DEP3103 Exam 3
The study of Jambon & Smetana (2014) presented in the lecture found that compared to 6-year-olds, 9-year-olds were __________ likely to think it was acceptable to hurt someone if there was a good reason to do so.
more
Based on the graph shown on slide 28 of the lecture on attachment, complete this sentence: "The likelihood that infants will be securely attached to their caregivers is lowest when ..."
"...low maternal sensitivity/responsiveness is combined with poor quality child care."
When asked, "Tell me about yourself," what is 3-year-old Riley most likely to say?
"I have new, blue shoes."
Erika becomes upset when her father leaves. When her father is present, Erika approaches, follows, and climbs on him in preference to others. Erika is most likely in Bowlby's ________ phase.
"clear-cut" attachment
According to the lecture on Neo-Vygotskian theory, what are two things that children do at the age of 3 or later? Justify your answer by citing two specific experiments from the lecture.
(1) 3- and 5-year-olds persist in doing an unpleasant task longer if they previously promised to do it than if they did not (Kanngiesser, Köymen, & Tomasello, 2017). (2) 3-year-olds, but not 2-year-olds, who work together with a partner to obtain a reward will share the reward equally with their partner more than half the time (Hamann, Warneken, Greenberg, & Tomasello, 2011).
What are two things discussed in the lecture on Neo-Vygotskian theory that children do before they are 3 years old but that chimpanzees do not do? Justify your answer by citing two specific experiments from the lecture.
(1) Children under 3, but not chimpanzees, are highly interested in social games are played with fun, and will try to re-engage a partner who stops playing such a game (Warneken, Chen, and Tomasello, 2006). (2) Children under 3, but not chimpanzees, display prosocial behavior by taking actions that benefit others (Silk, Brosnan, Vonk, et al., 2005 and Brownell, Svetlova, & Nichols, 2009).
Explain how the two things you mentioned the previous question relate to the concept of joint intentionality.
(1) Engaging partners in social games relates to joint intentionality because, to understand a social game, you must understand that you and your partner have the intention to play the game together. (2) Joint intentionality may increase prosociality by enabling children to imagine themselves in the places of others.
Explain how the two things you mentioned the previous question relate to the concept of collective intentionality.
(1) Keeping one's promises is a sign that one understands the social norm of keeping promises; understanding social norms requires participating in collective intentionality. (2) Fairly sharing the fruits of cooperation with others is a sign that one understands the social norm of fair sharing; again, understanding social norms requires participating in collective intentionality.
In the Strange Situation, what distinguishes (a) secure from insecure attachment, and (b) insecure-avoidant from insecure-resistant attachment?
(a) In secure attachment, children use the parent as a secure base. The parent leaving may upset them, but if so, the parent returning comforts them. In insecure attachment, either children are not upset when the parent leaves, or are not comforted when the parent returns. (b) In insecure-avoidant attachment, children are unresponsive to a parent when the parent is present and often are not upset when the parent leaves. In insecure-resistant attachment, children are upset when the parent leaves but are angry and resist being comforted when the parent returns.
The study by Lemery-Chalfant et al. (2013) used a twin study method to generate heritability estimates for different aspects of child temperament, and to investigate gene-environment correlations and interactions relating to temperament. Summarize the results of this study for (a) heritability estimates, and (b) gene-environment interactions.
(a) The study found that about 50% of variation in effortful control and extraversion/surgency is due to genes, whereas about 80% of variation in negative affectivity is due to genes. (b) The study found that genetic effects on effortful control and extraversion/surgency were higher for children living in more chaotic home environments than for children living in less chaotic home environments. Also, negative affectivity was more heritable under crowded or unsafe home conditions.
List four ways in which children's temperament at a young age is related to differences between individuals when they are older.
1. Children who display difficult temperament when younger show elevated rates of anxious withdrawal and aggressive behavior in middle childhood (refer to lecture slide "Thomas & Chess's Three Groups") 2. Children who display slow-to-warm-up temperament when younger show excessive fearfulness and slow, constricted behavior in preschool/school (refer to lecture slide "Thomas & Chess's Three Groups") 3. Children who are fearful or shy when younger show higher empathy, lower aggression, and higher guilt at age 6-7, and higher risk of anxiety, depression, unrealistic worries about physical harm, and social phobia in adolescence (refer to lecture slide "Outcomes associated with fearfulness") 4. Children who show stronger delay of gratification when younger develop into more cognitively and socially competent adolescents, achieving higher scholastic performance and coping better with frustration and stress (refer to lecture slide "Delay of gratification and later development")
Different smiles in different contexts
10 to 12 months
Infants smile in different ways for different situations at __________ of age, but not before.
10-12 months
In a study by Repacholi & Gopnik (1997) described in class, children saw an adult looking at two foods: goldfish crackers and broccoli. The adult showed pleasure at one food and disgust at the other food. The adult then asked the children for food. __________ usually gave the adult the goldfish regardless of which food the adult seemed to like; __________ usually gave the adult whichever food they seemed to like better.
14-month-olds; 18-month-olds
A study by Brownell, Svetlova, & Nichols (2009) presented 18- and 25-month-old toddlers with a choice similar to the one described in the previous question. The results suggested that __________ will voluntarily share with another person, but only if __________.
25-month-olds (though not 18-month-olds); that person vocalizes their desire
Laughter
3 to 4 months
Social smile
6 to 10 months
List all of the developments in self-understanding mentioned in this lecture that occur AFTER the first 2 years of life.
Ability to delay gratification increases from 1 1/2 to 4 years of age In early childhood (2-6 years), children's self-concept includes mainly observable characteristics—like appearance, possessions, and actions—as well as emotions and attitudes In middle childhood (6-11 years), children incorporate competencies and psychological traits into their self-descriptions, as well as comparisons and relations with others
"My child seems always in a big hurry to get from one place to another"
Activity level
In the study of Haidt, Koller, & Dias (1993), children were told a story about a girl pushing a boy off of a swing because she wanted to use the swing. In which group(s) did over half of children think this act would be wrong even in a country where people do such things often?
All groups of children in the study
In the study referred to in the previous question, children were also told another story about a family cooking and eating their dog after it was killed in a car accident. In which group(s) did over half of children think this act would be wrong even in a country where people do such things often?
All groups of children in the study except high-SES children in Philadelphia
Children's capacity for joint intentionality begins to develop
Around 9-10 months
"Normative Turn": Children begin to participate in collective intentionality and therefore to understand social norms
Around age 3
"Age of Reason": Children are considered reasonable and responsible beings
Around age 6-7
"When picking up toys or other jobs, my child usually keeps at the task until it's done"
Attention span/ persistance
Which statement describes characteristics of the authoritative child-rearing style?
Authoritative parents insist on mature behavior and give reasons for their expectations.
"If a child's parents shout at them a lot, the child will shout a lot too, because children imitate the behavior of adults. So shouting at your children not to shout in the house won't do much good." These statements best reflects the perspective of __________.
Bandura's social learning theory
Parents sometimes tell their children something like the expression "Do as I say, not as I do?" What does Bandura's social learning theory imply about this approach to parenting?
Bandura's theory implies that children may imitate what you do, even if it is different from what you say. So, "Do as I say, not as I do?" is unlikely to work well. If you want children to act a certain way, you should model that way of acting yourself.
"If parents consistently reward good behavior and punish bad behavior, a child will learn to behave well and morally. No child is innately destined to be criminal or violent." These statements best reflect the perspective of ___________.
Behaviorism
Compare and contrast: authoritative parenting vs. authoritarian parenting.
Both authoritative and authoritarian parenting can involve high levels of parental control over children. However, in authoritative parenting, parental control is adaptive, meaning that parents relax control when children are ready for more independence, whereas in authoritarian parenting, parental control is consistently high. Also, authoritative parents are more accepting of and involved with their children than authoritarian parents.
Each of the following plays a larger role in children's self-descriptions in middle childhood than in early childhood, except which one?
concrete physical attributes, such as being tall
Compare and contrast: authoritative parenting vs. permissive parenting.
Both authoritative and permissive parenting involve high levels of parental acceptance of children. However, in authoritative parenting, parents exert control over children when necessary and grant appropriate levels of autonomy, whereas in permissive parenting, parental control is consistently low and parents grant high levels of autonomy even if children are not mature enough.
Which of the studies discussed in the lecture on Neo-Vygotskian theory provided evidence that two-year-old children who work together with a partner to obtain a reward will share the reward equally with their partner more than half the time?
Brownell, Svetlova, & Nichols (2009) Hamann, Warneken, Greenberg, & Tomasello (2011) Silk, Brosnan, Vonk, et al. (2005) None of them
Which of the studies discussed in the lecture on Neo-Vygotskian theory provided evidence that chimpanzees, like human toddlers, are highly interested in social games that have no concrete goal except to have fun by doing something together?
Brownell, Svetlova, & Nichols (2009) Kanngiesser, Köymen, & Tomasello (2017) Warneken, Chen, & Tomasello (2006) None of them
List all of the developments in self-understanding mentioned in this lecture that occur in the first 2 years of life.
Children become able to recognize themselves in a mirror (in some cultures) Children more frequently use personal pronouns, like "I" and "me" Children begin classifying themselves using language, including "boy" or "girl" Children become aware of caregivers' wishes and able to comply with them Children begin to display a preference for gender-stereotyped toys, for example girls preferring dolls and boys preferring trucks
Each of the following developments typically occurs during either early childhood or middle childhood, except for which one?
Children begin to distinguish between positive and negative emotions
In an experiment described in class (Dodge, 1980), when children heard audio recordings of other children messing up their work on a puzzle, some children reacted aggressively and other children reacted non-aggressively. What is the significance of this finding?
Children differ in whether or not they attribute hostile intent to an ambiguous action
Give examples of cultural and ethnic differences in self-development from the lecture.
Children in cultures that emphasize autonomous child-rearing goals, such as urban German and urban Indian cultures, succeed on the mirror test at younger ages than children in cultures that emphasize relational child-rearing goals, such as rural Indian and rural Nso cultures. On average, American children's self-concept places more emphasis on personal preferences, interests, skills, opinions, and personal attributes; whereas Chinese children's self-concept places more emphasis on social interactions, other people, group memberships, and relations with others. Self-esteem is lower among Chinese and Japanese children than American children, especially among older children. Asian children also evaluate themselves less positively and others more positively than American children. African-American children show higher self-esteem than European-American children.
All of the following changes occur within the second year of life, except which one?
Children incorporate competencies and psychological traits into their self-descriptions
Explain in your own words how sex differences in play styles could illustrate deferred adaptation.
Deferred adaptations are properties of infancy and childhood that were selected for their function in preparing children for adulthood. Boys tend to engage in more rough-and-tumble play than girls, whereas girls tend to engage in more fantasy play involving social relationships. These differences may, in our evolutionary past, have prepared boys for competition with other males in adulthood, and girls for traditional nurturing roles in the family.
Below are several statements about corporal punishment (e.g., spanking). Which statement is factually accurate?
Effects of spanking are more positive when it is used as a backup for milder discipline, rather than as the primary method of discipline
In a meta-analysis discussed in class (Lionetti, Pastore, & Barone, 2015), the most common attachment pattern among institutionalized children (that is, children who grow up in orphanages) was:
Disorganized
"Differences in how children respond to the actions of others are often caused by differences in how the children interpret the actions of others." This statement best reflects the perspective of ______.
Dodge's theory of social problem-solving
Children display increased sensitivity to praise and blame
Early childhood
Children become increasingly able to distinguish between different negative emotions, such as between anger and sadness
Early/middle childhood
Children come to understand that people may have two different emotions at the same time, such as happiness and sadness
Early/middle childhood
Children increasingly attribute others' emotions to desires or beliefs, as opposed to external causes
Early/middle childhood
"Healthy development in infancy depends on whether infants develop a sense of trust in their mothers." This statement best reflects the perspective of ______.
Erikson's psychosocial theory
Summarize the evidence and arguments that it is sometimes acceptable for parents to use corporal punishment such as spanking.
Evidence for negative effects of corporal punishment is correlational. Therefore, we do not know that corporal punishment actually causes the negative effects. There is no evidence that parents can achieve authoritative parenting without being willing to use corporal punishment when needed. Experimental studies have demonstrated that spanking is effective for reducing defiance in the most defiant children. Effects of corporal punishment are more positive when it is used as a backup for milder discipline, rather than as the primary method of discipline.
"The reason why people are so good at at guessing each others' beliefs and intentions is because this ability is helpful for survival." This statement best reflects the perspective of ________.
Evolutionary psychology
Explain the still face paradigm. What do experimenters do; what is the typical result; and what are the implications of the result?
Experimenters ask a mother to sit in front of her baby and show a completely expressionless face. The typical result is that babies first try to get their mother's attention, but eventually give up. The result implies that babies are sensitive to the emotional expressions of others, such as their mothers, and need emotional feedback from them.
"My child is not afraid of large dogs and/or other animals"
Fearful distress
Summarize the evidence and arguments that parents should never use corporal punishment such as spanking.
Frequent corporal punishment is negatively correlated with internalization of morals by children. Thus, corporal punishment seems to fail in one of its main goals, teaching moral behavior. Frequent corporal punishment is positively correlated with many undesirable child outcomes, such as aggression, delinquency, and poor mental health. Thus, corporal punishment may be harmful. The association between spanking and negative child outcomes remains significant when statistically controlling for possible common causes, like stress caused by poverty. Children who are often subjected to corporal punishment are likely also to become victims of physical abuse. Thus, corporal punishment may lead to more harmful behavior by parents.
Summarize what the subsection about Social Learning Theory in Chapter 8 Section 5 says about effects of punishment on children's moral development.
Frequent punishment promotes immediate compliance but not lasting changes in behavior. Repeated harsh punishment has wide-ranging undesirable side effects. Mild punishment is more effective when it is consistent, based on warm parent-child relationships, and accompanied by explanations.
Which of the studies discussed in the lecture on Neo-Vygotskian theory provided evidence that three-year-olds are more likely to share things equally with other children if the things were obtained by working together rather than if the things were received without any effort?
Hamann, Warneken, Greenberg, & Tomasello (2011)
Describe Harlow's experiments with monkeys and explain their significance.
Harlow gave infant monkeys two surrogate mothers: one made of wire, the other covered in soft cloth. Even when the wire "mother" was the one that provided food, after feeding, the babies went to cling to the cloth "mother." The experiment showed that the attachment of an infant to its mother is not based entirely on the experience of feeding.
Reflex smile
Newborn
Refer to the lecture slides regarding the study of Gray & Steinberg (1999). Summarize effects of behavioral control by parents on all four child outcomes.
High levels of behavioral control by parents are associated with fewer behavior problems and greater academic competence among children. Interestingly, the highest levels of academic competence appear when behavioral control is at a high level but not at the highest level (i.e., fourth quintile rather than fifth quintile).
Refer to the lecture slides regarding the study of Gray & Steinberg (1999). Summarize effects of psychological autonomy granting on all four child outcomes.
High levels of psychological autonomy granting by parents are associated with fewer behavior problems, better psychosocial development, lower internal distress, and greater academic competence among children.
According to philosopher Adam Smith, to judge someone's behavior, we should imagine what someone with no personal connection to that person would think of the behavior. In Selman's theory of role taking, what is the lowest level at which this should be possible, and why?
In Selman's theory, the lowest level at which a child can imagine what someone with no personal connection to a person would think of a behavior is "Level 3: Mutual". Essentially, Adam Smith's description exactly matches the idea of a "generalized" perspective in Selman's theory, and "Level 3: Mutual" is the lowest level at which children can comprehend a "generalized" perspective.
Describe the mirror test and its significance.
In the mirror test, a child's nose is marked with rouge without the child noticing. Then, the child is shown their reflection in a mirror. Experimenters observe whether the child touches their own nose. If the child does so, it is considered evidence that the child knows the image in the mirror is their own image—a sign of self-recognition and self-awareness.
Children actively seek emotional information from trusted individuals in uncertain situations
Infancy/toddlerhood
Children begin to distinguish between positive and negative emotions
Infancy/toddlerhood
Children understand that someone else's emotional reaction to something can differ from their own emotional reaction
Infancy/toddlerhood
How does insecure attachment relate to later psychological development? List similarities and differences between boys and girls in these effects.
Insecure attachment, especially disorganized attachment, predicts elevated likelihood of externalizing problems (such as aggression, hostility, acting out) later in life among boys, though not among girls. Insecure attachment predicts elevated likelihood of internalizing problems (social withdrawal and depression) later in life among both boys and girls. Insecure attachment also predicts unsuccessful peer relations in childhood and adolescence.
"My child has temper tantrums when s/he doesn't get what s/he wants"
Irritable distress
An infant lies in its crib. A mobile hangs overhead. The infant reaches up to grab the mobile, but can't reach it. The infant immediately starts wailing loudly. If the infant often reacts this way when it doesn't get what it wants, it would probably score high on which dimension of temperament?
Irritable distress
According to Selman's stage theory of role-taking, what is the lowest level/age at which a child should be able to understand why another child doesn't like them?
Level 2/Ages 10-12
Explain how the study of Lionetti et al. (2015) shows the importance of "early availability of a consistent caregiver".
Lionetti et al. (2015) found that the most common attachment pattern among institutionalized children (that is, children who grow up in orphanages) was "disorganized." This research finding likely reflects institutionalized children being more likely to develop the disorganized attachment pattern because they lack a consistent caregiver early in life.
Children experience pride and guilt even when no adult is present to praise or blame them
Middle childhood
Pride and guilt become governed by a sense of personal responsibility
Middle childhood
According to psychoanalytic theory, morals come from feeling guilty after doing something wrong, and this sense of guilt in turn comes from fear of punishment. According to the views of most modern psychologists, how is this view right and how is it wrong?
Most modern psychologists do not agree that fear of punishment helps children develop a sense of guilt. Nor do they agree that the sense of guilt is the only way in which children learn moral behavior. However, most modern psychologists do agree that a sense of guilt, especially when based on empathy, can help children learn moral behavior.
________ accounts for about 75 percent of reported cases of child maltreatment.
Neglect
Explain in your own words how "rough-and-tumble play" could illustrate ontogenetic adaptation.
Ontogenetic adaptations are adaptations that emerge at specific times in development and prepare the child for challenges specific to that time. Rough-and-tumble play occurs naturally among young children and may prepare the child to send and understand social signals, as well as providing needed opportunities for exercise.
Below are several statements about the relationship between language and self-development. Which one is false?
Person praise, like "you're so smart!", helps children to develop a growth mindset
Which of the following parental behaviors is associated with insecure attachment in the U.S., but is associated with secure attachment in Puerto Rico?
Physically directing and limiting children's actions
"My child laughs a lot at jokes and silly happenings"
Positive affect
An infant lies in its crib. A mobile hangs overhead. A parent comes in and taps the mobile, which starts to swing. The infant, seeing this, grins and chuckles. If the infant often reacts this way to pleasing stimuli, it would probably score high on which dimension of temperament?
Positive affect
Below are several statements about gender differences in self-understanding and self-concept. They are all true except which one?
Preferences for gender-stereotyped toys - such as dolls for girls and trucks for boys - usually does not appear until age 3 or later
Which statement about self-conscious emotions in middle childhood is true?
Pride motivates children to take on further challenges, whereas guilt prompts them to strive for self-improvement.
According to Carol Dweck's research on self-attributions and achievement motivation, using which kind of praise with children is most likely to encourage children to persist on a difficult task even after failure?
Process praise, like "you must have worked hard on that"
"Young children's social cognition is quite limited because they lack the ability to see things from the perspective of another person." This statement best reflects the perspective of ______.
Selman's stage theory of role-taking
Summarize what the subsection about Social Learning Theory in Chapter 8 Section 5 says about effects of rewards on children's moral development.
Reinforcing young children with attention or praise appears unnecessary to induce them to help others. Children who are materially rewarded come to expect something in return for helping and, therefore, rarely help spontaneously, out of kindness to others.
"Spanking children shows them that using violence is okay. They may, therefore, learn to use violence themselves." This argument reflects the perspective of which theory?
Social Learning Theory
The effect of __________ on moral development is/are more positive when it/they __________.
The effect of __________ on moral development is/are more positive when it/they __________.
Summarize the study of Golombok et al. (2008). What was the purpose of the study? What did the researchers do? What were the results? What are the implications?
The purpose of the study was to assess the degree of sex-typed behavior among children of different ages. The researchers measured children's sex-typed behavior using a parent-report questionnaire called the Preschool Activities Inventory (PSAI). The results were that differences between boys and girls in PSAI scores increased from 30 months of age to 57 months of age. The implications are that the degree to which boys and girls show sex-typed behavior increases between the ages of 2.5 and 5 years.
Summarize the study of Taylor, Rhodes, & Gelman (2009). What was the purpose of the study? What did the researchers do? What were the results? What are the implications?
The purpose of the study was to assess the degree to which children of different ages hold essentialist beliefs about gender. The researchers asked children to predict the physical traits and behavior of a child who was raised among people whose biological sex was opposite to the child's biological sex. The results were (1) children of all ages predicted that the child in the story would have physical traits consistent with their biological sex, and (2) 6-year-olds predicted that the child in the story would also behave consistent with their biological sex, whereas 10-year-olds predicted that the child in the story would behave consistent with their environment. The implications are that children aged 6 to 10 have essentialist beliefs about physical traits associated with gender; whereas most 6-year-olds, but not most 10-year-olds, have essentialist beliefs about gender-stereotyped behavior.
Explain the study by Haidt, Koller, & Dias (1993). What was the purpose of the study; what did the researcher(s) do; what were the results; what are the implications of the results?
The purpose of the study was to find out whether children from different cultures consider harmless but offensive actions to be immoral. The researchers presented children with stories involving harmless but offensive actions, and asked the children to judge whether such actions would be wrong in a country where people did such things often. The results were that in every group except high-SES children in a Westernized city, Philadelphia, over half of children thought that the harmless but offensive actions would be wrong even in a country where the actions were accepted. The implications are that different cultures have different views about what constitutes a moral imperative, and in some cultures, actions that cause no harm can still be considered immoral.
Summarize the study by Else-Quest et al. (2006). What was the purpose of the study; what did the researcher(s) do; and what were the results?
The purpose of the study was to investigate sex differences in temperament among children. The researchers conducted a meta-analysis of previous studies that had compared temperaments of boys vs. girls with respect to three dimensions of temperament: effortful control, extraversion/surgency, and negative affectivity. The study found that girls scored higher than boys on effortful control, boys scored higher than girls on extraversion/surgency, and boys and girls did not differ on negative affectivity.
Summarize the study of Hilliard & Liben (2010). What was the purpose of the study? What did the researchers do? What were the results? What are the implications?
The purpose of the study was to test the hypothesis that teachers making gender more salient can increase children's stereotypical gender typing. The researchers instructed teachers in one school to make gender more salient to children, for example by separating children by sex and using gender-specific language; they did not give any such instructions to teachers in another school. The results were that after two weeks, children in the high-salience school were less likely to think boys and girls should both do the same things, and were less likely to play with children of the other sex. The implications are that teachers making gender more salient can increase children's gender-typed attitudes and behavior.
Summarize the study of Dodge (1980) presented in this lecture. What was the purpose of the study; what did the researcher(s) do; what were the results; what are the implications?
The purpose of the study was to understand the causes of children's aggressive behavior. The researchers presented aggressive and non-aggressive children with a situation in which another child messed up their work, leaving it ambiguous whether this action was intentional. The results were that aggressive children interpreted the action as being intentional and reacted aggressively, but the non-aggressive children did not. The implications are that children's different responses to the same situation often reflect different interpretations of other people's intentions.
Summarize the study of Liben, Bigler, & Krogh (2001). What was the purpose of the study? What did the researchers do? What were the results? What are the implications?
The purpose of the study was to understand whether children's job interests are affected by the gendered nature of the jobs. The researchers used a structured interview method in which they asked children how much they were interested in various jobs, which the researchers classified as masculine or feminine. The results were that girls were more interested in feminine jobs than masculine ones, whereas boys were more interested in masculine jobs than feminine ones; this was true among both younger (6 to 8 years old) and older (11 to 12 years old) children. The implications are that 6 to 12 year old children are more interested in occupations that are stereotypically associated with their own gender than in occupations that are not.
Which statement correctly describes the results of the study of Kanngiesser, Köymen, & Tomasello (2017) that was discussed in class?
Three- and five-year-old children persist in doing an unpleasant task longer if they previously promised to do it than if they did not
Self-conscious emotions begin to appear
Toddlerhood
How many distinct emotional expressions do newborn infants display?
Two: attraction and withdrawal
Which of the studies discussed in the lecture on Neo-Vygotskian theory provided evidence that, if an adult is doing something together with a toddler but then the adult stops, the toddler may try to get the adult to start participating again?
Warneken, Chen, & Tomasello (2006)
Which statement correctly describes cross-national variation in children's attachment patterns?
Which statement correctly describes cross-national variation in children's attachment patterns?
According to Neo-Vygotskian theory, the capacity for collective intentionality begins to develop at __________, whereas the capacity for joint intentionality begins to develop at __________.
about 3 years of age; about 9 or 10 months of age
The Still Face Paradigm can be used to demonstrate that 3-month-olds ...
are sensitive to the emotional expressions of others
According to Erikson, preschoolers' exuberant play and bold efforts to master new tasks break down when they ________.
are threatened, criticized, and punished excessively by adults
The results of Harlow's experiments with monkeys suggest that ....
attachment does not entirely originate from the act of feeding
In a study discussed in class (Gray & Steinberg, 1999), __________ by parents was associated with fewer behavior problems in their children.
behavioral control and involvement
High self-esteem is __________.
beneficial when it is based on real achievements
A study discussed in class (Gray & Steinberg, 1999) found that when parents granted children high levels of psychological autonomy, their children displayed ________.
better psychosocial development, less internal distress, and greater academic competence
According to research presented in the lecture, which of the following changes to children's moral views occurs in middle childhood?
children increasingly consider it acceptable to hurt people if there is a good reason for doing it
A study by Silk, Brosnan, Vonk, et al. (2005) presented chimpanzees with a choice between an option that only benefited themselves and an option that benefited both themselves and other chimpanzees. The chimpanzees __________, which shows that they __________ in this situation.
chose each option about equally often; are not prosocial
The meta-analysis on corporal punishment discussed in class (Gershoff, 2002) involved results from __________ studies, so the meta-analysis __________ that corporal punishment had a causal effect on the child outcomes that were analyzed.
correlational; did not prove
A study by Mischel, Shoda, & Rodriguez (1989) found that __________ at age 4 was positively associated with cognitive and social competence, performance in school, and ability to cope with stress during adolescence.
delay of gratification
Children who display fearful temperament in infancy show higher than average __________ and lower than average __________ when they are older.
depression; aggression
In a study discussed in class (Rieffe et al., 2005), children were told stories in which people had emotional reactions to situation that were different from the reactions one would expect in those situations. The children were then asked to explain the reactions. 10-year-olds were more likely than 4-year-olds to mention __________ as part of their explanations, showing that the 10-year-olds had a better understanding __________.
desires and beliefs; that emotions can have internal causes
According to Thomas and Chess's temperament research, ________ children are at high risk for anxious withdrawal and aggressive behavior in early and middle childhood.
difficult
The ________ attachment pattern reflects the greatest insecurity.
disorganized/disoriented
At what age do children begin to distinguish between moral imperatives and societal conventions?
early childhood
In Thomas and Chess's study of children's temperament, the most common temperament was __________ and the least common temperament was __________.
easy; difficult
A study discussed in class (Else-Quest, Hyde, Goldsmith, & Van Hulle, 2006) compared the temperaments of boys and girls. Girls scored higher with respect to ______, whereas boys scored higher with respect to ______.
effortful control; extraversion/surgency
Children in cultures that __________ succeed on the mirror test at younger ages than children in cultures that __________.
emphasize autonomous child-rearing goals; emphasize relational child-rearing goals
Research discussed in class (Krevan & Gibbs, 1996) found that doing what when children misbehaved had a positive effect on children's empathy and prosocial behavior?
expressing disappointment
Which of these is not a self-conscious emotion?
fear
Insecure attachment in infancy and toddlerhood is positively associated with internalizing problems (social withdrawal and depression) for ______, and is positively associated with externalizing problems (such as aggression) for ______. You Answered
girls and boys; boys only
Psychoanalytic theory claims, and modern psychologists agree, that __________ help(s) children develop morals.
guilt
A study discussed in class (Widen, 2013) found that 6-year-olds could recognize __________, but not other basic emotions, more than 75% of the time.
happiness, sadness, anger, and surprise
According to Dweck's theory of self-attributions and achievement motivation, children who __________ are more likely to __________.
have a fixed mindset; give up trying when they fail
According to Neo-Vygotskian theory, __________ have the capacity for joint intentionality and collective intentionality.
humans, but not chimpanzees,
According to the reading and lecture, parents physically directing and limiting children's actions is associated with secure attachment __________, but is associated with insecure attachment __________.
in Puerto Rican culture; in the U.S.
A study discussed in class (Gershoff, 2002) found that corporal punishment by parents (such as spanking) was associated with which of the following in their children?
increased aggressive behavior
In the Strange Situation, Philip seeks closeness to his mother and often fails to explore. When his mother leaves, Philip is distressed, and on her return he alternately clings to her and hits her. Philip is displaying characteristics of ________ attachment.
insecure‒resistant
Compared to infants in Western nations such as the United States, infants in Eastern countries such as China and Japan smile _________ and are __________ to soothe.
less; easier
In the Strange Situation, securely-attached children __________ when their parent leaves, and __________ when their parent returns.
may get upset; can be comforted relatively quickly
At what age do children begin to believe that individual rights should not be violated, even by laws?
middle childhood
Children feel pride for doing good things and guilt for doing bad things even when no adult is present in __________, but not before.
middle childhood
According to social learning theory, ________.
moral behavior can be acquired through modeling and imitation
According to the cognitive developmental perspective on moral development, violating __________ would be wrong in any culture, even cultures that think it is acceptable to do so.
moral imperatives
According to the cognitive developmental perspective on moral development, __________ are universal, meaning that __________.
moral imperatives; violating them would be wrong in any culture
A study discussed in class (Lemery-Chalfant et al., 2013) investigated the influence of genes and environment on temperament. The study's results suggested that differences between children with respect to negative affectivity are caused __________.
more by genes than by environment
According to data presented in class, if a child is maltreated, which of the following is most likely to be the perpetrator's relationship to the child?
mother
The National Institute of Child Health and Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development found that children who __________ were less likely than average to be securely attached. (Answer based on the lecture.)
not only attended low-quality child-care facilities, but also had mothers who displayed low sensitivity
Rooting and sucking reflexes help infants learn to breast feed. These reflexes are likely the result of __________ because they __________.
ontogenetic adaptations; help children handle the needs of a specific time in development
Ugo's parents are warm but overindulgent and inattentive. They make few demands for mature behavior, and they permit Ugo to make many decisions before he is ready. Ugo's parents have a(n) ________ style of child rearing.
permissive
In middle childhood, which dimension of self-esteem is most strongly correlated with overall self-esteem?
physical appearance
The cognitive-developmental perspective on morality ________.
regards children as active thinkers about social rules
A researcher places some red dye on 2-year-old Raven's nose. When she looks into a mirror, she tries to rub the dye off of her nose rather than off of the mirror. This behavior indicates that she has developed ________.
self-recognition
Joh is inactive and negative in mood. He shows mild, low-key reactions to environmental stimuli. In Thomas and Chess's model of temperament, Joh would be classified as a(n) ________ child.
slow-to-warm-up
The results of the study referred to in the previous two questions show that in __________ cultures, most children think that __________.
some; offensive acts can be immoral even if they harm no one
This question refers to the same study as the previous question. The results of the study show that after 3 years of age, children __________, which is consistent with the idea of __________ occurring at around 3 years of age.
understand the social norm of keeping promises; normative turn