Descartes Exam
"What am I?"
"I am a thinking thing" Sensations are examples of thinking
The Dreaming Hypothesis
Let us supposed that I am dreaming The dreaming hypotheses helps me remember what I'm supposed to doubt
Essence
means having certain characteristics/attributes that make the object the object. Remains the same--no matter what changes have occurred ex. humans have essence of motivation, if you don't have motivation, you re no longer human.
Third Wave of Doubt Speculations
very exaggerated God created mind so that I am never correct in mathematics
"Manifest by the natural light"
Perceives clearly and distinctly--can accept as true (casual principle)
Conditional Statements
"IF....THEN..." -- if A, then C A is called the antecedent C is called the consequent The conditional is false just in case A is true and C is false. Ex: "If I go to the store, then I will buy milk." Conditional is false If I went to the store and didn't buy milk.
Proof of God
"What is the source of my idea of God?" "I" cannot be the source of my idea of God (Casual Principle) There must be something that is the cause of my idea of God (Source of Ideas Principle) Therefore, GOD EXISTS
Why is the First Premise (God exists and created your intellect/mind) supposed to be true?
-Even if God created my mind, he created it so that I am SOMETIMES mistaken about what is true in mathematics -It is possible that God created my mind, so it is ALWAYS mistaken about what is true in mathematics
Why the mind is known better than the body (physical objects)
-I know my mind exists, but I do NOT know whether physical objects exist -Any attempt to prove that physical objects exist reinforces that I am! (examples of thinking) -Reinforces that I am a thinking thing!
What am I?
-I know that I exist, but I don't know what I am -The ONLY thing I know is that I exist (others around you could be something created by evil genius -Descartes begins by recalling what he used to believe about the nature or essence of the "I" (believes in two different types of memory)
Everyone has an idea of God
-Idea of God (the infinite) is logically prior to the idea of the finite -The fact that I can recognize that I am imperfect is evidence that I have an idea of God -Here, Descartes comes very close to treating the idea of God as something like a Platonic form (doesn't matter what you believe in, everyone has the idea of God no matter what, innate idea)
Why is the Second Premise (God does not exist and didn't create your intellect/mind) true?
-If God does not exist, my mind was NOT created by a supremely perfect being and it came into existence in some other way. - It is even more likely that my mind does not grasp mathematical truths
Third Wave of Doubt (The Origins of my Mind Argument)
-If God exists (and created my mind), I have reason to doubt my mathematical knowledge - If God doesn't exist (and my mind came into existence in some other way), I have reason to doubt my mathematical knowledge Therefore, I have reason to doubt my mathematical knowledge
Valid Deductive Argument
-If premises were true, conclusion would have to be true. No logical errors
The Evil Genius Hypothesis
-Let us pretend that there is a supremely powerful evil genius set on deceiving me. -Why? Because I need a way to remember what I am supposed to doubt -Focus on things you know with absolute certainty, maybe there is nothing you know with absolute certainty
What is a physical object?
-Must ask: "what is the nature of the IDEA of a physical object?" -Allow myself to speak of physical object rather than the idea of physical objects--speak as if physical objects exist even though I'm currently doubting their existence -Focus on a specific physical object: the piece of wax
Descartes Concern with Skepticism
-Skepticism concerning the existence of God and the immortality of the soul -Strong argument that proves He does exist along with strong argument He does not exist -Extreme skepticism--strong reasons that proofs give us the truth and vice versa; no one can find arguments that are stronger -Wants to show skepticism is WRONG
The Idea of God is Innate
-The idea of god is NOT adventitious (ideas that come from senses outside mind) -The idea of God is NOT a fabricated idea (don't create with imagination, cannot add things to/take things away from) -The idea of God is INNATE (if you are open minded and reason with me you too will KNOW that God exists)
"Sensory perceptions"
-The images we witness which Descartes wil call "ideas" - BUT, we still witness sensations. The only thing that changes is our philosophical judgement about the representational character of the sensations we witness -I know I am, I exist, and I know I am a thinking thing -My existance does NOT depend on the existence of physical things (my mind could exist even if my physial body did not)
Second Meditation
-We are looking for at least one unshakeable truth, i.e we are looking for a 100% certain claim -The first indubitable claim is: "I am, I exist is true whenever I think" (can never be the case that when I am thinking I do not exist) -Why didn't Descartes say "I think, therefore I am."
The Essence of the Idea of a Physical Object
-What is a physical object? -Cannot assume that physical objects exist -What distinguishes IDEAS of physical objects from IDEAS of non-physical objects
Rene Descartes main contributions
-founder of modern philosophy -contributed to philosophy, mathematics, physics, and physiology -cartesian geometry and "I think, therefore I am" -wrote: "Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting Reason and Seeking Truth in the Sciences"
Bodies are not strictly perceived by the senses or the faculty or imagination but by the intellect alone
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Proof for the Existence of God
1. Casual Principle 2. Source of Ideas Principles 3. I have idea of God 4. THEREFORE, God exists
Two Important Consequences of Casual Principle
1. Ex nihilo nihil fit= out of nothing, nothing comes 2. Perfection Principle- something more perfect cannot come from something less perfect
Descartes proof depends on (2):
1. Fundamental metaphysical princeiples 2. Logic both independent of central religious claims
Two Consequences of the Dreaming Argument
1. Gives us reason to doubt ALL empirical sciences 2. Gives us reason to doubt the existences of the physical world including my own body (must question every day things, perceive something, are we dreaming or are we awake?)
Scale of Objective Reality
1. Ideas of an infinitive substance (i.e idea of God) 2. Idea of finite substance (limited substance) 3. Idea of accidents and modes As we go up the scale, ideas present more to my brain, more perfect ideas
Origins Argument
1. If God exists, I have reason to doubt mathematics 2. If God doesn't exist I have reason to doubt mathematics Therefore, I have reason to doubt mathematics Argument is logically valid. Must show at least one premise is false in order to show that the argument is flawed
Method of Hyperbolic Doubt
1. If I find any reason for doubting something, I withhold assent (reserving judgement, not sure it is true, not sure it is false, unsure) 2. Focus the doubt on "the basic principles on which all my former beliefs rested"
Scale of Formal Reality
1. Infinite substance (God, if he exists) 2. Finite substance 3. Accidents and Modes Things that are lower on the scale of formal reality depend for their existence on things that are higher on the scale
Influences on Descartes thoughts (2)
1. Scientific -Natural Philosophy -Mathematics 2. Philosophical -Skepticism -"Faith Seeking Understanding"
Two sources of evidence for our beliefs
1. the senses 2. the intellect (as a source of evidence for mathematical knowledge)
Accident
A non-essential property (or attribute) of a substance Ex. Stone can be black, red, orange rather than gray/brown but a stone is still a stone
Modes
A way in which a substance can exist; a state of being
Extreme Skepticism
Always withhold assent because we can always find equally compelling arguments for opposite conclusion
Substance
An entity or "thing" that has properties but is not itself a property (attribute of something else) substance Substances do not need to be physical mind is a a non-material substances, "I" thinking thing is a substance
Descartes Motivation
Avoid the illusion of wisdom
Descartes' and Mathematics
Begin with axioms--self evidently true (obvious) ex. given any two points there exist a unique line with has them as endpoints Other axioms--do not require other evidence than what is already given to you. Evidence is just the statement itself, intellect can then recognize that this is proof.
Premises (2)
But are the premises true? 1. God exists and created your intellect/mind 2. God does not exist and didn't create your intellect/mind
What does Dreaming Argument conclude?
Causes you to question the link. Come into doubt images your see (perceive) come from physical world
Main Purpose of Wax Experiment
Determine what makes wax a physical object, as opposed to a non-physical object
Skeptic
Disproves argument with good reasoning of another argument Sometimes described as view that "knowledge is impossible"-- NOT a good characterization
Two goals of Meditations:
Epistemological Goal To discover the foundations of knowledge Metaphysical Goal To prove that God exists and to prove that the soul is immortal
God is not a deceiver, yet we still make mistakes, why?
How is this possible, as we are made by a supremely perfect being, so we shouldn't, yet we do
General Rule
I accept something as true if, and only if I perceive it clearly and distinctly To perceive clearly means ROUGHLY to grasp something in an unencumbered and direct way, no reason to doubt it
What is a mind?
I am a thinking thing Doubt physical objects--dreaming argument
Adventitious Ideas
Ideas that "seem" to come from outside my mind as if it were coming through the senses All things populating visual field, what you witness and what you think it represents
Innate Ideas
Ideas that come from within me and are part of my nature (can't change attributes) Ideas you are born with and know naturally
Fabricated Ideas
Ideas that come from within me and are the product of my imagination (own essential nature, changes depending on what you imagine)
Idea of God
My idea of God is an ideas of a supremely perfect being But I am imperfect It is evident to the attentive mind that something less perfect cannot cause something more perfect So I CANNOT be the cause of my idea of God The only thing that could cause my idea of God is God Therefore, GOD EXISTS!
Second Wave of Doubt
My immediate sensations while dreaming are qualitatively identical to my immediate sensations while awake "immediate sensations" means sensations of things that are spatially and temporarily proximate, right here, right now There is no non-sensory way to distinguish being awake from dreaming Therefore I have reason to doubt my immediate sensations
Is "I am thinking, therefore I am an argument?
NO! -If that was an argument would be bad, would have to assume that everything that thinks exists (major premise) -It is a direct intuition of the mind--> I am, I exist is something you grasp, directly with your intellect and need no further evidence. 'Aha moment' see with minds eye that something must be true
Is Descartes contradicting himself by appealing to his memory?
No, because he is appealing to a different TYPE of memory
Why we prove God exists
Proves that God exists so he can recover the kind of knowledge he thought should be true
What is the main point of Third Meditation
Proving God exists
Descartes Faith Seeking Understanding
Religious faith Some evidence that God exists that there is a cause for everything and that cause is God Descartes claims his proof for the existence of God is more certain than any mathematical proof
Descartes Beliefs
Saw a lack of unity Believed knowledge could be unified Must find basic fundamental groups that explain existence
Characteristics of Scales of Realities
Scales for realities match Accidents and modes depend on finite substances Both scales are scales of PERFECTION, things get more and more perfect as you move up the scale
Discovering results: The perception I have of it is a case not of vision or touch or imagination-nor has it ever been, despite previous appearances-but of purely mental scrutiny..meaning..
The grasp I have of it, how I discovered whether it was/is physical or not is done by the intellect not by senses or imagination
Objective Reality
The kind of reality that ideas have in your mind It has degrees (or amounts, or realities) ex: a table has more objective realities that the color brown
Formal Reality
The kind of reality things have IF they exist It has degrees (or amounts, or levels) one thing is more "real" than another
First Wave of Doubt
The senses sometimes deceive us about things that are small or in the distance It is prudent not to trust anything that deceives us even once Therefore, I have reason to doubt my senses concerning things that are small or in the distance
Source of Ideas Principle
The source of an idea is ultimately a non-idea that is formally real
Casual Principle
There must be at least as much reality (Three Levels in Scales of Realities) in the causes as in the effect of that cause Something with less reality cannot cause something with more reality
Ideas
Thoughts that are like images (but don't have to be images) Conjure up with imagination a dragon, that is an idea--single isolated thoughts Ex. Let's go swimming is NOT an idea, thinking of a swimming pool is an idea *If we express ideas in language, we do it with nouns
Judgements
Thoughts the object of which I either affirm or deny thought of bearer of truth or falsity Example: True or False? The lights are on = Judgement If we express judgements in language we do it with declarative sentences
Volitions or Emotions
Thoughts the objects of which I desire, or fear, or hope for
Descartes believes in two types of memory
Types: 1. intellectual 2. corporeal
The Wax Experiment
Want to look at how the wax changes to see what remains the same Because what remains the same is the ESSENCE of the wax--what makes it be what it is Since none of the sensory attributes of the wax remain the same, they are NOT part of the essence of the wax
Ancient Skepticism (Pyrrho)
When presented with two equally compelling arguments for opposite conclusions, withhold assent=reserve judgement (not true or false, not sure either way)
Moderate Skepticism
Withhold assent only from certain claims, or certain types of claims
Meditations mean....
exercises in sitting in a quiet place to become more clear about something. Records about what someone thought was the clear and correct way to find God. "what should I believe?"
Physical object
extended (flexible and changeable) objects all and only "ideas" of extended things are "ideas" of physical objects