Dev psych Exam 3

Neonate emotions

Neonate emotions: distress + pleasure - passive state - crying, eating, pooping

Temperament as a predictor variable (multiple studies)

- 67% of infants with difficult temperaments have behavioral problems (early school) whereas <20% of infants with easy temperaments have such problems - Shy, inhibited children have difficulty interacting with their peers and do not cope effectively - Children who are frequently angry or fearful are more prone to depression

Who was Ainsworth, what was her strange situation paradigm, what were the four types she outlines, and how did they stay consistent and differ across cultures?

- Ainsworth: observational research in Africa (where she didn't know the language so she could solely focus on behavior), Strange Situation Paradigm which classifies babies as A, B, C, D - Strange situation paradigm: Infant explores playroom for 3 min alone with mother (who just watches), stranger enters room and is silent for 1 min, talks to baby for 1 minute, then approaches baby. Mother leaves. Stranger doesn't play but comforts if necessary. After 3 min, mother returns, consoles baby. When baby returns to play, mother leaves, this time announcing it. Stranger calms and plays, mother returns after 3 min --Secure (B babies) may or may not cry when mother leaves but when she returns, the baby wants to be with her and if the baby is crying, it stops --Avoidant (A babies) Baby is not upset when mother leaves and when she returns, may ignore her by looking away or turning away --Resistant (C babies) are upset when mother leaves, remain upset or even angry when mother returns, continue to be upset and is difficult to console --Disorganized (D babies) seem confused when mother leaves and when she returns, seem somewhat dazed, almost unaware - Worldwide patterns of attachment: Secure, Type B is the most common across cultures - 55-70% Distribution of insecure types vary across culture Japan - C>>A, Germany - A>>C

Behavior in rats - T vs E, sexual behavior, what other behaviors are affected?

- Behavior in rats ---Treating neonate female rat pups with T reduces female sexual behavior and increases male sexual behavior ---Castrating neonate male rat pups reduces male sexual behavior and increases female sexual behavior - Consistent with E not required ---Removal of ovaries in newborn female rat pups has no substantial effect ---Behavior: no organizational effects and if hormone treatment is provided at the age of sexual maturity, the female rats with show the female pattern - What other behaviors are affected? ---Rough and tumble play in juvenile rodents (males more than females) ---Aggression (males more) ---Maze learning (males outperform)

Describe developmental changes in self esteem, school transitions and self-esteem, and overall variables that affect self-esteem

- Developmental changes in self esteem ---Preschool: highest during this period ---Elementary school years: gradually declines and then stabilizes ---Junior High: declines (more for females) - School Transitions and Self-esteem ---Wigfield et al (1991) - transition to junior high greatly affects self-esteem - Variables that affect self-esteem ---Parenting - best style: nurturant and demanding (authoritative). Permissive and authoritarian negatively correlate with self-esteem ---Societal values (eg attention to girls' physical appearance)

Sexual orientation and childhood sex-typical behavior

- Toy preferences: large effect ---Emerge at least by 12 months - grow larger during middle childhood - Playmate preferences: large effect ---Emerge as soon as play partners are formed ---By age 4-5, children spend 3 times more with same-sex playmates ---By 6-7, children spend 10 times more - Activity level/preferred types of play: moderate effect ---Boys: rough and tumble, more body contact, more mildly aggressive games

Age differences in prejudice

Age differences in prejudice Increases until about age 7, then decreases until 16ish, then increases again Higher status group continues up throughout childhood, lower status outgroup decreases steadily after age 7

Basic emotions and emotional progression in that period

Basic emotions (8-9 months): happiness, surprise, interest, fear, anger, sadness, disgust Social smiles: smile when they see another - 2-3 months Stranger wariness: emerges at about 6 months Phobias: fear of the dark, fear of school (experience) - 18-24 months

Can children "catch" bias from adults' non-verbal signals?

Can children "catch" bias from adults' non-verbal signals? - Preschoolers watched vids of an adult greeting and giving gift to two other adults in red and black shirts - Adult was non-verbally warm to one and cold to other - Children reported they preferred the target that the adult was warm to and wanted to give them a toy more than other - Same applies to friend of the one that was treated warmly

Bias based on language in infancy

Bias based on language in infancy - 5-6 month olds from american english families preferred to look at adult when they spoke native language forward rather than backwards - 6 month olds from english families preferred to look at adult speaking english over spanish - 10 month olds from monolingual american and french households preferred to receive a toy from someone speaking their native language - 5-6 month olds preferred to look at native accented speaker - Conclusion: ingroup bias for one's own language develops early and before language production

What was Bowlby's theory of attachment? What were the four stages?

Bowlby's theory - children who form an attachment - an enduring social-emotional relationship to an adult - are more likely to survive Four stages: - preattachment (birth to 6-8 wks) - infants start to recognize mother - Attachment in the making (6-8 weeks to 6-8 months) - babies begin to behave differently in the presence of that special adult - True attachment (6-8 months to 18 months) - attachment figure is now the infant's stable social emotional base - Reciprocal relationship (18 months on) - become true partners (w/ growing cognitive and language skills, and experience with person

Can children develop ingroup bias based on novel social groups? (blue/red groups)

Can children develop ingroup bias based on novel social groups? - Blue and red groups (experimental and control) - Children reported a new student would be more likely to join their group, that their group would win more in novel tasks, and were more likely to choose a favored ingroup toy - Conclusion: children can develop ingroup bias for novel groups even when adults do not make groups salient

Complex emotions and emotional progression in that period

Complex emotions (18-24 mo): pride, shame, guilt, embarrassment Self conscious emotions (subject to cultural differences - individualistic vs collective cultures)

Consequences of positive and negative quality of attachment. Why does this happen?

Consequences of quality of attachment. Secure infant attachment>> - Higher-quality friendships - Fewer conflicts in friendships - More stable and higher quality romantic relationships in adolescents - Disorganized attachment is linked to behavior problems involving anxiety, anger, and aggressive behavior Why? Successful first relationship - high quality parenting

Critique of Kohlberg's theory

Critique of Kohlberg's theory - Discontinuous stage theory (builds on Piaget) - Western cultural + gender differences (but not actually real) - Unrealistic dilemmas - Eisenberg (especially for children

Cultural differences - Kohlberg

Cultural differences - Miller + Bersoff - USA vs Indian children: Ben planned to travel to best friend's wedding, had to catch next train to deliver rings. Wallet stolen, lost everything, no one loaned him money, well dressed man who had lots of money had ticket in his coat which he left on chair. Should take? ---USA say Ben should not take ticket (individualistic) ---India say he should (collective) - Fue et al - Canadian vs Chinese children: Susan's class had to pick people to be in a spelling competition. Susan's friend Mike couldn't spell very well but really wanted to be on the team. He asked Susan to pick him ---Chinese say tell mike that all the spots are filled on team (lie for collective good) ---Canadians say tell teammates that Mike is good at spelling (friend)

Developmental changes in self control

Developmental changes 2 yrs: capable of limited control in parent's absence 3 yrs: capable of self-regulation...some devise plans to regulate

Effect of Daycare on Attachment

Effect of Daycare on Attachment - Likelihood of an infant forming a secure mother-child attachment bond is surprisingly unrelated to any aspect of childcare (quality, amount of time spent, age when began, how frequent arrangements were changed, type) - But when you take into consideration the characteristics of mother (low sensitivity/responsiveness of mother), daycare factors DO matter. ---Infants more likely to be insecurely attached when quality of care is low, childcare is unstable, or more than a minimal amount of time is spent in care

Eisenberg's Dilemma

Eisenberg's Dilemma Eric going to friend's bday party, on the way he saw a boy who had fallen, was hurt. Boy asked Eric to get his parents but if Eric went, he would be late and miss the ice cream, cake, and games

Overall factors determining quality of attachment (what is the AAI?)

Factors determining quality of attachment - Adults' model of parenting - Adult Attachment interview (AAI) ---Secure - objective description of childhood and values parent-child relationship ---Dismissive - may deny value of childhood, idealizes parents ---Preoccupied - describes childhood emotionally, expresses anger/confusion about relationship with parents

Evolutionary purpose of emotions (3 examples)

Fear: avoid danger (survival) Disgust: avoid illness (survival) happiness: strengthen social bonds

Fue et al

Fue et al - Canadian vs Chinese children: Susan's class had to pick people to be in a spelling competition. Susan's friend Mike couldn't spell very well but really wanted to be on the team. He asked Susan to pick him - Chinese say tell mike that all the spots are filled on team (lie for collective good) - Canadians say tell teammates that Mike is good at spelling (friend)

Overall gender stereotypes

Gender stereotypes: Men are aggressive, independent, active and competitive. Women are dependent, emotional, sensitive, and gentle (nurturant)

Lytton + Romney

Gender-stereotyped behavior: social (nurture) influence (PARENTS) - Lytton + Romney (1991) - 172 studies, 28,000 children. (influence of parents model/teach ---Tested stereotypes - females: submissive, emotional, neat, play with dolls, prefer reading to math. Males: Independent, aggressive, achievement oriented, play with trucks, excel in math ---Found NO differences except sex-typed toys

Gender-stereotyped behavior: social (nurture) influence (PARENTS) (Lytton, McHale, Weisner, Snow)

Gender-stereotyped behavior: social (nurture) influence (PARENTS) - Lytton + Romney (1991) - 172 studies, 28,000 children. (influence of parents model/teach ---Tested stereotypes - females: submissive, emotional, neat, play with dolls, prefer reading to math. Males: Independent, aggressive, achievement oriented, play with trucks, excel in math ---Found NO differences except sex-typed toys - McHale et al: another exception: household chores (different) - Weisner + Wilson-Mitchell: study of counter-culture families (from 60s, 70s), "Avant garde" families committed to sex-egalitarian values ---Found no group differences between them and normal group except girls from AG families had non-stereotypic views of jobs - Snow, Jacklin + Maccoby: Evidence that dads can play a larger role re: Toys and activities (especially for boys

Gilligan's theory

Gilligan - argued that Kohlber's emphasis on justice applies more to males - Little evidence to support a sex difference in moral reasoning Gilligan's work on moral development outlines how a woman's morality is influenced by relationships and how women form their moral and ethical foundation based on how their decisions will affect others.

Human development of sexual orientation

Human development of sexual orientation - Orientation is NOT core gender identity or gender role behaviors - Kinsey scale: 0-6 (exclusively, largely, largely but also, equally, etc) ---0-1 heterosexual, 2-6 homosexual ---Gold standard but multiple measures are much better than one

Intergroup contact and bias (German/Turkish)

Intergroup contact and bias - At german elementary school, children reported names of their three best friends and their ethnicities and reported endorsement of positive outgroup qualities - For german (but not turkish) students, having direct cross-ethnic friendships was related to more positive outgroup evaluations - Conclusion: intergroup contact for majority but not minority ethnic group increased positive attitudes of outgroups

Kohlberg's Stages of development:

Kohlberg's Stages of development: - Preconventional Level: Punishment + Reward ---Stage 1: obedience orientation (obedience to authority) ---Stage 2: instrumental orientation (self interest, expect favor in return) - Conventional level: social norms ---Stage 3: interpersonal norms (win approval of others) ---Stage 4: social system morality (follow rules to maintain social order) - Post conventional level: Moral codes ---Stage 5: social contract (adhere to social contract when it's valid) ---Stage 6: universal ethical principles (morality based on abstract principles) -----Not usually attained..means living life as an activist - These all overlap + happen at different times, not necessarily in order - Stop using 1 at 18, 3+4 very popular, 5 doesn't pass 10%

Kohlberg's dilemma

Kohlberg's theory of moral judgment - Heinz Dilemma: woman dying, drug might save her, druggist overcharging, sick woman's husband desperately gathered money, could only get half, offered to pay more later, druggist said no, husband broke into store to steal drug

Eisenberg's Theory of Moral Development, Levels of prosocial behavior:

Levels of prosocial behavior: - Hedonistic orientation - Preschool, some elementary (selfish) - Needs-oriented orientation - some preschoolers, many elementary (boy needs doctor more than I need cake) - Approval focused orientation - many elementary, adolescents (If I help, I'll get praise) - Empathetic orientation - some elementary, many adolescents (good heart)

Maccoby + Jacklin found clearcut differences only in four areas (give detailed overview of each)

Maccoby + Jacklin found clearcut differences only in four areas - Verbal ability (F>M) ---True in all ages. Small but consistent differences: General ability, solving anagrams, quality of speech production, better singers (7+) - Mathematical ability (M>F) ---Initially girls excel but then boys pass in early high school ---Nurture: stereotypic views may affect differences ---Nature: activational effect of testosterone - not well tested - Spatial ability (M>F) ---No sex differences in spatial visualization, clear difference in spatial perception in adulthood, big difference in mental rotation ---Nature: seX linked recessive gene hypothesis - turner syndrome in girls - proven false. Right hemisphere lateralization hypothesis - later puberty, longer specialization period (best hypothesis) ---Nurture: differential experiences - Aggression (M>F) ---Emotional sensitivity: females more willing to admit feelings ---Social influence: females may value group harmony more (sex differences tied to status ---Clear difference in aggression (but physical vs relational) ---Nature: evident a few years after birth - less likely to have been shaped by parents, organizational and activational regulation via hormones, experimentation with other species provides clear data, but criminal behavior + plasma levels of T - unclear link ---Nurture: TV violence corr w/aggression - which cause which effect?

Main, Kaplan, and Cassidy - Do mothers' own models of parenting affect the attachment quality of their own infants?

Main, Kaplan, and Cassidy - Do mothers' own models of parenting affect the attachment quality of their own infants? Secure mothers had secure (B) babies Dismissive mothers had insecure (C) babies Preoccupied mothers had insecure (A) babies Mothers w/out mothers had insecure (D) babies

Mammalian brains T vs E

Mammalian brains - prenatal/neonatal exposure to T causes male-typical development whereas female-typical development occurs otherwise (the default) - Estrogen not required for the fetus to follow female-typical development

Measuring self esteem

Measuring self esteem - Harter + Pike - technique created for preschoolers/kindergarteners: "Which is more like you?" (puzzle doer) followed by "a lot or a little like?" - Scale measures self-worth in four areas for young children ---Cognitive competency, physical competency, acceptance by peers, acceptance by mom - Harter's Self-Perception Profile for Children (SPPC): Scholastic competence, athletic competence, social acceptance-perceived popularity, behavioral conduct-doing what you're supposed to do, physical appearance - all comes together for overall self-worth rating ---Each category doesn't carry the same weight (appearance always more) - Cole (1991): 20% of 9-10 yr-olds found to have negative global self worth

More emotions (after basic and complex)

More emotions (age 7) Regret + relief (reflection of shame and guilt)

Prenatal/neonatal hormonal influences in humans, organizational principles and effects

Organizational principles - Occurs during early critical periods - prenatal: elevated T from 12-18 weeks gestation, neonatal: elevated T from birth - 4 months - Times when T influences behavioral sexual differences correspond to times when T is elevated in males compared to females Organizational effects: Cell survival, neural connectivity (females cross hemispheres in brain), neurochemical specification, sexually-dimorphic nucleus

Give an overview on self-concept

Origins of self-recognition - Bullock + Lutkenhaus mirror task - put red mark on infant's nose: 1 year olds touch the nose in the mirror, 2 yr olds touch their own nose - By age 2, among those who are talking - proper use of pronouns (refer to themselves using i or me, some also know age and sex) - Povinelli + Simon - subtly put sticker on forehead while being videotaped, shown vid several minutes later: few 3 yr olds removed sticker, all 4 year olds reached up and removed sticker Evolving self concept - Preschoolers describe possessions, physical characteristics, preferences, and competencies School-age children describe emotions, social groups, and comparisons with peers

Other well-documented sex differences (after maccoby)

Other well-documented sex differences - Preference for same-sex playmates ---nature/nurture: Boys prefer rough and tumble play + dominance - Sex differences in sex-typing: males become more strongly sex-typed than females ---Nurture: society places greater value on maleness and males are permitted less deviation (degree is affected by culture)

How do parental influence and style affect self-control? (two studies)

Parental influence? - Bandura + Mischel - are children's ability to delay gratification affected by models? - Small candy now or large on in a week, model who asked "are you sure?" - results: role models can strongly affect this behavior Parental style? - Mauro + Harris - are children's ability to delay gratification influenced by parental style? - Mothers taught children strategies to help refrain from touching present when mother left the room - Results: mothers were either Authoritative or permissive and only children of A moms able to delay (parental style can affect)

Piaget's two moral dilemmas

Piaget's dilemmas - told two morally-themed stories followed by a simple question - Story 1: Marie tried to make gift, accidentally cut big hole in dress - Story 2: Margaret stole scissors and cut small hole in dress - Which child was naughtier? Younger children say Marie (under 9), older children (9+) say Margaret (intention vs consequence) Piaget dilemma 2 - Two boys robbed market, farmer tried to catch them, John caught and given thrashing. Mark got away but fell and cut his leg on the way home - Why did Mark cut his leg? Under 9 say because he stole from farmer (as if divine intervention), older children say because he fell

Predictive Validity of self-control - how well do individual differences in children's ability to delay gratification predict their behavior as adolescents? As adults? (all the Mischel studies)

Predictive Validity of self-control - how well do individual differences in children's ability to delay gratification predict their behavior as adolescents? As adults? (in males, ability to delay gratification predicts ability to control impulses, pay attention and behave dependably. In females, it predicts social competence) - Mischel + Colleagues (1990) - task: wait until experimental returns for big prize or ring bell earlier for small prize. (DV: measure time elapsed) Coping, personality traits, and SAT scores were predicted from the scores in 4 year olds (11-14 yrs later) - Mischel + colleagues - high delayers were more efficient at processing the go/no go cues and making or withholding the appropriate response - Mischel follow-up: Most of the variance explained by self-control was due to differences in socioeconomic status

Prenatal/neonatal hormonal influences in humans (biological 2 steps)

Prenatal/neonatal hormonal influences in humans - Step 1: sex determination (gonads=ovaries or testes) (exception - Swyers syndrome-XY but develop as female, at puberty get broad shoulders - take anti-T), after which hormonal production can influence next step - Step 2: sexual differentiation - testicular hormones lead to male pattern external genitalia (penis + scrotum), absense of these hormones leads to female pattern (clitoris + labia)

Q-sort method?

Q-sort Method: Items are presented on index cards. Observer sorts the items into 9 piles based on the degree to which each item is characteristic of the infant/child

Evidence for recognizing others emotions (young age)

Recognizing others emotions Identifying expressions: 4-6 months (distinguish smiles + frowns) Emotional content extracted: different ERP (brain scan) activity elicited for fearful, happy, and neutral faces Social referencing: ambiguous environment leads infants to check parents (or peers) for cues Infants adept but subtleties are only detected by older children and adults (who can even detect "false" emotions"

Evidence for regulating emotions (young age)

Regulating Emotions (supress or dampen an emotion. Or show alternative emotion) Children readily learn to modify fear and anger in early school years, but suppression of happiness is not mastered until later school yrs

possible roots of aggression

Roots of aggression: harsh punishment, unresponsive or coercive parental style, depressed parents, failure to monitor children, genetic factors

Social Cognitive processing (kenneth Dodge)

Social Cognitive processing (kenneth Dodge) - Findings: clear hostile cues interpreted by aggressive and controls to be equally hostile, neutral cues interpreted by aggressive as more hostile than did controls, clear accident cues interpreted by aggressive and controls to be equally non-hostile

Explain Rothbart's Theory of Temperament (looked at 3 dimensions), and Garstein et al (2005)

Rothbart's Theory of Temperament (looked at 3 dimensions) - Positive Affect/Surgency/Extraversion - Negative Affect - Orienting/Effortful control Garstein et al (2005) - compare temperament structure cross-culturally - Parents of 600 U.S. and 200 Russian 3-12 month olds, asked to complete IBQ-R (questionnaire that asks about frequency of behaviors) about behavior observed last 7 days - Results: same 3 dimensions for both groups of parents meaning structure of temperament is universal/biologically-rooted (proves Rothbart)

Rottenberg + Mayer

Rottenberg + Mayer (1990): What are the developmental trends for self-control? - 6-8, 9-11, 12-15 yr olds, after completing a task, participants offered an immediate small reward or the option to receive a larger reward one day later - Results: 35% of youngest group opted to wait, 55% of middle group opted to wait, 90% of oldest group opted to wait (conclusions - gradual, steady improvement)

Sex Differences in childhood (before Maccoby)

Sex Differences in childhood - Secondary sexual characteristics + physical size + muscle (after puberty) - As infants, males more active than females, increases during childhood - Females: lower mortality rate from conception (males more vulnerable) - Males: 2-3 times more likely to be in a firecracker accident (0-4) - Males: 3-4 times more likely to die in a bicycle accident (6-13) - Males: 3-10 times more likely to be diagnosed with ADHD - Males: bigger and stronger - females have better fine motor coordination Intellectual ability differences and social behavior less clear

Social cognitive developmental perspective on prejudice

Social cognitive developmental perspective on prejudice argues that whether children focus on group identity or morality/fairness depends on: social norms, intergroup contact, perceived outgroup threat

Stattin + Magnusson

Stattin + Magnusson (1989) - Are individual differences in aggression stable? - 1000 10-year olds, aggressiveness rated by teachers, criminal activity obtained - Results: correlation observed between the childhood teacher ratings and criminal activity by mid-adulthood - Conclusion: aggression is NOT outgrown

Strong mother-child relationship factors

Strong mother-child relationship factors Mother's sensitivity and responsiveness (can be trained) Infant's temperament - type C babies (difficult to console) are more likely to develop an insecure attachment bond

Studying effects of prenatal exposure to hormones (CAH) (+evidence in monkeys)

Studying effects of prenatal exposure to hormones (CAH) - Fetuses exposed to T prenataly due to Congenital - Adrenal Hyperplasia: autosomal recessive disorder, somewhat rare (1-10K births in Europe and NA), enzyme deficiency: 21 hydroxylase, impedes cortisol production and Adrenals overproduce T - Classic: born with some degree of genital masculinization (only rarely mistakenly classified as a male ---Prompt diagnosis, hormonal treatment, surgery - Sexual orientation - 10 studies ---CAH females more likely to be a Kinsey 2-6, especially 16+ ---Severity of CAH is related to sexual orientation -Childhood sex-typical behaviors ---CAH adult females recall sex-atypical play/playmates + toy preferences - Evidence in Monkeys ---Vervet Monkeys interacting with human children's toys provides clear evidence that toy preferences are not likely to be under the influence of social or cultural factors ---Resus Monkeys - only males showed a clear preference for one type of toy (trucks, cars) in terms of the amount of time and the number of interactions with these toys relative to the plush toys More evidence regarding sexual orientation: two boys were victims of a surgical error where the penis was ablated. Each identified as girls as children but one was unhappy and got sexual reassignment surgery. However they both had female sexual partners. (showing impact of T on brain)

Teacher and media influence on gender differences

Teacher influence - Emphasis on task-oriented, non-disruptive behavior may result in the greater number of negative interactions with boys Media/TV influence: media underscores gender stereotypes (also can increase visibility for different people

What is temperament and what were the 3 categories outlines by Thomas and Chess? And what did Caspi et al prove?

Temperament (consistent mood + style of behavior: not what but how) Thomas + Chess - 3 categories Easy baby: happy regular routine, adaptable Difficult baby: unhappy, irregular, intense reactions to novel situations Slow-to-warm-up baby: unhappy, irregular, low activity level Caspi et al (1995) - proved modest stability (consistency in temperament scores)

Kochanska study

Temperamental influences on self-control - Kochanska (1997) - Is self control in shy and bold children influenced by different parental factors? - 104 children (2.5, 4, 5) and their mothers. Researchers measured 4 variables: ---Child's temperament (via questionnaire at 2.5) ---Mother's discipline (via observation) ---Q-set attachment (via Q-sort) ---Child's self control (via behavior - choices and responses) at two times - games w/ temptation age 4, stories w/ characters age 5 - Conclusion: parental influence on a child's self-control depends on the temperament of the child Shy children respond based on discipline but bold children respond based on parental attachment

Three aspects of Children's moral reasoning (according to Piaget)

Three aspects of Children's moral reasoning - Understanding of rules (where do rules come from? Can rules be changed? Who makes rules? - Understanding of moral responsibility (Who is to blame for "bad" things? Is it the outcome of behavior that makes an action "bad"? Is there a difference between accidental and deliberate wrongdoing? - Understanding justice (should the punishment fit the crime? Are the guilty always punished?

Piaget's theory of moral development - two stages

Two stages - Heteronomous Morality (moral realism, age 5-9) ---Children consider rules as being absolute ---Rules cannot be changed (except game rules) and have always been the same as they are now ---Behavior is judged as "bad" in terms of observable consequences, regardless of intentions - Autonomous Morality (moral relativism, age 9+) ---Morality based on your own rules ---At this point, the older child recognizes there is no absolute right or wrong and that morality depends on intentions not consequences ---People make rules and people can change them - they are not set in stone ---Older children recognize that under some circumstance, rules are needed to prevent quarreling and to ensure fair play

Prenatal/neonatal hormonal influences in humans, Two types of influences

Two types of influences - Organizational (structural effects) - occur early (pre/neonatal), enduring, long lasting effects - Activational (functional effects) - occur later (late adolescence and adulthood), transient, waxing and waning as hormones increase/decrease

evidence for understanding emotions (young age)

Understanding emotions Multiple + mixed emotions Kindergarteners know that negative events can lead to anger or sadness - also understand negative consequences of feeling angry or sad By elementary school, begin to understand "mixed" feelings (bittersweet) Display rules (culture-specific) (can't be happy at funeral)

Young et al

Young et al (1999) - Do young shy children have difficulty helping someone? - 50 2-year-old children, experimenter and then mother fakes small injury - Even though a shy child sees another person suffering, apprehensiveness in unfamiliar social settings can prevent the child from helping them (but not helping their own mother)