned, spoke full of shame about the people who had slaves do all the work. They urged the citizens on, to go back to work on the fields again. Not many people followed this advice. Most slaves lived hard lives. They were often chained together and nobody took a slave's life very seriously.Especially those slaves who were employed in the country took part in the big slave rebellions. In 135 BC and 104 BC there were upheavals in Sicily, involving 70.000 slaves. In 73 BC there was the well-known Spartacus uprising. Spartacus was a slave from Thracia. He was schooled in gladiator fighting in Capua, a city in the south of Italy. He escaped and built up an army of 70.000 slaves who came from the surroundings of Capua. It took eight big legions to beat Spartacus.Domestic slaves had much easier lives. Most of them had to do domestic work. There were also highly educated slaves. Some of them even had a higher education than their masters. If you were lucky, you became a private teacher, a clerk or a doctor. It was not too difficult for slaves to be set free. If they saved a specific amount of money or if their master liked them a bit more than the other slaves they could be set free. The simple way this was done was characteristic of the Roman society. Often a master gave his slave some extra money in order to enable him to start a little shop as a baker, a butcher or a merchant. Other slaves stayed with their masters after their release. Children in the third or fourth generation no longer were slaves and a master could also set his slaves free through his last will. Most freedmen had such good ties with their ex-masters that they voted for them during elections. The number of slaves in Rome at about 100 AD is estimated at 400.000 of a total population of 1.2 million.

Roman Politician

The Roman politician mostly started as a 'quaestor'. That is an official occupied with finances. Having started as a quaestor he had two options: he became an 'aedilis' and he took care of the market, or he became a 'tribune' of the people. A tribune of the people took care of the interests of the civilians. He had a right of veto over decisions of the senate. After tribune of the people or aedilis a politician could become a 'praetor'. A praetor was in charge of a permanent court of justice, which dealt with a particular section of criminal law. After one year a praetor could become governor in one of the provinces of the Roman Empire. Not all praetors became governors. It was a matter of luck. Governors became the ones with the lucky numbers. The crown of a politician's career was the position of 'consul'. Rome had two consuls, who were in charge of the city. The job of a consul lasted for one year. Only the best men became consuls. Senators had the highest respect in Rome, but during the imperial era their respect was reduced. If you wanted to become a senator, you had to be elected.

Toga

The Roman toga was a gown that the Roman men wore out-of-doors and in public. Originally it was considered as the outward characteristic of the Roman citizen. The toga was a rectangular cloth of 7 by 18 feet which was draped around the body. Normally spoken, the colour of a toga was white. Boys up to the age of 16 and magistrates wore gowns with an purple rush, a 'toga praetexta'. There was also a 'toga pulla', a black or gray gown, which was worn as a mourning toga. The emperor wore a toga that was all purple and 'candidati', candidates for elections, wore white gowns. Often a toga had a 'sinus', a fold , that was used to put in papyrus rolls. The toga was also worn by women, who weren't allowed to wear stoles. Those were women who had a bad reputation, the 'infames', like freedmen or prostitutes. In the beginning of the Imperial Era the wearing of a toga became less common. This is rather logical, because a toga was difficult to drape and to keep in place. Togas may also have been pretty draughty. Another difficult aspect of a toga was, that you always needed a slave to rearrange it. As a result several emperors had to issue decrees so as to enforce its use on public occasions.

Games

The Roman year had more than 103 holidays. About half of those holidays were spent with games and spectacles in the Circus Maximus. In the Colosseum and various amphitheaters gladiators and animals fought for their lives. Athletes were to be found on the athletics tracks, poetry and music in the Greek games. All these forms of entertainment were a national outlet and ways to vent one's feelings. Chariot-racing was most popular. The poet Juvenalis once said: "The whole Rome is in the Circus Maximus these days." Four teams, the red ones, the green ones, the blue ones and the white ones, each with its own horses and riders, met in a contest. Usually four horses were put to the carts and they rode seven rounds. Most riders began as slaves, but if they had a successful career, they could win their own freedom. Also Emperor Caligula, an emperor who wasn't completely normal, was a big supporter of cart racing. His enthusiasm once reached such a great height, that he had his favorite horse Incatius, which means 'inflamed', taken into the Curia and introduced it to the other members of the college as the new senator. Gladiator fights were about life and death. They already existed during the time of the Republic, but just during the imperial era they became real box-office hits. Because the gladiators had had a thorough training, they didn't die too soon. Of the eighteen fighters in a show only fifteen survived. The best gladiators were very famous and had large crowds of supporters, especially girls. If it wasn't the gladiators defenseless criminals were thrown to the wolves. Then all sensitivity was thrown to the wind and it was only matter bloodshed, of murder and manslaughter. However horrible those slaughters could be the public had a very good time and became totally delirious.

EDUCATION AND ECONOMICS

The Romans were highly educated people. They had already invented something like a calendar. It isn't exactly the same calendar we use nowadays, but our calendar is certainly derived from it . Almost everybody knows the expression "All roads lead to Rome". This tells us something about the number of roads Rome counted. In the city itself these roads played a very important role in the transport of goods. In Rome there were a lot of tabernae, where you could buy almost anything you could imagine. First the Romans paid with goods they had, a bartering system. After a while they were also paid with money, so they could buy things with coins. Most children, also the girls, went to the primary school. Writing was one of the things that were learnt there. People in Rome used different types of writing materials. At school they used cheap materials. Children often wrote in sand. After the primary school, some boys would be taught by a grammaticus. He taught them everything about Roman and Greece literature. If you still wanted to continue studying you went to a school for rhetoric . Most of the important rulers will have had this extensive type of education. Of course not everybody was that well educated. For those people there were enough other professions. The police didn't play such an important role in society as they do now. There weren't many police services. As a result there were many rows and riots in that time.

BODY AND CARE

The Romans were very vain. They thought it was important to look good. If emperors had statues made of themselves, they often organised a stand-in who was much more handsome than they actually were themselves. As men changed their hairstyles so frequently, some statues had exchangeable hairstyles. You could make a fresh choice every day. For these changes of hairstyle the men went to a hairdresser, a tonsor. Also for women there were many different hairstyles. The women's hairdresser was called ornatrix. When you saw which toga a man wore, you knew a lot about the role that man had in society. There were different gowns for different roles. Sometimes a woman wore a gown. This wasn't such a good sign, however, because women only wore gowns if it wasn't allowed for them to wear stoles.

THE FAMILY

The family was the cornerstone of society. The word 'familia' was an extended type of family which included more than only parents and children. Also slaves and former slaves belonged to the family. And when a mother became a widow, she usually stayed with her children. Further, a prominent citizen was surrounded by many followers, especially clients, who hoped for his favours. Compensation and special privileges after the elections were hoped for. The Roman father, the pater familias, used to have a lot of power. Much more than the women in Rome. Those were hardly allowed to leave the house for a longer stretch of time. This subordinated role of the women was also noticeable with respect to matters of relationships, like engagement and marriage. Sometimes the terms of marriage looked reasonably friendly for women, but usually the outcome wasn't that funny at all for them. About food and drinks in ancient Roman times, a lot is known. Even cookery books by the famous cook Apicius have been handed over to later generations.

Professions

The occupations with the lowest respect were the jobs of fishermen, fishmongers, butchers, cooks and poultry-pickers. According to Cicero these were the jobs that appealed to the senses. Butcher A butcher This kind of work was mostly done by free men who bought slaves that did the jobs for them. It was quite well possible to earn lots of money. A Roman politician was much respected. He was an important man and earned much money.

paterfamilias

The pater familias was the head of the family. He could be a father, a grandfather or an uncle. He had a lot of power. In case of a divorce he, and not the mother, kept the guardianship of the children. He had the right to give his children in marriage. He could whip his sons, put them in jail or sell them as slaves. Fortunately the whip and other disciplinary measures were not very frequently applied. The pater familias carried out the religious ceremonies at home. If the pater familias died, the widow, left behind, returned to her parental home or, if her father didn't live anymore, she was taken under her brother-in-law's wings.

Music

There was a time the Romans were considered to be unmusical. About the beginning of the development of music we don't know very much. We know that the shepherd's pipe has been played for a long time already. Also in the army musical signals were used. The flute was the national instrument, however. As a result of the plague, in 364 BC Roman theatre music came into being. Choral singing reached its first height in 240 BC, when Livy Andronicus introduced the Greek tragedy. By that development professional musicians were introduced and in this way music production was expanded. Plautus expanded theatre music. Because soloists sang the choral songs, the Roman comedy started integrating drama and singing. Music became more and more independent in relation to poetry. That shows itself in the foundation of a club of musicians around the temple of Minerva on the Aventine at the end of the third century BC. Roman music was hellenised in the second century BC, because many Greek slaves came to Rome. Individual music came on, when wealth increased in the first century BC. During the imperial era more people took part in music. At the court composers were active and some emperors, like Nero, also practised music. Gradually big orchestras came into being. Bigger instruments were developed, like the organ. Music became part of the ambience of amphitheatres and circuses. Bit by bit Roman musical life slackened. Only the rise of Christianity meant a revival of music.

Ornatrix

What the tonsor meant to men, was what the ornatrix meant to women. Roman women were as dependent on ladies' hairdressers (ornatrix) as men were on their barbers (tonsor). It was not always fun to be an ornatrix. She was told off by her mistress when her treatment had not been successful. The work of an ornatrix didn't only consist of combing and cutting hair. Apart from that she pulled out grey hairs - a painful treatment, which was not always appreciated by her mistress! She also made false braids (crines, galeri, corymbia) or, if necessary, a wig. False hair was often dyed blond with a mixture of the ashes of beech wood and goat's fat; hair could also be painted deep black. The hair to make wigs was imported from India. These were not all the skills of an ornatrix. She also had to be able to depilate parts of the body of her mistress, e.g. her legs. And she had to make her up: her forehead and arms were made white with the help of chalk and white lead, her cheeks and lips were painted red with ochre or winelees, her eyebrows were painted black with the help of ashes (fuligo), her eyes were made more beautiful by means of eyeliner. The equipment of an ornatrix consisted of a collection of little pots and bottles, Greece vases and alabaster jars, gutti (dropping bottles) and pyxides (ointment boxes), from which she could take out creams, ointments and make-up at command. In the morning the mistress put everything needed on her dressing table. She herself brushed her teeth with ground horn, which would make her teeth look very white. Her ornatrices had to apply make-up. An ornatrix also helped her mistress to make up her mind as to which jewellery to wear that day. She might wear earrings, a necklace (monile), a charm-bracelet (catellae), a pendant on her breast (pectoral), bracelets round her wrists and of course she wore the ribbons round her arms and ankles. Then her chambermaids(aveste) came and helped their mistress dressing. They clothed her with a long tunic (stola), which was provided with a gold embroidered frill at the bottom (instita). This was the sign of her high status. They put on her belt (zona) and last but not least they enveloped her in a long scarf, which almost touched the ground (supparum). When a mistress went to the bathhouse, usually in the afternoon, she took her 'equipment' with her in a silver box (capsa or alabastrotheca). After her bath, she made herself up again. She wouldn't remove her make-up till late in the evening. She would do that just before she went to bed. Women who were not in the 'loving' mood , would apply a special face mask. It enhanced their beauty. As it was made of a mixture of sheep fat and breadcrumb soaked in milk, it gave off a terrible stench. The face mask was quite popular at the time! Every day the procedure of getting dressed would be repeated. The clothes of a Roman woman didn't distinguish themselves from the clothes of a man by their style but by the richness of the materials used. Women wore shining materials and cotton, men dressed in linen and wool. Roman women, beautifully dressed, wanted to attract the attention of passers-by. They wanted to be admired. In the morning, therefore, they needed much more time than their husbands to get dressed. This wasn't a problem because, contrary to the men, women didn't have many responsibilities. They didn't participate in Roman public life, they only took part in leisure activities.

Architecture

aquaeducts were bridges that brought water to Rome, thermae were baths, insulae were apartment buildings, circus was for chariot races and amphitheatrum was like the theater

Government offices

emperor was like the king, magistrates were elected officials, consuls were highly elected officials.

Colosseum (also called the Flavian Amphitheater):

famous stadium in Rome where entertainment was held, such as gladiator fights and animal fights. built 80 AD, under emperor Titus

Roman Forum

had many temples such as the Temple of Vesta. Curae was where much business was held. Rostra was a speaking platform. Basilicas were public buildings.

Meals

ientaculum (breakfast), prandium (lunch) and dinner

Appian Way

leads out of Rome to Brundisium

Theater

like enclosed stadiums that could fit many people

Via Appia

one of the most important Roman roads used for trade

Food and Drinks

or most people in the big cities a thick porridge, called 'puls', was the main dish. In the country more variation was possible. The poor farmers pounded a pulp from spices and vegetables and they added cheese to this pulp. Those who owned some land would grow cabbage or leek and there were some that could enjoy the taste of homebred pork. The slaves depended on the generosity of their masters and got the scraps that were shoved off their superiors' tables. The occasional banquets of the rich were peak days for the poor. The rich upper class knew how to wine and dine. Horatius gave these sumptuous banquets the predicate "ab ovo usque ad mala" which means something like "from start to finish". Sometimes friends, acquaintances and clients were invited to take part in the evening-meal. Then a pick of meat and fish, suffused with sauce and vegetables, were served. Eggs were very popular and regarded as a delicacy. Fruits were the common desserts.Wine was a very popular drink. Evidence is to be found in the big stores that were found in later times. Such stores could have a capacity of 200 jars, containing 100 litres each. An important vineyard in Italy was Campania. According to Pliny the Elder Campania produced delicious wines. Maybe this article has whetted your appetite. A real Roman banquet might appeal to you. Get to work then, because below you will find a recipe by the famous Roman Marcus Cavius Apicius, the writer of many cookery books: Isicia Omentata (Some kind of Roman Burger)

Household

pater (father_, mater (mother), servus (servant) and filius (son)

Rooms in Roman house

the atrium was like the entrance, the villa was an upperclass roman house, the cubiculum was the bedroom, and the triclinium was the dining room.

Campus Martius

the publicyly owned, most popular section of Rome/ area outside of city walls where voting took place; monuments included: -Pantheon -Mausoleum of Augustus -Ara Pacis

The Baths

there were the frigidarium (cold rooms), caldarium (hot room) and other temperature rooms that the Roman citizens could visit to bathe and socialize in.

Clothing

toga was like a drape across the body, tunic was like a shirt that men wore and the stola was like a toga for women.

Roman calendar

very similar to today's but uses Roman names.