Dr. Hooper BIO 51 Final

incomplete or co-dominance

easy to determine heterozygote phenotype ex. Sickle cell and normal blood cell

Chordate evolution

Early corded suspension feeders lead to early vertebrates with mineralize teeth existed conodonts lead to being extinct. Early jawless vertebrates had bony armor plates of fused tooth like structures lead to memorization of endoskeleton may have begun in mouth. Jaws evolved approximately 450, million years ago. Predators with paired fins, enhanced vision, olfaction. Current hypothesis led to jaws evolve from anterior Gille arches. Aquatic species develop a lateral line system which is organs in rows on body sides sensitive to vibrations.

Diploblastic

Ectoderm and endoderm layer only

complete metamorphosis

Egg, larva, Pupa, adult. Larva focus on eating growing. Pupil protected stage can weigh out in hospital conditions Adult focus on reproduction dispersal

why does each organism have two part names?

Eliminates ambiguity -> identifies single organism with specific properties

Human Activities Leading to habitat loss degradation

Energy development: oil, natural gas, wind, solar, dams, nuclear power plants, mining

Salinity Sea Level Changes

Glaciers melting, 25 of original 150 in glacier NP gone, poised to lose rest by 2030

Problem of small populations

Greater risk of extinction because of chance events, less genetic variation; inbreeding Increased expression of deleterious traits

Basil taxon

Group that diverged earliest in history of group

Metapopulation

Groups of subpopulations linked together by immigration and emigration Often exists in patches of suitable habitat and surrounded by the matriz

gymnosperm vs angiosperm

Gymnosperms: Mostly trees, naked ovule, single fertilization, single integument Angiosperms: Mostly flowers, herbs, shrubs, bisexual flower, endosperm is tripliod, double integument

horizontal gene transfer

Three mechanisms to transfer genes from one organism to another 1. Conjugation 2.transduction 3.transformation

Bottleneck

When population undergoes extreme size reduction for at least one generation ex. cheetahs losing population due to loss of habitat

Polarity

Whether character is ancestral or derived

Flagella

Whip like appendage that whirls like propeller

incomplete metamorphosis

Young names undergo series of molts until they reach larger, sexually mature adult stage

Community

group of populations of different species that interact w/ each other Boundaries defined by: * ecological roles of members (jobs) --> producers or decomposers *geographical area

Photoautotrophs

use sunlight to make food

Prokaryotes structure

Cocci-spherical Rod- bacilli Spiral- spirochetes

Protocells

Droplets with membrane start maintain separate internal environment

Taxonomists

(those who define, name groups of organisms) use morphology, physiology, gentitics, behavior to define species

Four shared derived characters of land plants

1) Apical meristem 2) alternation of generations with multicellular dependent embryos 3) multicellular gametangia 4) Walled spores produced in sporangia

Characteristics of fungi

1.Found in every habitat. 2. It's unicellular forms it's called yeast which is found in moist environments. 3. They are heterotrophs which secrete powerful Hydrolytic digesting enzymes into environment, 4. absorb nutrients (organic matter) and they can break down lignin, cellulose. 5. Responsible for inorganic nutrient recycling 6. can digest variety of organic waste including animal corpses 7. Most multicellular, composed of thin filaments called hyphae 8. Cell walls strengthen by tighten which is flexible polysaccharide 9. Hyphae has high surface area to volume ratio and maximize nutrient absorption 10. Some exist in both filamentous and unicellular forms 11. Some for mycelium which is a interwoven mass of hyphae 12. Most fungi reproduce by making spores, yeast reproduce asexually by fission 13. Spores carried by wind or water germinate where they land if food available

polyphyletic

Ancestor, all it's descendants plus descendants from another lineage

High Latitude

60 degrees north of earths equator

paraphyletic

Ancestors and some, but not all, descendants

Protists

A eukaryotic organism that cannot be classified as an animal, plant, or fungus. Incorporate themselves by helping other species especially in aquatic environments where dinoflagellates nourish and build reefs and are considered foundation species or species of protists such as what digesting produce who digest cellulose in guts of termites. They have lots of mutualistic traits and are great producers in aquatic environments. They produce 30% of the worlds photosynthesis.

Sexual Selection

A form of natural selection in which individuals with certain inherited characteristics are more likely than other individuals to obtain mates.

Halophiles

Able to withstand very salty environments like the great Salt Lake some soil's cancer Vive wants to learn he falls below 9% but Halophiles can

Amoebycytes

Absorb food from environment, from choanocytes-> digest, carry to other cells

Ectotherm

Absorbs External he has main source of body heat

Invasive Species

Accidental and intentional

Cambrian explosion

Adaptive radiation of produce especially algae, animals 535 million years ago which were the oldest fossils of extant phyla lead to first large animals with mineralized skeletons. What is the largest increase in predators, observed in other adaptive radiation's and 470 million years ago colonization of land fungi, then plants, animals 450 million years ago which were the arthropods.

Mutualism

All species benefit (+/+)

invasive species

An organism that grows and spreads quickly because it can adapt to a variety of conditions (often non-native and lacks predators)

Methanogens

Anaerobic environments examples such as marshes intestinal tracks of animals. They are important decomposers in sewage treatment plants methane as a byproduct of cellular respiration some can fix nitrogen too

Monophyletic

Ancestors, all descendants

Insecta (Arthropoda)

Ants, wasps, bees, beetles, bugs, flies, mosquitoes, grasshoppers, crickets, dragonflies, butterflies, Mas, mainly terrestrial also predators, parasites, decomposers, pray, disease vectors. Air brought into tracheal system respiratory via spiracles tiny holes in cuticle. Mouth parts can be modified for lapping up nutrients, sucking, piercing or chewing. Separate sexes, internal fertilization or extern of your sperm packet female picks up lead to eggs lead on appropriate food source. Incomplete metamorphosis: Young nymphs undergo series of months until they reach larger, sexually mature adult stage. Complete metamorphosis: egg, larva, pupa, adult. Lava focus on eating, growing. Pupa protected stage can wait out in hospitable conditions. Adults focus on reproduction dispersal. Wings modified from Cutile lead to walking legs not lost. Possible exaptation lead to evolution of thermal regulation first. Morphological, molecular data indicate wings evolved once. First fossil insect 415 million years ago Carboniferous, Permian lead to first adaptive radiation led to diversity of mouth parts associated with evolution of gymnosperms. Adaptive radiation of angiosperms after cretaceous 65 million years ago lead to second radiation of insects. Plants, insects influence each other's evolutionary trajectories (co-evolution) we rely on bees to pollinate crops

chelicerae

Appendages that serve as pincers or fangs

Diatoms

Are in SAR super group. They have cell walls made of hydrated silica which allows them to survive crushing jaws of predators which is a shared drive character for the SAR supergroup. They are important members of phytoplankton

brown algae

Are in SAR supergroup. They are complex multicellular and contain carrots annoyed pigments in plastids which are brown or olive color typically called seaweed or kelp and they have similar morphology to land plants containing talus stipe and blades which are similar to roots stems and leaves. Including cellulose and soul walls but all our homoplasious not homologous.

Euglenazones

Are protists from the excavata supergroup that have shared derived character of crystalline flagella and Some paristitic some mixatrophs

Big 5

Associated with large changes in global climate. permian extinction 96% of marine life lost

Three Domains

Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya

Prokaryote Reproduction

Binary fission doesn't allow for genetic recombination, produces two identical cells. No transmission other than mutation of new variation from parent prokaryotes so two daughters cell which leads to no sexual reproduction

Bottom up

Biomass of lower trophic levels affect biomass of higher trophic levels

Density Dependent Factors

Birth rates fall or death rates rise as population size increases. mostly biotic factors like food

coelom

Body cavity form from mesoderm between digestive track, body wall

Osteichthyes (Chordata)

Bony fish let's the informal name for group. Ralph and fish have bony rays support fence some are known as seahorses or salmon. Lobefinned fishes have rod shaped bones in pens: coelacanth. Lungfishes dipnoi. Ossified endoskeleton; skin with bony scales, Lucas to reduce drag. Gills covered in protective bony flap= operculum. Fertilization can be external or internal; parental care ranges from none significant to significant.

Promiscuos

Both sexes mate with multiple partners

Macroevolution

Broad changes that occur at species level; formation of new groups of organisms; like mammals

Introduced species (accidental)

Brown tree snakes introduced to Guam in World War II; at least 18 extensions zebra mussels from Australia introduced to great Lakes in 1988

Ophiuroidea (Echinodermata)

Brutal stars, distinct central Deas, locomotion by rowing arms along substrate. Predator scavengers filter feeders all use arms

Resource Partitioning

Can be Spatial or temporal. Spatial resource partitioning is going after a different food source same time same place. Temporal resource partitioning is going after same food at different times

root capabilities

Can be adapted for different functions Storage of carbohydrates Extra support Acquiring oxygen in waterlogged environments pneumatophores project above water

facultative anaerobes

Can live with or without oxygen

totipotent

Can turn into any other type of cell-> sponges can re grow from fragments, asexually budding

Evidence of evolution

Carbon Dating no more than 75k years Radiometric dating

Energietic Hypothesis

Chain length limited by in efficient energy transfer

Types of pollution

Chemical: can be carcinogens, mutations, neuro toxins, endo crine disruptors depending on chemical composition Light pollution: Light at night. Disrupts migration, causes mortality ex. birds strike high rises; sea turtles hatchlings go toward parking lot anthropogenic noise: interference with communication. causes stress species leave favorable habitats. No where is safe. Blocks off noises that matter such as predators creeping up.

Polyplacophora (Mollusca)

Chitons; basal taxon -> grazing herbivores. Distinctive 8 overlapping shell plates

Bivalvia (Mollusca)

Clams, muscles, oysters, scallops, filter feeders. To show sometimes with simple eyes, adductor muscles hold shells closed. Radula lost, girls are enlarged

Resvours

Constantly move between abiotic and biotic components; solid, liquid, or gaseous form . can be Organic or inorganic; vary in accessibility. Ex. nutrients in air , water more accessible than soil. Organic reservoirs have plenty nutrients, but the problem is that transport of energy. If the Organic material dies it can the organic material will be fossilized

Secondary Production

Consumer energy converted to new biomass per unit time.

Archaeplastida Supergroup

Contains red algae, green algae, and land plants

Climate

Convective current and earths rotation greatly influence global distribution of habitats

Group living Costs and Benefits

Costs: increased intraspecific competition for resources, mates, space, food Increased disease and transmission Predation Pressure Benefits: able to get more food or bigger food more eyes looking for food more mating opportunities DILUTION EFFECT group defense such as marguerite formation, mobbing predator to drive them away

Classifying prokaryotes

Croquet is classified mainly by shape lifestyle and Gram stain but also use the phylogenetic species concept and a certain percentage to a point where everyone can make a decision that a prokaryote is a different species and use statistics to figure out the maximum likelihood.

Key adaptations for land plants

Cuticle- waxy coating that prevents water loss and prevents them from drying out. Early plants did not have roots instead they had mycorrhizae. Algae get carbon dioxide by defusion from water. plants get it through air: microscopic pores and leaves which are Stomatas. high surface area to volume ratio equals lots of water lost on hot days up to 95% of plants total water loss

oxygen revolution

Cyanobacteria were so successful they changed atmosphere composition of oxygen many prokaryotes went extinct some survive in aerobic environments

Conjugation

DNA transfer between two prokaryotes one way, usually same species temporarily joined by pilus

reduce emission

Decrease consumption, increase efficiency, switch to cleaner sources

population dynamics

Density Independent and dependent factors interact to influence changes in population size over time

lineage

Descendants from particular ancestor

Decomposition

Detritivores/ Decomposers processing ate dependent on oxygen, moisture, warm water

dorsal hollow nerve cord

Develops from ectoderm rolled into tube lead to brain, spinal cord, other nerve cords and animals are solid, ventral

Sexual Dimorphism

Differences in physical characteristics between males and females of the same species.

production efficiency

Different taxa more or less at converting energy to biomass

Cnidaria

Diploblastic with mostly acellular mesoglea; radial symmetry, nerve net, incomplete gut. Planktonic predatory medusae, sessile polyps; some go through both stages. SHARES DERIVED CHARECTER; cnidocytes stinging cells used to capture prey, also used for defense. Reproduce sexually -> plunula larva or asexually by budding or fission.

Types of Selection

Directional Selection Disruptive Selection Stabilizing Selection Balancing Selection Heterozygous advantage Frequency Dependent Selection

trochophore larva

Distinctive larval stage observed in some lophotrochozoan animals, including some annelids and molluscs. Most hermaphrodites reproduce sexually leading to tochophore larva to form

R selected species

Disturbed or unpredictable habitats leads to organisms need to get as many offsprings out there as possible semelparous strategy leads to r-selected species

Rhizomes

Enlarged horizontal stems. Ex potato

Norm of Reaction

Environment in producing phenotype Same genotype will express different phenotypes due to difference in environment

Adaptive radiation Global Level

Evolutionary change in which empty niches filled by new species. Common after mass extinction, after major evolutionary innovations -> allow species to colonize new environments . patterns of extinction help explain fossil record patterns of gradualism, punctuated equilibrium

shared derived character

Evolutionary novelty shared by descendants but not found an ancestor

Secondary Succession

Existing community removed by disturbance; soil still intact

metanephridia

Extreme wastes (slightly more complex than protonephridia

exaptation

Feathers, insect wings, bacteria flagella, swim bladder

male mating strategies

Female defense Resource defense Scramble competition: males don't attempt to defend territories, rather they search for receptive females and try to mate with whomever they encounter Lekking: defense of a traditional display site that females visit to select a mate from among the several to many males displaying on the small, resource-free territory

Cordata

First Cordae ancestor was about 530 million years ago, first 150 million years ago aquatic then colonize land about 365 million years ago they are now known as tetra pods, animals with four limbs. Approximately 57,000 species of vertebrates, contains largest animal ever, blue whale over 100k lbs. all chordates share 4 DERIVED CHARACTERISTICS: notechords, dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, postnatal tail.

primary endosymbiosis

First eukaryotes evolving lead to cyanobacteria increasing atmosphere oxygen content aerobic bacteria likely proteobacteria handles toxic oxygen for anaerobic ancestral eukaryotes which intern turn for Texan bio the result is that all eukaryotes have mitochondria but not all have plastids. Rinse and repeat primary Endo symbiosis in ancestors of Archail plastered a red algae, green algae, plants, this time with cyanobacteria. Cyanobacteria provides oxygen, sugar to ancestral eukaryotes which now has mitochondria, receives protection, nutrients. Result: all members of Archaeplastida have plastids (chloroplast).

prokaryote locomotion

Flagella have different compositions mechanisms and bacteria, archaeans, eukaryotes which likely evolved independently. In bacteria, flagella proteins homologous to Secretory system proteins which allows for secretion of compounds through cell wall. Flagella may have started there but have been modified by natural selection to perform new function

zoospores

Flagellated spores shared derived character of chytrid fungus

Physical Modification

Flow regulation changes water depth, flow patterns upstream, down planting after clear-cut

Resource from Biodiversity

Food genetic resources medicine clothing fiber building materials etc.

Krebs and Myers experiment

Food provished populations increased in size but cycling continued. Populations where predators excluded by electric fences stopped cycling Radio collared Hares to see how they died. 95% killed by predators.

Mesoderm

Forms when ectoderm cells migrate inward, lining blastocoel. Third layer

Two types of genetic drift

Founder Effect Bottleneck

Amphibia (Chordata)

Frogs toads salamanders, and Caecilians. Carnivores fed by flicking sticky tongue out to catch prey. Often rely on skin for gas exchange some have lost lungs and use their throat muscles to inflate lungs. Some fully aquatic some terrestrial and some both. Camouflage or bright opposematic coloration. Fertilization was external so eggs had to be wet, Parenteau care varies from non-to extensive. Toads -> leathery skin, live in dry habitats. Caecilians -> lost legs, nearly blind borrowers Frogs-> court females with loud vocalizations Salamanders have long tail

Yeast

Fungi's unicellular form important for a cooking and making beer. Similar to animals in the sense that we both use digestive enzymes to break down food.

Heterokaryon

Fused mycelium with a nuclei from two different individuals

plasmogamy

Fusion of cytoplasm of parent mycelia

competitive exclusion principle

Gause concluded that two species competing for same limiting resource cannot coexist permanently in same locations. Absence of disturbance, one species will always use resources more efficiently and reproduce more rapidly than other, resulting in elimination of inferior competitor (principle of competitive exclusion)

Myxini (chordata)

Gene duplication and ancestors of vertebrates led to increase genetic variation which allowed vertebrae's to develop more complex forms. Hagfish marine Detrivores. Cartilaginous skull; no jaws, keratin teeth. Rudimentary vertebrae, swimming muscles act against notochord. 12 pairs of gill slits. Tons of slime when disturbed.

genetic Diversity

Genetic variation both within and between population

Habitat Degradation

Habitat exist but is damaged, unsuitable or low quality

habitat loss; fragmentation

Habitat gone remains likely broken into smaller patches

Prezygotic isolating Mechanisms

Habitat isolation Temporal Isolation Behavioral Isolation Mechanical isolation Gametic Isolation

Local Exinction

Habitat may be recolonized by individuals of that species

fungal life cycle

Haploid fungi produce spores by mitosis which leads to sometimes producing by fruit bodies (what we see above ground). Most haploid fungi form for temporary diploid stages when hyphae from each partner fuse. Mycelium can recognize its own and similar hyphae. Fusion of cytoplasm of parent mycelia is called plasmogamy. Nuclei don't fuse right away. Fused mycelium with nuclei from two different individuals which is called heterokaryon which can last days or even years sometimes exchange genes. Followed by karyogamy which is haploid nuclei fused to form diploid zygote. Zygote almost immediately develops into sporangium (fruit body) which leads to haploid spores by meiosis.

Alternation of generations with multicellular dependent embryos

Haploid gametophyte (gamete producing plant) gametes by mitosis which fuse lead to diploid zygote which is then a sporophyte (spore producing plant). Multicellular Embryo retained within tissues of female gametophyte, nourished by placental transfer cells

karyogamy

Haploid nuclei fuse to form diploid zygote

Overharvesting

Harvesting at rates that exceed populations ability to rebound (food, blubber, feathers, ivory, rhino horn, gallbladders, other parts)

Top down

Higher trophic levels limit abundance of lower trophic levels; aka tropic cascade

Perforations

Holds nutrients in phloem and it's used a gradient

Chilicerata (Arthropoda)

Horseshoe crabs, arachnids, aquatic, terrestrial species, predators and parasites. Chelicerae: appendages that serve as pincers or fangs (plus poison glands in spiders) two body regions cephalothorax and abdomen. Respiration by book lung. Arachnids: four pairs of legs, chelicerae, plus pair of pedipalps, appendages mocked as sensory organs or for feeding (sucking mouthparts in ticks). Web production of spiders is unique webs species specific, constructed correctly first time. Liquids so proteins spun using specialized organs called spinnerets which led to used to wrap new pigtail gifts to females. Spider silk light, strong four times the strength of steel

Thermophiles

Hot environment such as sulfur rich volcanic Hot Springs of Yellowstone and deep-sea hydrothermal vent's thermal vent communities support by archaeans where vent stops releasing chemicals and community collapses

Gram-positive bacteria

Include species (Actinomyces genus) that are important soil community decomposers. Species and streptomyces genus are source of antibiotic streptomycin includes bacteria that caused tuberculosis, leprosy, streptococcus, and botulism.

Basidiomycetes

Includes mushrooms, shelf fungus, puffballs, species are parasites, decomposers best at breaking down cellulose, lignin and form fruiting bodies in sexual stage which is called basidiocarps which are spore producing cells called Basidia produce spores by meiosis just like asci fruiting bodies of zygomycetes. Release billions of haploid spores through gills.

Proteobacteria

Includes rhizobacteria, importance symbiotic nitrogen fixers for plants can share genes with chloroplast, sulfur bacteria first photosynthetic prokaryotes. Hypothesize mitochondria evolved from Proto bacteria through Endo symbiosis also includes bacteria that causes salmonella and E. coli

Evolution of eukaryote

Increase complexity of eukaryotes cells diversification, specialization of organelles more complex city and self structure. Endo symbiosis increased availability of energy more for growth, development lead to increased complexity, size lead to multicellularIty in multiple eukaryote lineages

Monotremes

Laying egg mammals that have no nipples. Are the Basal taxon. Have mammary glands. Milk gets secreted by fur and baby just licks off of fur. Ex. Platypus, echidnas.

gramnegative bacteria

Less peptidoglycan, more complex

Annelidia

Independent evolution of true segmentation of worms live and see freshwater and soil. Coelomates; complete gut; hydrostatic skeleton; chaetae on each segment -> traction. Most hermaphrodites reproduce sexually-> trochopore larva. Metanephridia excrete waist slightly more complex than protonephridia. Variety of lifestyles predators, filter feeders living in boroughs or tubes, Detra Voors, bloodsucking parasites, leeches, earthworms eat dirt. Some have parapodia which are pairs of paddle like appendages used for locomotion, gills

Plasmids

Independently replicating DNA molecules

Proxy indicators

Indirect evidence of past climate

extinction vortex

Individual fitness reduce to even smaller population

Dilution Effect

Individual predation risk is reduced and rik is spread throughout the group

Disruptive Selection

Individuals on both extremes of phenotype range have higher fitness than individuals in middle. Environmental conditions allow two different morphs or strategies to persist, but selection acts against average Ex. Snail shells Black, White, and Grey

Directional Selection

Individuals on one extreme of phenotype range have higher fitness. Usually occurs when environment changes, population colonizes new habitat or geographic area in response to male choice leads to new selective pressures Ex. Dark Moths during and after Industrial Revolution

Stabilizing Selection

Individuals with intermediate phenotype have highest fitness than individuals on both extremes. Occur most commonly in environments where conditions are stable or when strong constraints down allow for wide range of phenotypes. Ex. Male widow bird Tails and female preference Ex. Infant Birth weight

Endoderm

Inner most layer, lines digestive tube called archenteron

Predation

Interaction between species where predator kills and consumers prey

Mycelium

Interwoven mass of hyphae infiltrates material on which fungus feeds

Porifera

Is the basal taxon of the kingdom animilia. No true tissues. Sessile suspension feeders-> water drawn through small pores in surface (Ostia). Current created by choanocytes (flagellated collar cells) absorb food. Water propelled-> central cavity (spongocoel), out osculum. Diploblastic with layer of mesohyl between gelatinous matrix interspersed with spicules particles of silica or calcium carbonate. Choanocytes and go food particles by phagocytosis. Amoebocytes absorb food from environment, from choanocytes which digest, curate other cells. Totipotent can turn into any other type of cell. Sponges can we grow from fragments asexual budding. Produce gametes sponges are sequential hermophoridites ( first one sex then other)

chytrid fungus

Is the basal taxon. Contains flagellated spores, some without chitin in cell walls which is a key adaptation for life on land. Common in lakes, soil, species are parasites, decomposers. They have flagellated spores which are called zoo spores and they are a shared derived character of chytrids. Infection by batrachochytrium dendrobatidis at least partially responsible for global amphibian decline. Causes the frogs to change their vocalizations which attracts the female frogs and allows the Chytrid to attach to another host.

Miller-Urey Experiment

It was designed to test Haldane's 'primitive soup'. The process includes heating up aqueous mixture of likely elements and zapping it with some sort of electricity and this led to a formation of amino acids and other organic compounds. then explaining how the first cell was formed. They tried to mimic the conditions of a volcano and add in all of those inorganic components and also added in volcanic ash. they got the same amino acids and organic compounds they got before plus a whole bunch of new ones

Marsupials

Kangaroos, koalas. Have nipples and placenta: structure brings nutrients from others blood to embryo. Young born early, continue development outside uterus. Newborns pull themselves into pouch, attach to nipple development completes in pouch.

Taxonomic Sequence

Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

Byrophytes

Lack of vascular tissue limits of diffusion prevent byrophytes from becoming a large and tall some mosses have simple vascular tissue due to convergent evolution and they can get as tall as 2 meters. The sperm must swim to the egg. burophytes generally restricted to moist habitats and sporophytes are much smaller depending on gametophyte for nutrients. Sporangium release a spores when conditions are favorable single Spotify can produce 50, million spores gametophytes can reproduce asexually

Petromyzontida (chordata)

Lampreys, aquatic ectoparasites, Sister taxa to Myxini. Vertebral column is flexible sheath made of cartilage no collagen with small projections, no jaws, Keratin teeth. Ancestor involved paired fence, inner ear with semicircular Canal's for balance. 7 pairs of gill slits

Predation

Large groups better protect, but may attract predators mortality compounded by stress, foraging time lost to increased vigilance

Ectoderm

Layer covering embryos surface and nervous system

leaves

Light gathering organs sight of photosynthesis. High surface area to volume ratio, leads to efficient gas exchange. But lost of water loss occurs

Habitat Loss and fragmentation

Likely responsible for population declines in 73% of extinct or protected species over the last few hundred years

Animal evolution

Likely suspension feeders like choanoflagelletes which is basically pulling food out of water column which requires filter of some kind. 3.8 billion years ago the first prokaryote was formed then led to the oxygen revolution which is 2.7 billion years ago and then 1.8 billion years ago the first eukaryote was formed than the first animal fossils were Set about 560 million years ago and they were mainly aquatic. The Cambrian explosion which was a doctor radiation of produce especially algae, animals 535 million years ago where the old is fossils of accident Phyla lead first large animals with mineralized skeletons. There was a large increase in predators observed and other adaptive radiation's about 470 million years ago a colonization of land by fungi then plants, then animals 450 million years ago primarily the arthopods.

Reptilia (Chordata)

Lizards snakes turtles crocodiles avian and non-avian dinosaurs. Pterosaurs-> first flying tetrapod's wings were collagen reinforced membrane stretched between body, one long digit. Some non-avian dinosaurs were social and they build nests braided eggs like modern birds. They had a Charitan skills which prevented desiccation. Fertilization was internal and most had leathery egg shells. Most are ectotherms: absorb external heat as main main source of body heat. And somewhere endotherms: maintain body temperature through metabolic activity. TURTLES: boxlike shell, two shields fused to vertebrae, clavicles, ribs. Mechanism to retract had evolved independently in different lineage is horizontal vs. vertical neck folding. Desert marine freshwater habitats. LIZARDS AND SNAKES: carnivorous, some poisonous inject venom through hollow fangs some detect heat through pits in head. Snakes lost their legs vestigial pelvic bone Romain, can dislocate jaws to eat larger prey. ALLIGATORS AND CROCODILES: large carnivores, confined to warm, moist habitats. Can move very quickly over short distances. Alligators freshwater only and no salt glands. Provide parental care, defend nests. BIRDS-> only extant dinosaur lineage. Proportionally larger brains than other reptiles, excellent eyesight. Fertilization internal, shell is calcified. Complex meeting behavior, provide significant parental care. Feathers were modified Charitan skills, locked together to act as airfoil. Several dinosaur species closely related to birds have feathers. Early feathers likely use for insulation, camouflage, courtship. Flight may have evolved as extra boost to individuals with jumping. Feathers, wings possible used primarily for gliding at first. PHYSICAL ADAPTATION FOR FLIGHT: no bladder, teeth, many females have one ovary. Hollow bones. Four chambered heart. Large pectoral muscles attached to Keel. Double respiration two breaths to air through lungs, tiny tubes in elastic air socks improve airflow. 160, million years ago birds have evolved, unclear if archaeopteryx was first. It could fly well, couldn't take off from position, retained several ancestral traits. Flight lost in some modern birds for example; emus, ostrich, kiwi. Penguins fly underwater, hummingbirds fly backwards. Bird beaks were modified for filter feeding such as flamingos, crushing seeds, drinking nectar.

apical meristem

Localized regions of cell division and tips of roots, shoots, source of directional growth toward resources. The pointy thing on top of the plant that takes in the pollen.

Microclimate

Long term localized patterns experienced by communities

taproot

Long, main vertical root, best for soils with deep ground water

Notochords

Longitudinal, flexible rod located under nerve cord for the brawl disc all left and humans, fluid filled cells encased in fibrous tissue, structure for muscles to act against for locomotion, support vertebrae develop around it in vertebrates

mass extinction

Loss of at least 50% of species present

Endotherm

Maintain body temperature through metabolic activity

Autotrophs

Make their own organic food

female mating strategies

Male provides resources Good genes Mate choice copying-girls want what other girls want Also look for similar traits as themselves

Mollusca

Marine, freshwater, terrestrial species, filter feeders, herbivores, carnivores. Coelomates; complete gut; metanephridia extreme waste. Reproduce sexually, most separate sexes but some hermaphrodites, larval stage called trochophore. Most species have gills, terrestrial species use moist surface of mantle cavity as long for example slugs and snails. SHARED DERIVED CHARECTERS: foot: large muscle used for movement. Radula: rasping feeding structure. Mantle protects internal organs secretes shell

Byrophytes ecological role

Masis form important symbiotic relationships with nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria. Many can survive losing most of their water. This is deadly to most vascular plants. Species living in high altitudes have compounds which absorb damaging UV radiation. Can absorb lots of water. Great carbon sinks.

Medusozoa (Cnidaria)

Medusa stage dominant; there are exceptions. Portuguese man o war, by the wind sailor are colonies of polyps. 1. Poison painful, can be fatal if enough injected; includes moon jelly, sea nettle 2. Box jellies -> tentacles up to 3m long includes sea whasp-> pain, cardiac arrest, death in minutes. Sea turtles have evoked resistance to toxin

Orbit Cycles

Milankovitch cycles orbit wobbly varies in tilt/ shape

Myriapoda (Arthropoda)

Millipedes, centipedes, terrestrial. Millipedes -> herbivores, 2 pairs of legs per segment. Centipedes -> carnivores, 1 pair of legs per segment, poison fangs. Tracheal system for respiration (spiracles in exoskeleton connected to tubes)

Minmum viable population (MVP)

Minimum number necessary to sustain population

primary Endosymbiosis evidence

Mitochondria, chloroplasts are wrapped in double membrane one is remnant of vesicle membrane from initial ingestion and inner membrane has enzymes homologous to those living prokaryotes. mitochondria, chloroplast replicate in same way as some prokaryotes, dividing separately during division of rest of cell. Mitochondria, chloroplast contain circular chromosomes similar to prokaryote chromosomes. They contain their own DNA and cellular machinery to transcribe, translate DNA. Ribosomes (size, RNA sequences, antibiotic sensitivity) of mitochondria, plastids more similar to prokaryotic ribosomes than eukaryotic cytoplasmic ribosomes. Rhizobacteria are able to interact with chloroplast through horizontal gene transfer which can show evidence for chloroplast being a Prokaryote at one point.

Mitosis vs Meiosis

Mitosis: one division forming 2 identical diploid cells (clones); Meiosis: two divisions forming 4 haploid cells which are genetically different cells

exaptation

Modified by natural selection to perform new function. ex. sim bladder-> used for respiration/ gas exchange, now used for buoyancy. Wings in insects -> originally likely for thermoregulation, now mainly used for flight. Jaw bones for mammals -> originally used in hinge of jaw, now used to translate sound in middle ear. Feathers-> likely evolved for thermoregulation or communication, still used for thermoregulation, but also flight. Flagella in bacteria-> proteins originally used fir secretion, now used to help generate motion as part of flagella apparatus.

Introduced species (intentional)

Mongoose to some Hawaiian islands to control rats, decimated native birds/reptiles Rosie wolfsnail to Hawaiian islands to

SAR supergroup

Monophyletic group based on mainly DNA includes diatoms, brown algae, apicomplexicans, and dinoflagellates.

Excavata Supergroup

Monophyletic group, includes Euglenazoans. Contains crystal line rod inside one flagella which is a shared derived character. Some euglenazoans are mixatrophs (euglenids), others parasitic (kinetoplastids)

placental mammals

More complex placental then marsupials, embryo completes development inside uterus. Ancestors of bats involved wings bones homologous two bones in bird wings, life mechanism is Homoplasious.

Arthopoda

Most diverse animal group less than 1 million describe species across nearly every habitat. First fossil about 535 million years ago. Trilobites led to Permian extinction. Coelomates; Reproduce sexually, separate sexes. Chitin forms exoskeleton called a cuticle, can be flexible or hard, mold leaves body vulnerable until it hardens. It's exoskeleton is used for protection, site of muscle attachment, likely important in land colonization which led Them to being light strong and prevented desiccation. True segmentation pairs of jointed appendages-> specialization of function among segments. Fusion of segments into functional units=tagmosis-> division of labor between body parts (usually 3: head, thorax, and abdomen). Well developed sensory system, including eyes, antennae (tactile, olfactory receptors)

How were early cells formed?

Most of earths atmosphere around 4.6 billion years ago was filled with N, CO2, NH3, H2S from volcanic activity. There was very little oxygen. Step 1: Abiotic synthesis of small organic molecules and needed energy... lead to miller Urey experiment Step 2: Abiotic synthesis of macromolecules. Spontaneous abiotic synthesis of RNA monomers from precursor molecules. Solutions of amino acids, RNA nucleotides dripped on hot sand, clay or rocks, lead to spontaneous formation of polypeptides, nucleic acid. RNA was known to be assembled first partially because it is able to self replicate and they can like enzymes. Step 3: Molecules package into Protocells. Requirements met by vesicles lead to phospholipid self assemble into spherical lipid bilayer's which led to some bilayer selectively being permeable Step 4: Self replicating molecules of inheritance. RNA likely to be first In addition... Mineral Clay was formed from volcanic ash which increased rate of spontaneous bicycle formation, Self replication. Vesicles can absorb clay particles containing RNA, other organic molecules. RNA polymerase can spontaneously assemble into different 3-D shapes (tRNA) which led to some being able to self replicate. Some RNA molecules function like enzymes (called ribosomes like rRNA). More copying errors than DNA which led to more variation

Kingdom Fungi

Most produce that share close common ancestor with animals, fungi have flagella which leads to DNA evidence indicates these for tax or form a monophyletic group, but it may be purify like if members are missing

Kingdom Animalia

Most protests that share common ancestor with animals, fungi also have flagella and DNA evidence indicates that these for tax of for monophyletic group. Very few definitive share drive characters, multicellular eukaryotes with no cell wall which led to external cell membrane proteins provide support. collagen is a unique protein mainly used to connect cells. Heterotrophs use enzymes like fungi, but must adjust, cannot absorb directly. Many have specialize cells not found another taxa which led to organization and tissues which led to development of embryonic layers.

taxis

Movement toward or away from a stimulus

Biofilms

Multi species prokaryote aggregations with fuses capsule slime layer for example plaque on your teeth it can form on any surface more resistant to antibiotics, mechanical removal, phagocytosis channels that form allow interior cells to receive nutrients, remove waste

Hyphae

Multicellular and composed of thin filaments. It's septa between cells have pores. Has a high surface area to volume ratio which maximizes for nutrient absorption.

Fungi evolution

Multicellularity likely evolved independently in fungi animals, others. Oldest accepted fossils are 460 million years ago likely evolved from aquatic protists. Chytrid fungi are the basil taxon flagellated spores, some without chitin in cell walls which is key adaptation for life on land

Fungi as pathogens

Mycosis: fungal infection for example athletes foot, yeast infection, fungal pneumonia, rust, smuts on crops

Corridors

Natural quarters allowed dispersal between patches, can also allow disease/invasive species to move

water vascular system

Network of hydraulic canals the end in tube feet used for locomotion and feeding

radial symmetry

No front or back, left or right. Often sessile (don't move) or planktonic (drift, weakly swim)

Anthozoa (Cnidaria)

No medusa, sea anemones, corals. Corals form colonies of polyps, calcium carbonate skeleton built by successive generations and reefs form basis of diverse communities. Zooxanthellae symbiotic dinoflagellates.

Bastiean Mimicry

Nontoxic species resembles toxic one gains protection by resemblance. Moth yellow jacket. Predators may also use mimicry to lure prey into striking distance

Gradualism

Often species exhibit gradual pattern of change over time. Periods shorter than 50k years don't often show up in fossil records -> partly explain these phenomena

Polygamous

One sex mates with multiple partners. Favored when offspring requires little care

Parasitism

One species extracts energy from another host (+/-) endoparasites: live inside host ectoparasites: feed on outside of host parasitoid: insects lay their eggs inside host can affect host by: weaken immune system, transmit disease, modifying behavior in maladaptive ways

Cyanobacteria

Only Prokaryotes to photosynthesize same way the plants to even have thylakoid membrane's form colonial like filaments muscles photosynthesize oxygen produced interferes with nitrogen fix station intracellular connections allow for nutrient sharing between filament cells

Ecological Succession

Open habitat areas are colonized by species that replace others in fairly predictable pattern

Stomata

Opening in epidermis allows co2 into cell for photosynthesis. Controlled by guard cells

lateral line system

Oregans in rows on body sides sensitive to vibrations.

shared ancestral character

Originated in or before common ancestor, shared by its descendants

obligate anaerobes

Oxygen that is toxic to prokaryotes

true segmentation

Pairs of joint appendages-> specialization of function among segments

Dinoflagellates

Part of SAR supergroup. Cellulose plates with grooves for flagella to spin and this is a shared derived character. Some heterotroph some mixotroph some photosynthetic phytoplankton. They are all Homo pleasures cellulose and cell wall. Responsible for red tide. Secrete neurotoxins which is why people warn you to not eat fish from areas that were exposed to red tides because those neurotoxins bioaccumulate amongst different species and when It finally reaches to you it's bio magnified tremendously

Apicomplexans

Part of SAR supergroup. Contain organelles at one end of cells specialize for penetrating host cells which is a shared derived character they are mostly parasitic heterotrophs. Ex. Plasmodium falciparum causes malaria. Cryptosporidium parvum infects intestinal tract, can cause death in young and immune compromised individuals. What happens in a human body when you get malaria is that obviously you need that mosquito bite but once you get that those Gametes fertilize into this and go through meiosis producing these spores and then the spores attack your liver and what happens is you get asexual reproduction inside the liver which then goes into a red blood cells and start multiplying. All parasitic because they lost there plastids.

fruiting bodies

The reproductive structure of a fungus that contains many hyphae and produces spores (what we see above ground)

green algae

Part of archaeplastida supergroup. Unicellular multicellular and colonial mostly aquatic some terrestrial cellulose in cell wall pigments in chloroplast homologous to Carophytes, land plants homoplasious alternation of generations in some

red algae

Part of archeaplastida super group. Photosynthetic auto trough containing additional pigment which allows them to absorb blue and green light and this is a shared drive character Most are multicellular traits due to alternation of generations and are homoplasious

ground tissue

Performs most of metabolic functions

puncuated equilibrium

Places in fossil records where species suddenly show up, persist for sometime and suddenly disappear

Eukaryote structure

Plasma membrane homologous with prokaryote membrane contains nucleus membrane-bound organelle's, mitochondria, some have plastids, well develop cytoskeleton allow and greater mobility. Most eukaryotes don't have cell wall those that do come from different materials like cellulose and plants or chitin in fungi. Cell walls in bacteria and cell walls and plants and fungi are likely homoplasious.

Mammalia (Chordata)

Platypus, kangaroos, elephants, etc. SHARED DERIVED CHARACTERS: mammary glands- produce milk containing fat, protein to nourish young. Hair- modified Keratin scales to insulate. Endothermic, high metabolism, four chambered heart, increased brain size, extensive parental care of offspring. Teeth differentiated for different tasks, like cutting or grinding -> heterodont dentition; reptile teeth undifferentiated= homodont. Single temporal fenestra: hole behind Eyesocket on each side of skull, allows for jaw muscle attachment. Two former job is migrate during embryonic development to middle ear -> exaptation again. ancestors of mammals begin to emerge 250 to 200 million years ago, small, hairy insectivores, still laid eggs. Memos adaptively radiated to fill unoccupied niches left by a non-avian dinosaurs THREE MAJOR GROUPS OF MAMMALS: MONOTREMES-> lay eggs, no nipples. MARSUPIALS-> nipples, placenta: structure brings nutrients from others blood to embryo. Young born early, continue development outside uterus. New baby rna pull themselves into pouches attach to nipple-> development completes in pouch. After break up of Pangaea, marsupials evolved in isolation on Australia, South America, one north America and South America connected 3 million years ago cost a two way traffic. Convergent evolution led to marsupials with similar forms to placental mammals. Adaptive radiation of placental mammals. Several Lenny just return to Ocean: whales, dolphins closest relatives to pigs and hippos. Seals and sea lions are the closest relatives to whistles and bears. Manatees closest relatives to elephants.

Results of genetic drift

Population size may increase rapidly after bottleneck and founder event change in allele frequency is random low genetic variation fixation of alleles due to Inbreeding Depression

Ecosystem services

Processes ecosystems provide which sustain human life

Sequential hermaphrodites

Produce gametes; sponges and are first one sex, then other

Archaea

Prokaryotes found in extreme habitats were a little else can survive a.k.a. extremophiles 3 main types Methanogens, Halophiles, and thermophiles

Prokaryote Structure

Prokaryotic DNA has circular chromosomes while eukaryotes DNA has linear chromosomes. May also have smaller rings of independently replicated DNA molecules = plasmids. Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission which is similar to mitosis

dermal tissues

Protects plants; outer epidermis (cuticle)

Cavier 1812

Publishes his extensive studies on vertebrate fossils

Lamark 1809

Publishes his hypothesis on evolution (giraffe)

Features of animals

Radial symmetry, Bilateral symmetry

postzygotic isolating mechanisms

Reduced Hybrid Viability Reduced Hybrid Fertility Hybrid Breakdown

Hybrid Zones

Reinforcement- Low hybrid Fitness Fusion- Increased gene flow-> reduces isolation Stability- Hybrids continue to form

Trochopore

Reproduce sexually most separate sexes but some hermaphrodites, larval stage called trochophore

amniotic egg

Reptiles, mammals= amniotes -> have amniotic egg: multiple membrane surrounding embryo usually encased in shell gas permeable which involve 350 million years ago. Key adaptation led to early reptiles colonized dryer habitats which led to embryo contained in portable, protected ponds. Amniotes switched to using rib cage to inflate lungs which led to more efficient than throat muscles.

Increase carbon fixation

Restore carbon sinks, and/or store CO2 underground in man-made reservoirs

Tapeworms (Platyhelminthes)

Ring of hooks, suckers (scloex) on anterior end, syncytial tegument. Live in host digestive tract, no mouth, lost gut. Complex lifecycle includes multiple hosts. Segments= packets of sex organs (proglottids) shed in feces; simultaneous hermaphrodites.

adventitious roots

Roots that arise in unusual place form fiberous networks near soil surface

Norm of reaction

Same genotype produces different phenotype in different emviroment

Holothuroidea (Echinodermata)

See cucumbers, five roll of tube feet on ventral surface, reduced endoskeleton. Tube feet modified into tentacles around mouth in some.

Crinoidea (Echinodermata)

See pens, feather stars, attach to substrate by stock, long arms used for filter feeding. Considered basal echinoderm taxon -> 500mya fossils very similar to extant species

root hairs

Thin tubes extending from root epidermis, main site of water, nutrient

Echinodermata

See stars, Sandollar's, urchins, brittle and feather stars, sessile, marine filter feeders, Scavengers, predators. Deuterostome development-> Homoplasious trait, Echinodermata, choradata sister Tara based mainly on molecular data. Pentaradial symmetry (appendages etc in multiple of 5) forms of bilateral. Coelomates; desperate sexes-> release gametes into water (spawn). Share drived characters: then epidermis covers endoskeleton of hard calcified plates, most have spines or bumps. Water vascular system network of hydraulic canals that end in tube feet used for locomotion and feeding.

Asteroidea (Echinodermata)

See stars, arms fused with central thirst, locomotion via tube feet lead to grip, extend, retract, release. Predators often feed by pulling bivalves open, inverting stomach through mouth, digesting prey inside on shells. Can regenerate whole arms

Echinoidea (Echinodermata)

See urchins, Sandollar's, no arms have five rolls of tube feet urchins have spines also muscle control. Specialized five part jaw called artistoes lantern

3 factors of Variation

Selection Genetic Drift Gene Flow

pharyngeal slits

Series of pouches separated by grooves along sides of phranyx just behind mouth, allow water to enter, exit body without passing through digestive tract, used for filter feeding, respiration lead to arches develop into bones of ear in tetrapods

Cnidocytes

Shared derived charecter of Cnidaria and they are stinging cells used to capture prey and also used for defense.

Chondrichthyes (chordata)

Sharks, skates, rays. Mostly cartilaginous skeleton, placoid (tooth like) scales. Sharks are powerful swimmers, liver oil for buoyancy, sink if stop swimming, can pump water over gills when resting. Receptors in skin of had attacked electric field generated by other animals, acute olfactory sensors. Most predators swallow pray hall, take large chunks with multiple rows of teeth new ones move forward to replace lost ones derived from epidermis. Largest filter feeding are whale sharks. Skates and raise our dorsal ventral flat, use in large pectoral fins to fly underwater. Most crush mollusks crustaceans with jaws, have spikes or poison barbs on tails for defense. Exception: manta ray, filter feeding gentle giant

Crustacea (Arthropoda)

Shellfish (lobsters, crabs, shrimp, pill bugs, copepods, barnacles; mainly aquatic -> many have planktonic larvae filter feeders or scavengers mainly. Multiple modified appendages, specialized for feeding, respiration, both -> most have gills. Separate sexes. Planktonic copepods herbivores (eat algae) or carnivores, krill essential to pair ecosystems. Barnacles-> sessile crustaceans with futile hardened into calcium carbonate shell

Mutation in bacteria

Short generation time of bacteria lasts around 1 to 3 hours. 20 billion new E. coli cells produced in one day in a human intestine. At least 2000 of them will have a mutation. 4300 genes in E. coli which is approximately 9 million mutations a day and one human host this leads to lots of genetic diversity for selection to act on

Adaptive Radiation Local Level

Silversword plants colonize hawaiian islands about 80 mya -> descendents have spread to all islands, adapted to local condition. - allopatric speciation - allopatric radiation - founder effect - natural selection

Convergent evolution

Similar environment result in similar adaptations in different lineage

convergent evolution

Similar environmental pressures which lead to similar adaptations in different lineages

protonephridia

Simple tube networks like kidneys

Gram-positive bacteria

Simpler walls, large amounts of peptidoglycan

parsimony a.k.a. occam's razor

Simplest explanation most often correct. Tree requiring fewest number of changes

Choanoflagellates

Single celled flagellated produce closest living relative of animals based on DNA they contain collar cells, Koana sites of sponges are nearly identical. Similar color cells found in other animals, non-plants, fungi, or non-choanoflagellate protists. Genes previously thought unique to animals found in Choanoflagelletes used for Signaling proteins, ones involved in how animal cells adhere to one another

ossified endoskeleton

Skin with bony scales, Lucas to reduce drag.

Island Biogeography

Small islands have lower immigration rates, higher extinction rate as do islands far from mainland

brood bodies

Small plantlets that detach from parent, grow into new plants

Gastropoda (Mollusca)

Snails, slow, nudibranchs; grazing herbivores, predators. Most with spiral shell, Lance nails use body cavity as modified lung. Nudibranches ray cnidarians -> keep cnidocytes in gills on backs-> use mucus, chemicals to prevent triggering stoning cells. Flatworms may mimic this toxicity-> Batesian mimicry. Some use radula like drill, or even poison tipped harpoon (cone snails)

Chitin

So walls are strengthened by titan which is flexible polysaccharide

Endospores

Some bacteria make endospores which ourselves with water removed metabolism stops, coated in hardshell they are very durable can remain dormant for centuries and are a way to avoid unsuitable environmental conditions

evolution of lungs

Some early bony fish lived in oxygen poor shallow estuaries-> gulp air -> these lineages evolved lungs (had both lungs and gills). Lungs later evolved into swim bladders (air filled sac to control buoyancy) in some groups.

evolution of limbs

Some of these long very lineages evolved low fence to walk along bottom similar to modern coelacanth. Fossil evidence leads to fence became progressively more limb like overtime which led to the first tetrapod 365 million years ago (animals with four limbs). Moving from aquatic form which walked on bottom could breathe air loaf and fish with lungs lead to land involved a few additional modifications. Head separated from body by neck originally one for the Brae allowed scold to move up and down. Bones of pelvic giddily (we're hind limbs are attached) fused to back bone, let them stand against gravity. Fossil species tiktaik-> insight into how ancestor probably looked, predates also known official tetrapod.

Phylogenetic tree's

Some phylogenetic trees are constructed with branch likes proportional to time lapse between common ancestors or to indicate degree of Change in different lineages

Edges

Some species utilize multiple habitat types together

Chromatophores

Specialize cells in skin containing pigments, under precise nervous, muscular control. Belongs under the cephalopoda group

Ascomycetes

Species are decomposers, pathogens, Lichens. Fruiting bodies and sexual stage which is called ascocarps which contains saclike spore producing structures called asci. Lichens which are symbiosis between fungi, green algae or Cyanobacteria is about 40% of ascomycetes. Important nitrogen source for some ecosystems, create soil , likely paved way for first plants.

biological species concept

Species are reproductively isolated from each other. Different species cannot interbreed and produce viable, fertile offspring

facultative mutualism

Species can live without each other

Global Extinction

Species diversity on evenly distributed both taxonomically and geographically

adaptive radiation

Species occupy new niches

Specialist

Species particularly effective at exploiting particular food source

Foundation species

Species that influence diversity by creating habitat (kelp and beavers)

Population Cycle

Species undergo certain length of cycles, but what causes disturbance? Hypothesis 1: food shortages Hypothesis 2: over predation

Tissues and coelom

Sponges lack true tissues some animals diploblastic which is ectoderm and endoderm only all others have third layer between mesoderm which forms when ectoderm cells migrate inward lining blastocoel cell these animals are triploblastic. Most triploblastic animals have coelom: body cavity form from mesoderm between digestive track body wall, coelom cushions organs, site of muscle attachment like internal skeleton. Some triploblastic have no body cavity is called acoelomates

Basidiocarps

Spore producing cells called basidia produce spores by meiosis (like asci, fruiting bodies of zygomycetes)

Cephalopoda (Mollusca)

Squid, cuttlefish, octopus, nautilus (basal taxon only with external shell), predators. Radula modified-> beak like jaws, poisonous saliva. Foot modified-> tentacles siphon (used for jet propulsion) complex eyes, brains. Shell has moved inside mentor which then was gradually lost: cuttlebone (cuttlefish) pen (squid), none (octopus). Chromatophores; Specialize cells and skin containing pigments, under precise nervous, muscular control. Allow for communication, camouflage.

sympatric speciation

Subpopulations is same geographic area become reproductively isolated. this can occur in several ways: Habitat Differentiation Polyploidy Sexual Selection

Flukes (platyhelminthes)

Suckers used to attach to host; syncitial tegument; tough outer covering wards off host immune system. Complex life cycle includes multiple hosts; alternating sexual and asexual reproduction.

Transformation

Surface proteins recognize DNA of closely related species, transform foreign DNA inside so we need to DNA incorporated into genome or remain separate as plasmid

Lichens

Symbiosis between fungi, green algae or Cyanobacteria which is about 40% of ascomycetes. Important nitrogen source for some ecosystems, create soil, likely paved way for first plant

Mycorrhizae

Symbiotic fungi help plants absorb more water, nutrient than they can alone. Substitution for plants who do not have roots

polploidy

Sympatric speciation can occur as a result of polyploidy. Errors in meiosis leads to cell with extra chromosomes. If specie self fertilizes this can lead to new species forming (80% of plant species descended from polyploid ancestors)

outgroup

Taxon from lineage known to have diverged before groups in question

post-anal tail

Tell that extends posterior to anus, used for locomotion in aquatic chordates

Artistotle's Lantern

The feeding structure of a sea urchin. 5 part jaw

maximum likelihood

Three most likely to have produce DNA sequence, based on probability rules. All changes equally likely, or some changes (substitution v.s insertion or deletion) more likely than others

Multicellular gametangia

Tissues and gametophyte which produce Gametes archegonium and females and the radium in males

Walled spores produce and sporangia

Tissues in sporophytes contain sporangia-which protects spores, contains sporocytes-cells which produce haploid spores by meiosis. Sporopollenin- protects spores from drying out

bilateral symmetry

Top (dorsal), bottom (ventral), left and right side (lateral), anterior (head), posterior (tail). Bilateral animals actively move, are cephalized which is posses central nervous system or brain

Homoplasious trait

Traits resulting from convergent evolution

Trophic Interactions

Transfer of energy between trophic levels

Platyhelminthes

Triplobastic acoelomates; bilaterally symmetrical; incomplete gut. Dorsoventrally flat -> confined to moist environments some free living most parasitic. Gas exchange, waste elimination by diffusion, protonephridia, simple tube networks like kidneys. Simultaneous hermaphrodites reproduce asexually by fission. Free living includes freshwater species like planaria, marine species. Predators; ganglia (sensory organ) in anterior end often have light sensitive eyespots. Swim by undulating muscles or gliding on mucus film with cilia.

Fungus among us

Truffles, morels, make cheese, yeast which leads to brewing, baking, convert sugar to alcohol and carbon dioxide and antibiotics, immune suppressant's for organ transplants. Rock component of LSD lethargic acid comes from parasitic ascomycetes which grow on rye

Tissues

Two key dermal layers formed lead to tissues and embryo. Ectoderm and endoderm

Survivorship curve

Type 1: death rates low in young, middle aged individuals, high in old ones Type 2: Death rates fairly constant throughout all age groups Type 3: Death Rates high in young individuals lower for middle ages, older individuals

Herbivory

Type of predation; specialized teeth for grinding (molar) and processing plant tissues

Bulbs

Underground shoots. Ex onions

Prokaryote

Unicellular organism with no nuclear envelope or membrane-bound organelle's. First life to appear in fossil records 3.8 billion years ago significant impact on earths early atmosphere includes domains bacteria and Archaea.

Collagen

Unique protein mainly use to connect cells

Evidence to construct phylogenies

Usually morphological or genetic. Treats used to reconstruct phylogenetic relationships need to be homologous. Also implies DNA sequences which is molecular Homology. Species can appear quite similar morphologically yet not be closely related. Complex traits are used, unlikely each component would have arisen exactly same way and unrelated taxa by chance

Natural Selection Components

Variation: finches beak size varies from small to large Heritability: being able to pass down traits Fitness: survival plus reproductive success in a particular environment relative to others in population

Species Diversity

Variety of different species across tax in ecosystem

Primary Succession

Virtually lifeless area colonized for first time

Transduction

Viruses carry prokaryote DNA from one cell to another. Viruses can pick up his DNA as they replicate, introduced to another so on infection. Well not strictly transduction, viruses can insert their own DNA into bacterial genomes leading to viral DNA responsible for some bacterial strains pathogenic behavior

phylogenetic tree

Visual representation of evolutionary relationships between groups

Aposematic Coloration

Warning coloration indicates toxicity. Predators -> negative experience with toxic species will avoid others from similar pattern Ex. Viceroy butterfly: toxic or dangerous species resemble each other

Zygomycetes

a fungal group that is not very pathogenic; complex life cycle consisted on sexual and asexual fungal groups...fungi spend most of their time as haploids; black bread mold;

secondary endosymbiosis

a process in eukaryotic evolution in which a heterotrophic eukaryotic cell engulfed a photosynthetic eukaryotic cell which survived in a symbiotic relationship inside the heterotrophic cell. Ancestral members of their lineage ingested red or green algae. Became Endosymbiont's inside heterotrophic cells

cephalized

a true head with nerve cells and brain

morphological species concept

all life classify into groups based on similarities in morphology/ appearance

hermaphrodite

an organism that has both male and female reproductive organs. Reproduce a sexually by fission

vegetative propagation

asexual reproduction. Stems Store sugers.

reproductive isolating mechanisms

barriers to gene flow between populations of how different species are required to prevent hybrids from forming.

Territoriality

breeding individuals patrol, defend particular area. species wont be able to reproduce if they have no territory

Glomeromycetes

characterized by a distinct branching form of mycorrhizae called arbuscular mycorrhizae

Plate techtonic

continents sit atop plates on crust, floating on earths mantle, mantle moves plates shift -> continental drift

Reductionism

dividing complex systems into similar components to study more thoroughly Ex. leaf to mesophyll to chloroplast to thylakoid to photosystems to chlorophyll

Equinox

equal days and nights ex. spring and fall

Heterochrony

evolutionary change in rate or timing of developmental events. Slowing down rate of bone development in whales -> reduction of limbs

Deductive

experiments used to build results

Inductive

experiments used to build theories

gamatic isolation

fertilization is blocked -> gametes can get to or cant recognize each other. Sperm cant survive in reproductive tract cant penetrate egg membrane ex. Sea urchin eggs exhibit surface proteins that prevent fertilization by other species sperm

Sessile

fixed in one place; immobile

Planktonic

free floating

ascocarps

fruiting bodies of ascomycetes and contain saclike spore producing structures called asci

mycosis

fungal infection... athletes foot, yeast infections, fungal pneumonia, rust, smuts on crops

Tagmosis

fusion of segments into functional units

Triploblastic

has three germ layers: the ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm.

Mullerian Mimicry

increased chance predators predator will encounter dangerous species Bees and Wasps

Ecological Niche

how an organism make a living using biotic and abiotic reasources

Reduced Hybrid Viability

hybrids don't survive to reproduce, dont complete development ex. leopard frog, wood frog hybrids don't survive more than a few days

Hybrid Breakdown

hybrids survive, are fertile but have very low fitness (their offspring may also be sterile, inviable ex. california tiger, barred salamander hybrids

Allee Effect

individuals have a more difficult time surviving or reproducing if the population size is too small vulnerable to predators, lack of acquiring food, hard to find mates

Interspecific competition

individuals of different species try to access same limiting resources.

Intraspecific Competition

individuals of same species try to access same limiting resource. Competition costs individuals involved time, energy, and other opportunities. (-/-)

Symbiosis

individuals of two or more species living in direct contact

disturbance

influences species diversity by removing individuals or altering resource availability (fire,freezing,storms,wave action)

Challenges of land plants

land plants didn't have much water and they were use to water so they had trouble with keeping themselves moist and not drying out and this affected the diffusion of most plants

Macroclimate

long term global patterns on global and landscape levels

Homeotic genes

master regulatory genes which control spatial organization of body parts. single change in Hox genes of insects-> pair of wings instead of walking legs. Loss of spines in fresh water three spine sickle back fish -> results of changes in gene regulation, not mutation in genes coding for spines

Inbreeding

mating between relatives

Habitat Selection

members of species may only choose small portions of available suitable habitat to occupy

Intermediate disturbance Hypothesis

moderate levels of disturbances produce greater diversity then high or low

3 major groups of mammals

monotremes, marsupials, placentals

mass extinction

more than 50% of worlds species become extinct; 5 in last 500 mil years. takes 5-10 years for diversity to recover

Mechanical isolation

morphological differences between sexes of different species prevent mating (key and lock dont fit)

Character Displacement

morphological differences observed when species live together not observed when they occur separately. Displacement often called ghost of competition past.

Gene Flow

movement of alleles from one population to another and reduces variation between populations also disrupts selection because new species are coming in and out which slows down the cycle of time where species can adapt. If you stay in your habitat you are more likely to adapt quicker

Dispersal

movement of individuals or gametes away from area of origin.

Balancing Selection

natural selection that maintains two or more phenotypic forms in a population. Two types: Heterozygous advantage and Frequency Dependent Selection

founder effect

new population started by very few individuals ex. extra finger developed in small population causing next generations to possible inherit trait

Solistice

northern hemisphere tilts toward sun in summer, longest day and shortest night and opposite in winter

Changes in Development timing

not all genes code for protein sequences. Some affect expression of other genes or effect which portions of genes are treated as introns during RNA splicing eukaryotes. Changes in these genes can lead to changes in gene expression during development

intersexual selection

occurs as a result of interactions between males and females of a species. One sex, typically males, will develop and display traits or behavior patterns to attract the opposite sex.

intrasexual selection

occurs between members of the same sex.

Upwelling

ocean currents bring organic matter up to the surface

Ocean Acidification

ocean holds 50% more carbon that atmosphere as atmospheric carbon increases-->ocean absorptive ability decreases * ocean absorbs co2 from fossil fuels *co2 dissolves in sea water and forms carbonic acid and release of hydrogen ions *H combines with carbonate ions to form bicarbonate *formation carbonic acid removes carbonate ions so they are less available for calcifies such as corals

Darwin theory

offspring resemble parents far more young are born than can survive unequal ability to survive and reproduce modifications lead to rich diversity

Hybrid

offspring resulting from interspecific mating

High altitude

on top of a mountain

polyandrous

one female mates with many males

polygynous

one male mates with several females

Commensalism

one species benefits without harming or helping other (+/0)

Facilitation

one species has positive effect on survival and/ or reproduction of another species without symbiotic relationship (+/0). Doesn't have to be same place same time. Most often seen in plants -> presence of nutrient levels -> allow other species to colonize area

Cretaceous extinction

over half marine species all non avian dinosaurs extinct -> afterwards flowering plants appear, diversify, many new mammal species appear

Density Independent Factors

population size has no effect on birth or death rate. mostly abiotic factors like weather

sexual selection

preference for certain traits can disrupt gene flow, especially when reinforced by assortative mating - female preferences seem to be driving speciation in cichlid fish: females prefer noval color preference patterns-> males make patterns-> female offspring have preference -> disruption of gene flow between population members. females of both fish prefer own species under normal light conditions mate discriminately under monochromatic light -> suggest recent speciation

Speciation

process by which one species splits into two or more

Artificial Selection

process of selection conducted under human direction ex. dog breeds or agricultural crops

Hutton 1795

proposes his principle of gradualism

operculum

protective bony flap that covers gills

Maltus 1798

publishes essay on "the principles of population"

Lyell 1830

publishes principles of Ecology

genetic drift

random fluctuations in allele frequencies in large populations the frequencies tend to balance out, but in small populations they tend not to

Vestigal Structures

remnants of previously functional features remaining in descendants ex. human appendix

monogomous

restricted to one mate

Chemo autotrophs

self-feeding using inorganic chemicals many chemoautotrophs are obligate anaerobes meaning oxygen is toxic to these organisms and mainly live in water log sediments or in hydrothermal vent's

Homology

similarity due to shared ancestry ex. mammal forelimb

Homology

similarity resulting from common ancestry. Molecular homologies also indicate relatedness similarity in genetic sequence due to descended from common ancestor.

Phylogenetic species concepts

smallest groups of individuals that share common ancestors uses morphological characters, DNA

Temporal Isolation

species members are native at different times of days or seasons ex. Eastern spotted skunks mate in the spring and western spotted skunks make in the fall

habitat isolation

species members occupying different habitats or geographic area ex. two species of snakes one land, one water, who occupy different parts of geographic range

Semelparous

species produce many small offspring in one reproductive effort. occurs in unpredictable environments when offspring survival is low

Iteroparous

species produce relatively few larger offspring each time, but reproduce multiple times. Occurs in stable environments when adults will likely survive to breed again

keystone species

species whose ecological role directly influences diversity

paedomorphosis

speeding up the reproductive organ development relative to rest of the body. (sexually mature adult which resembles juvenile stage of ancestors

K selected species

stable habitats with increased competition leads to offspring need a big advantage as possible Iteroparous strategy leads to K selected species

allopatric speciation

subpopulations becomes geographically isolated from each other. involves physical barriers Scale of barriers needed depends on species ability to move around landscape ex. mosquitofish colonized series of ponds in bahamas but later storms and hurricanes caused the ponds to become isolated. When mosquitofish were reintroduced to each other, they maintained geneflow distribution between populations and exhibited positive assortment mating

Habitat Differentiation

subpopulations begin to exploit different habitats and resources. Some individuals in population begion accessing new food source or other members of population. ex. "resident" and "transient" populations of pacific killer whales - resident feed on salmon , transient on marine mammals - no longer interbreed leading to develop different dialects

Abiotic Factors

temperature, sunlight, water, salinity, oxygen, pH

Productivity Limits

terrestrial productivity: limited by temperature Aquatic productivity limited by light -> half available light absorbed in top 15m of water-> only 5-10% reaches 75m

alternation of generations

the alternation between the haploid gametophyte and the diploid sporophyte in a plant's life cycle

planula

the free-swimming, ciliated larva of a cnidarian

Biomagnification

the process in an ecosystem where where a higher concentration of a substance in an organism is obtained higher up in the food chain (the higher an organism is on the food chain, the increase of a toxic chemical concentration)

asci

the sac in ascomycetes in which the sexual spores are formed.

Darwin 1831-1836 and 1844

travels the world on AMS Beagle and writes his essay on descendent modification

heterozygous advantage

two or more alleles maintained at one locus due to higher fitness or heterozygote Ex. sickle cell anemia

Reduced Hybrid Fertility

viable hybrids but are sterile ex. mules cant reproduce themselves

Carl Linnaeus

was the 18th century naturalist sets out to classify all life into groups based on similarities in morphology/ appearance

frequency-dependent selection

which phenotype is forward by selection depends on how common it is. Ex. Scale eating fish

Dominant/ recessive interaction

you cannot determine which individual are heterozygous from their phenotype