EAPS 100 Final
Heating a package of air will cause its density to ________.
Decrease
Transform plate boundaries occur in areas where ____________.
Tectonic plates are moving past one another horizontally.
Heating the Earth's troposphere from below leads to a convective instability because hot, ________ air forms near the Earth's surface and is underneath cold, _________ air high in the troposphere.
low density; high density
Seafloor spreading at mid-ocean ridges is a mechanism that produces new oceanic crust. This process also allows adjacent tectonic plates to __________.
move apart
Sinking cold are near the poles creates a persistent _____ pressure system that leads to limited precipitation in these areas.
High
Which of the following is not a characteristic of minerals?
Natural *A random arrangement of atoms Solid Inorganic
What is the name for the clouds of matter that collapse to form stars and planetary systems?
Nebulae
Coal is produced from burying organic matter in sediment and exposing it to high temperatures and pressures during lithification and, sometimes, metamorphism. Which types of organisms produced the organic matter that typically produces coal?
Plants
Cooling a magma will tend to cause it to
Crystallize minerals
Most plants and animals that have lived on Earth will make fossils after they die.
False
Rifted margins tend to form ________ coastlines.
Submergent
How would you characterize this volcano based on its shape and eruptive style? (Steep, Explosive)
A composite volcano
A city that is adjacent to a warm ocean current will have ______ mean yearly temperature than a city at the same latitude that is adjacent to a cold ocean current.
A higher
Continental collisions lead to the development of what type of topographic feature at the surface of the Earth?
A major mountain range
The duration of a typical human life is ~100 years. Which of the following planetary climate variables could significantly change on this timescale?
CO2 sequestration through enhanced weathering and carbonate formation Changes to planetary albedo due to continental drift *Melting of ice Changes to the planet's orbit
In what tectonic setting might you find many reverse faults?
Convergent boundary
Clouds form when air rises and _______, causing the relative humidity to increase to 100%.
Cools
The equatorial regions must travel a much longer distance during each full rotation of the Earth (i.e., a 24-hour day) than locations at the middle and high latitudes. This difference leads to which of the following when air is moving across the surface of the Earth?
Coriolis effect
The organisms that produce shells made out of calcium carbonate are utilizing what component of seawater?
Dissolved ions
Which of the following substances has the lowest albedo?
Ice A continental land mass *The ocean Clouds
Heating a magma will ________ crystallization and solidification into a rock. Please fill in the blank with the best answer choice.
Inhibit
What process leads to partial melting of the Earth's mantle and the production of large volumes of basaltic magma at mid-ocean ridges?
Melting triggered by decompression as the Earth's mantle flows upward
On a warming planet, would melting continental ice sheets represent a positive or negative climate feedback?
Positive
Low pressure systems form where air is ___________.
Rising
If you are at the beach, feel a major earthquake, and the ocean rapidly recedes as if it is entering a low tide, what should you do?
Seek high ground
Which layer of the atmosphere is where we live and where weather occurs?
Troposphere
Which of the following is least likely to trigger a mass wasting event from a steep slope?
A drought
The equatorial region receives the most direct sunlight throughout the year. Consequently, it has _______ mean temperature in comparison to mid-latitude and polar regions.
A higher
Geological shortening during collisions between continents frequently leads to what topographic feature?
A mountain range
Using the figure above, please answer the following question. When did the magmatic dike labeled 3 intrude the sequence?
After deposition of layer 2, but before deposition of layer 4.
Which of the following words describes the long-term, average state of the atmosphere in a location on Earth?
Climate
You observe the volcanic eruption above. Based on the shape of the mountain and the eruptive style, what tectonic setting are you in? (Steep, explosive)
Close to a subduction zone
Warm fronts form when a package of warm air is advancing to replace a package of cold air. What type of weather would you expect to occur in an area in the few days prior to the passage of a warm front?
Clouds and rain
What is the term for the ACTUAL vertical distribution of temperature in the Earth's troposphere?
Environmental lapse rate
What do we call the circular patterns of ocean currents that is driven by the Earth's rotation?
Gyres
Which of the following techniques could rapidly increase planetary albedo in an effort to cool the climate.
*Artificially creating clouds Moving the continents to equatorial regions Painting all man made structures black
Hot air rises near the equator as part of Earth's system for atmospheric convection. This process results in equatorial and tropical climates that have which of the following properties?
Lots of rain
Which process leads to the production of magma at mid-ocean ridges during the process of seafloor spreading?
Lowering the pressure that the uppermost part of Earth's mantle experiences as it flows upward between two tectonic plates that are moving apart.
Which of the following processes best describes how magmas are produced in subduction zones?
Lowering the temperature of the mantle's melting point by adding water from the subducted oceanic crust.
Which of the following is a line of evidence used to support the idea of seafloor spreading?
Magnetic striping on the seafloor The thickness of sediment on the seafloor increases away from mid-ocean ridges Evidence for recent basaltic eruptions at mid-ocean ridges
In our own solar system, which planet lies within the NASA-defined 'habitable' zone?
Mars
What is the key process that causes the ocean crust to be pulled into the Earth's mantle?
Metamorphism transforms the basalt that forms ocean crust into a rock that is more dense than the Earth's upper mantle. This transition pulls oceanic crust downward as it sinks.
The San Andreas fault marks a transform boundary between the North American and Pacific tectonic plates. Los Angeles lies to the west of this fault and is part of the Pacific plate. Based on the lecture materials, where will Los Angeles be transported over the next ~50 million years?
Northwest towards Alaska
Minerals do not have
Randomly arranged atoms
A cooling magma begins to grow crystals. We can say that this magma is ________ the crystallizing mineral. Please fill in the blank with the best answer choice below.
Saturated with respect to
Which type of bedrock will lead to the most severe ground shaking during an earthquake?
Schist (a type of crystalline metamorphic rock) Granite (a type of crystalline igneous rock) *Unconsolidated sediment (a future sedimentary rock) Gneiss (a type of crystalline metamorphic rock)
Which type of fault is least likely to generate a tsunami?
Strike-slip fault
What is the name for the transitional zone between warm water at shallow depths and cold water at great depths in low latitude oceans?
Thermocline
Locations where tectonic plates slide past one another along a vertical plane are known as what type of plate boundary?
Transform Boundary
Examples of mechanical weathering?
Tree roots growing into a crack within a cliff and splitting rock Sand carried in wind abrades a cliff face Ice expanding in a crack and wedging a rock off of a cliff
Headlands are areas where land projects into the ocean. Do these areas concentrate wave energy and erosion due to wave refraction?
Yes
Subduction zones are places where oceanic crust is ___________. Please fill in the blank with the most appropriate answer choice.
pulled back into the Earth's mantle
Which of the following locations on the surface of the Earth has the lowest gravitational potential energy? Hint: Where is most sediment ultimately deposited?
the bottom of the ocean
What is the reason why faults tend to move intermittently (stick-slip behavior) instead of continuously?
Friction
You encounter a sandstone that is filled with the fossil bones of an organism that lived on land. What is a reasonable depositional environment for this sedimentary rocks?
In an ancient shallow marine setting near an ancient reef *Within or adjacent to an ancient river Near a an ancient, submerged mid-ocean ridge An ancient deep marine setting far from any exposed land
Chemical weathering is a major process during which rock is broken down through chemical reactions and dissolved ions are incorporated into natural waters. Which of the following parameters will lead to increased chemical weathering if all other variables are kept the same?
Increasing surface area
Will air near the surface of the Earth tend to rise during conditions of absolute atmospheric stability?
No
Sandstone is a sedimentary rock largely composed of sand-sized sedimentary clasts/grains. Which of the following environments is not a place where you would expect sand to be deposited and eventually form sandstone?
The deep ocean far from any land
A river requires _______ to transport large pieces of rock (i.e., sedimentary clasts) when compared to smaller clasts. Please fill in the blank with the best answer choice.
faster flowing water
Which of the following locations would be at most risk of being damaged by a lahar?
A town adjacent to a stream near a volcano
All of the following could trigger a tsunami except?
Asteroid impact Underwater earthquake Underwater landslide *A light breeze
_______ is a rock formed from solidification of magma that forms during partial melting of the Earth's mantle? Please fill in the blank with the best answer choice.
Basalt
Is the following statement true or false? The remains of most plants and animals eventually form fossils.
False
The left photograph was taken by the Curiosity Rover on Mars. It shows what appears to be a conglomerate. A picture of a conglomerate from Earth is shown on the right for comparison. What type of environment are conglomerates typically deposited? (Food For Thought: What does this mean about ancient environments on Mars?)
Fast flowing water in a river or stream
Which of the following areas has the smallest risk for a mass wasting (i.e., landslide/rock fall) event?
Flat Plain
Why do faults move in discrete increments that produce earthquakes rather than continuously and smoothly?
Frictional Forces
Which part of a river system represents the area where sediment is being produced?
Highest elevation
The above image was taken of sedimentary rocks on a vertical cliff face. What type of fault is shown above?
Reverse Fault
Explosive volcanism occurs most commonly in which tectonic setting?
Subduction zones
Extinction rates today are much, much higher than the rates of extinction prior to global industrialization and there is some discussion as to whether we are currently at the beginning, or in the midst, of a mass extinction.
True
Infrastructure built on the coastline near subduction zones has an increased risk of damage or destruction due to tsunamis.
True
We now think that plate tectonics is largely driven by 'slab pull', meaning that the ocean crust that is metamorphosed into very dense rock during subduction pulls the other tectonic plates as it sinks.
True
The smallest repeatable unit in a crystalline sold is known as the _________? Please fill in the blank with the best answer choice.
Unit cell
In which direction would sediment be transported due to longshore drift on the beach above assuming that the orientation of the waves is typical for this area?
left
One by-product of burning fossil fuels for energy is the release of ________. Please fill in the blank with the best answer choice.
(carbon dioxide)
If you see a sequence of sedimentary rocks that changes from bottom to top: 1) conglomerate, 2) sandstone, and 3) limestone containing marine fossils, what is a plausible sequence of ancient depositional environments for that area?
1) River bed, 2) Beach, 3) Reef
Which of the following is not a mineral?
A cubic zirconia (ZrO2) crystal grown in a laboratory
Samples of the Earth's mantle are brought to the Earth's surface through rare volcanic eruptions. One example of this process are kimberlite eruptions, which erupt from deep in the Earth's interior and can breach the surface with extremely high eruption velocities. We have studied these type of volcanic eruptions in detail because they also transport the mineral _________, which only forms at extremely high pressures, to the Earth's surface. Please fill in the blank with the best answer choice.
Diamond
Relative humidity is a measure of how much water vapor a package of air can hold. For example, a package of air that has 100% relative humidity cannot hold additional water vapor and will begin to form droplets of liquid water. Would heating a package of air cause its relative humidity to rise or fall?
Fall
Areas that have absolute atmospheric instability will tend to form what type of weather feature?
Isolated thunderstorms
Do volcanoes that dominantly erupt basaltic magma tend to pose an acute threat to human life?
No, people can typically get out of the way of lava flows. However, infrastructure might be damaged.
The above fault separates several sedimentary layers. Using the information from the video segments, how would you classify this fault? Hint: Identify the orientation of the fault, the footwall and hanging wall, and the sense of separation of sedimentary layers across the fault.
Normal fault
What is the most common class of mineral within the Earth's crust? Hint: Remember the most common elements in the Earth's crust.
Silicate Minerals
What are the two most common elements in Earth's crust?
Silicon (Si) and Oxygen (O)
Waves break as they approach the shore because __________.
The bottom of the wave slows down
When a continent is pulled into a subduction zone it will __________?
The continent will resist being pulled into the Earth's deep interior because it is composed of rocks that are much less dense than the rocks that compose Earth's mantle.
Both mass extinctions discussed in class happened very quickly (geologically speaking, <100,000 years).
True
CO2 is a greenhouse gas and absorbs infrared (heat) radiation that is released from the Earth's surface. Higher concentrations of atmospheric CO2 can, consequently, be expected to lead to more infrared radiation absorbed in the Earth's atmosphere and a higher mean global atmospheric temperature.
True
The above photograph shows a mountain composed of sedimentary rock. The principle of lateral continuity allows you to assume that a single layer represents ________ as you trace it across the photograph.
approximately the same period of time
Large numbers of people live near the coastline to access trade opportunities and to utilize the ocean's resources.
True
The discovery of numerous exoplanets indicates that planet formation is a fairly common process throughout the universe.
True
The mid-latitudes experience strong seasonal changes to their average temperatures.
True
The shape of the Earth's orbit around the sun regularly varies from more circular to more elliptical.
True
Wind tends to flow from areas of high pressure toward areas of low pressure.
True
Ocean waves can be generated by all of the following processes except which one?
Underwater earthquakes *Heating sea water through absorption of solar radiation Underwater landslides Wind
_________ gas(es) absorb infrared radiation emitted from Earth's surface and help heat the Earth's troposphere from below.
Greenhouse
Ocean currents tend to swirl in a clockwise manner in the northern hemisphere and a counterclockwise manner in the southern hemisphere. What is the term for this pattern of currents?
Gyres
Warm water _________ as cold water.
Is less dense
What are the three main types of rock?
Igneous, metamorphic, sedimentary
Solar radiation that is absorbed by Earth's surface is re-radiated into Earth's atmosphere as ________ radiation.
Infrared
The last ~200 years has seen an extremely rapid increase in atmospheric concentration of CO2. This increase corresponds with the timing of global industrialization. Which of the following aspects of industrialization is likely to have had an effect on the long-term carbon cycle?
Installing higher quality insulation for buildings Developing nuclear weapons *Burning fossil fuels for energy
We now use radioactive decay to determine the age of geological materials. What is one feature of an ideal material for radiometric dating?
No initial daughter isotope when the material formed
What do we call the atmospheric condition in which a rising mass of air is always hotter and less dense than the overlying air due to an adiabatic lapse rate that is steeper than the environmental lapse rate?
Absolute Instability
When the adiabatic lapse rate is shallower than the environmental lapse rate, a package of air near the surface of the Earth will not spontaneously rise. How would we characterize atmospheric stability in this situation?
Absolute atmospheric stability
Broad, flat areas of the seafloor adjacent to mid-ocean ridges are called ____________ and reflect subsidence of oceanic crust as it moves away from the mid ocean ridge, cools, and becomes more dense.
Abyssal Plains
Positive feedback loops will ________ in a system.
Amplify change
Seawater has a high specific heat capacity meaning that it takes large amounts of energy to heat it and it releases large amounts of energy as it cools. In what way will the movement of seawater from tropical regions to higher latitudes via ocean currents affect climate?
Areas adjacent to warm water currents will be warmer than they otherwise would.
Ionic bonding occurs when ______?
Atoms lose or gain valence electrons to make positively or negatively charged ions that can then bond
Solar radiation is absorbed by the Earth's surface and re-radiated as infrared radiation. This process acts to heat the troposphere from _________.
Below
One by-product of burning fossil fuels to produce energy is the production of large quantities of which gas? Hint: Remember the photosynthesis-respiration/combustion equation.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
The process through which loose sediment becomes a rock is known as lithification. _______ is the process that occurs when fluids precipitate new minerals in the pore spaces between sedimentary clasts/grains and leads to lithification.
Cementation
Which of the following processes causes ocean waves to refract as they approach the coastline?
Reduction of the wave's speed due to its interaction with the seafloor
As the Earth warms and major continental ice sheets (Greenland, Antarctica) melt, the sea level will rise. Current projections indicate 0.3-1.2 meters of sea level rise before the year 2100. Why is this concerning?
Rising sea levels could displace large numbers of people The land in coastal areas will lose significant value as it becomes unsustainable to live there A significant proportion of Earth's population lives close to sea level *All of the above
Why are polar regions colder than equatorial regions?
They receive less solar radiation per unit area than equatorial regions
Can the interaction of ocean waves with the coastline lead to erosion?
Yes
You work at the a volcano observatory. Over the past several days you have monitored GPS data indicating that the volcano is inflating. Over the same period of time you have monitored numerous small earthquakes. Another scientist at the observatory reports that the gases emitted from several hot springs have changed to different chemical compositions. Do you recommend that the government evacuate the towns that are adjacent to the volcano?
Yes, the risk of eruption is elevated
The unit cell leads to all of the following mineral properties except which one?
Mineral size
The polar ice caps have a high albedo, meaning that they reflect large quantities of solar radiation back into space. However, they are currently melting and becoming smaller. If this process continues will the Earth's surface absorb more or less solar radiation?
More
Which electromagnetic radiation wavelength is efficiently observed using ground based telescopes?
Radio waves
Elements heavier than iron (Fe) were generated during _________.
Reactions during supernovae
Which of the following objects has the highest albedo?
The Ocean A manhole cover *A glacier A grassy lawn
Alfred Wegener proposed that the continents had once been joined into a super continent and then drifted apart. Which of the following was a line of evidence that he used to make this proposal?
The coastlines of continents look like they fit together in the past. Fossils of certain species seem to form continuous habitat zones if continents were once joined Locations where there is evidence for tropical or glacial environments could be restored to low and high latitudes, respectively, if the continents were once joined together and had drifted apart
The above photograph shows a vertical magmatic dike cutting across horizontal sedimentary layers. Which of the labeled rocks is the youngest based on the principle's of superposition and cross cutting relationships?
The dike
Referring to the Drake Equation, how would the discovery of ancient (or modern) life on Mars change how unique life is throughout the universe?
The discovery of ancient or modern life on Mars will change our view on how life develops on other planets because it suggests that when planets are habitable, it is very likely that life will arise. In terms of the Drake equation, it will allow us to further constrain the equation because we will have another dataset based on the information we can obtain about life on Mars. While this will not make the equation completely accurate, it will help us understand different variables which we could not see before.
The 'Cambrian Explosion' occurred between 541-519 million years ago. What happened during this period of time?
The first macroscopic (things that you could see without the aid of a microscope) animals evolved
Changes in Earth's orbital parameters can change the amount of solar radiation that is absorbed by Earth's surface and have a major effect on the global, mean climate.
True
Coastlines are dynamic areas and this constant change should be considered when developing coastal areas for human use.
True
Mass extinctions in Earth's history have occurred very rapidly and are typically associated with a period of rapid climate change.
True
One of the main lessons from studying mass extinctions is that ecosystems have trouble adapting to extremely rapid changes to Earth's climate.
True
Polar regions typically have very little precipitation.
True
Solar radiation transmits energy to the Earth's surface.
True
Some coastal cities will be uninhabitable within the next 100 years if sea level were to rise by 1-2 meters.
True
In the above photograph is the fault older or younger than the sedimentary rocks?
Younger
Geologists think that hotspots form over what type of feature?
a 'plume' of hot material that has risen from deep within the Earth, potentially from the boundary between the Earth's mantle and core
Toward which direction does the Earth rotate? (Hint: Think about where the sun rises and sets)
East
Solar radiation can be absorbed by the Earth's surface or reflected back into space. The ratio of reflected radiation to absorbed radiation is known as albedo. Which of the following surfaces has the highest albedo?
*Glacial Ice Asphalt Road Ocean Forest Canopy
Which of the following boundaries between tectonic plates is most likely to generate tsunamis? (Hints: What types of faults are found in each of these areas? Which ones are most likely to be under water?)
*Subduction zones Continental collision zones Transform boundaries
The above image shows sea surface temperatures adjacent to the east coast of the United States and Canada. Red colors indicate warm water, and blue colors indicate cold water. Why is there a large area of warm water extending northeastward across the North Atlantic?
Surface winds moving from the tropics toward higher latitudes are driving an ocean current and this current moving warm, tropical water to the northeast
Volcanoes that are associated with subduction zones are frequently associated with explosive volcanic eruptions. All of the following are qualities of subduction zone magmas that lead to this characteristic behavior except which one?
*** The magmas have an extremely low viscosity (meaning that they can flow with relative ease) The magmas evolve towards very high silica (SiO2) content The magmas have large amounts of water in them
The point where oceanic crust begins sinking in subduction zones is marked by what type of topographic feature?
A deep canyon known as a 'trench'
Why would artificially creating clouds in the troposphere or injecting aerosols into the stratosphere potentially work to cool our planet?
Both options would decrease planetary albedo *Both options would increase the planetary albedo They would both act to reduce atmospheric CO2 concentration They would both act to increase atmospheric CO2 concentration
As waves approach the shore they slow down, their wavelength _____, and their amplitude _____.
Decreases; increases
What process causes the Hawaiian islands to go from high volcanic mountains to very low-lying, small islands over long periods of time?
Erosion
The Alaska volcano observatory is one of the largest observatories in the United States, despite the fact that Alaska does not have any major cities adjacent to a major volcano. Why is so much effort put into monitoring Alaskan volcanoes?
Explosive eruptions can disrupt international air travel and Alaska lies along a common flight path between North America and Asia
A single, cold snowy day indicates that the global mean temperature is getting colder and a single, hot day indicates that the global mean temperature is getting hotter.
False
It is trivial to remove large quantities of CO2 from the atmosphere and geologically sequester it.
False
You experience a SINGLE, extremely hot day during the summer. This event indicates that the CLIMATE is getting warmer.
False
The above limestone contains fossil shells from marine organisms. What is not a reasonable inference about the environment in which this sedimentary rock was originally deposited?
It was originally deposited high in the mountains.
The global seismometer network permits us to know where an earthquake occurred, what type of fault generated the earthquake, and the magnitude of the earthquake within seconds to minutes of the event. This allows organizations like the United States Geological Survey to rapidly announce tsunami warnings. Nevertheless, tsunamis still claim many lives despite the fact that some areas can receive hours of warning. What are some of the factors that lead to our limited ability to save lives during a tsunami event? Please answer this question in one paragraph or less.
Lack of good way to distribute info, lack of infrastructure for rapid evacuations
Hurricanes are very large, rotating storms that form in areas of extreme _____ atmospheric pressure.
Low
The above image shows all of the different tectonic plates (the boundaries are shown by dark blue and brown lines). Which location is least likely to experience a major earthquake? Note: I'm not asking whether a location has 0% chance of an earthquake, only the location that is least likely to have an earthquake.
Not on boundary
Mid ocean ridges are underwater mountain ranges, where new oceanic crust is produced. If you were to dredge pieces of rock from a modern mid-ocean ridge, which of the rocks below would be most likely?
Pillow basalt
Oil is composed of organic matter that has been buried in a sedimentary sequence and has experienced elevated temperatures during lithification. Which organism produced the organic matter that goes on to make oil?
Plankton
Coal is composed of fossil organic matter and is used as fuel for many of the power plants in the USA. From which organisms did this organic matter originate?
Plants
Which of the following best describes the force that drives plate tectonics?
Plates are pulled by oceanic crust that is metamorphosed into very dense rock during subduction
The Earth's surface absorbs solar radiation and then radiates it into the atmosphere as infrared radiation. Greenhouse gases absorb this radiation and trap heat within the atmosphere. This process leads to which of the following properties of Earth's atmosphere? (Hint: From which direction is the atmosphere heated?)
Pressure increases with altitude *Temperature decreases with altitude in the troposphere Ozone O3 is formed in the thermosphere Temperature increases with altitude in the troposphere
Since one continent cannot easily sink beneath another continent when two continental plates collide they accommodate the differential motion between them through the process of 'shortening'. This process is similar to when the hood of a car is smashed in a wreck, leading to a shorter total length of the car. Which of the following is not a mechanism through which geological shortening occurs?
Seafloor spreading
Earth's rotational axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane. This geometry affects the amount of solar radiation that reaches the surface of the planet at different latitudes and ultimately leads to which of the following properties of our planet?
Seasonal temperature variations at middle to high latitudes
An advancing cold front is typically associated with what type of weather.
Storms
The concentration of wave energy and erosion on headlands and the dissipation of wave energy and sediment deposition in bays tends to __________ through time.
Straighten coastlines
Diamonds are made from carbon with an isotopic signature that is consistent with an origin as ancient life-forms. What process could have brought organic carbon deep into Earth's interior to provide the carbon needed to create diamonds?
Subduction
In which of the following locations are sedimentary clasts likely to be deposited and preserved to form sedimentary rocks?
The bottom of the ocean
Hotspot volcanism typically makes linear chains of volcanoes that get progressively younger in one direction. What would best describe the orientation of these features?
The chain of volcanoes lies parallel to the direction of motion for the tectonic plate on which they are built
Would you expect a city adjacent to the ocean or a city in the interior of a continent to have larger fluctuations in temperature throughout the year?
The city in the continental interior
Humans try to stabilize coastlines using a variety of methods. One method is to build breakwaters. What is an inevitable consequence of the construction of breakwaters?
The deposition of sediment in calmer waters behind the breakwater Concentration of wave energy and erosion at the breakwater *Both of the above answers are correct
We now use radioactive decay to determine the age of geological materials. Which of the following is NOT a feature of an ideal material for radiometric dating?
The material incorporated a large amount of parent isotope as it formed Daughter isotopes cannot easily move out of the material after radioactive decays occur *The material incorporated a large amount of daughter isotope as it formed
You observe the sequence of sedimentary rocks in the above photograph. Using the principle of original horizontality, what can you infer about the history of this location?
The sedimentary rocks have been rotated from their original orientation.
The Drake Equation was designed to quantify how many intelligent species may exist in our galaxy. However, estimates using this equation range from 1 (only humans) to millions. Why is there so much variability?
The value of almost every variable in the Drake Equation is poorly constrained
Which of the following atmospheric layers is where weather occurs?
Troposphere
A diamond (C) mined from a kimberlite is a mineral.
True
Atmospheric convection is driven by the uneven distribution of solar radiation at Earth's surface and the fact that the atmosphere is heated from below.
True
Hurricanes form where there are areas of extreme low pressure.
True
Which of the following words describes the short-term state of the atmosphere in a location on Earth?
Weather
What process is constantly removing material from mountain ranges? Hint: Think back to earlier in the course.
Weathering and Erosion
Air moving across the surface of the Earth from middle latitudes toward the equator will always be deflected to the _______ by the Coriolis effect.
West
In order to sequester organic carbon in sediments at the bottom of the ocean, production of organic carbon through _________ must be greater than consumption of organic carbon through ________. Please fill in the blanks with the best answer choice.
photosynthesis; respiration
Which of the following is not a greenhouse gas?
H20 *Ar CH4 CO2
The process of seafloor spreading creates which type of crust?
Oceanic crust
Nitrogen N2 is the most abundant gas in Earth's atmosphere.
True
What magma property listed below would not lead to explosive volcanic eruptions?
***Low viscosity (flows with relative ease) High viscosity (flows with difficulty) High gas content
All of the following, except which answer choice, might indicate that magma is moving beneath a volcano?
***Several consecutive sunny days Inflation of the volcano Lot's of small earthquakes A change in the composition of gases emitted from the volcano
You encounter a sedimentary outcrop composed of conglomerate like the one shown in the above image. Which of the following is NOT a reasonable depositional environment for it to have formed?
*A deep marine setting far from any exposed land Within or adjacent to a major river Close to sea cliffs on an ancient shoreline Near the mouth of a major river
The Earth's atmospheric CO2 concentration has been steadily increasing for the past 100 years. Above you can see a graph of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured in Hawaii since the late 1950s. Superimposed on the long-term increase in CO2 are yearly oscillations (observe the red curve in the figure above). Why does the CO2 concentration oscillate on an annual basis?
*Seasonal changes in plant growth Seasonal changes in planetary albedo Seasonal changes in rainfall Seasonal differences in the amount of air travel
Hot air tends to form in the equatorial and tropical regions because these latitudes receive the most solar radiation. We might expect convection cells to form in which hot, low density air rises from the Earth's surface to the upper troposphere near the equator and cold, high density air sinks from the upper troposphere to the Earth's surface in the polar regions. However, the Earth has a more complex convective system that includes three convective cells on either side of the equator. Why?
*The planet rotates Human release of greenhouse gases Climate change
What bathymetric (underwater topographic) feature is associated with subduction zones?
A deep sea trench
About 50% of the solar radiation that enters the Earth's atmosphere is __________.
Absorbed by Earth's surface
When air is heated near the surface of the Earth it will become less dense and begin to rise. As it rises, it will cool according to the __________.
Adiabatic lapse rate
The relative humidity of air increases as air rises and cools. When the air reaches 100% humidity water droplets can begin to form. These water droplets typically nucleate on which of the following?
Aerosols
The above photograph shows two groups of sedimentary rocks, one that is vertical and the other that is shallowly dipping. James Hutton observed this outcrop and realized that an enormous of amount of time was required to deposit sedimentary rocks, rotate them to a vertical orientation, erode them, and deposit new sedimentary rocks. This realization kicked off the modern efforts to quantify the history of the Earth. What do we call surface (outlined in white) between the two groups of sedimentary rocks?
Angular unconformity
What is the controversial name for the period of geological history when humans have been able to significantly alter the planet that has been proposed by some Earth scientists?
Anthropocene
Which of the following answer choices are variables that affect the Earth's climate on long time scales (i.e., tens of thousands to millions of years)?
Changes to the tilt of Earth's rotational axis The position of the continents Changes to the ellipticity of Earth's orbit around the sun *All of the above
What is the source of most dissolved solids in the ocean?
Chemical weathering of rocks
Clastic rocks are distinguished from crystalline rocks in that they are composed or weathered bits of rock (clasts) that have been transported as sediment and deposited in a location that is different from where their constituent rocks formed. What is one feature of clastic rocks that you could use to distinguish them?
Clastic rocks are typically composed of rounded clasts
Would you expect rocky planets to form closer to or further from a protostar during solar system formation?
Closer to
Coal is a sedimentary rock composed of organic matter and frequently contains plant fossils. Which of the following statements can we infer to be true about the depositional environment in which coal formed?
Coal was originally deposited in a biologically productive terrestrial ecosystem.
Is the volcano pictured above a composite or a shield volcano?
Composite
Why do ocean currents tend to circulate seawater clockwise in the northern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere?
Coriolis effect
Which of the following proposals to mitigate climate change would lead to a reduction in the amount of CO2 in Earth's atmosphere?
Create clouds to increase our planet's albedo *Geologically sequester carbon through pumping rich fluids into the Earth Significantly reduce CO2 emissions by switching to nuclear power All of the above
The above diagram shows how the number of parent and daughter atoms change through time during radioactive decay. Which of the following statements is true?
Daughter atoms accumulate as parent atoms decay
Within the troposphere both temperature and pressure ________ with increasing altitude (i.e., distance above the Earth's surface).
Decrease
The Earth's mantle is composed of a rock called peridotite. It can begin melting through which of the following processes?
Decreasing pressure, while keeping temperature constant
Tornadoes are ranked according to the Fujita scale. Which of the following categories represents the strongest tornado?
EF-5
The Earth is a rotating sphere. This geometry means that the surface of the Earth at the equator is moving towards the East much faster than the the surface of the Earth at higher latitudes. If air was flowing AWAY from the equator, in which direction would it be deflected due to the Coriolis effect?
East
Alfred Wegener's proposal for continental drift was rejected during his own lifetime (b. 1880, d. 1930) for which of the following reasons?
He did not have a explanation for how the continents had moved
The above image shows the relationship between surface water salinity and latitude within the ocean. Remember that the salinity at the ocean's surface is determined by the rate of evaporation (this process leaves dissolved solids behind and increases salinity) relative to the rate of freshwater addition (rain, river discharge, and snowmelt all add freshwater and lower salinity). Why does the salinity of the ocean's surface water hit local maxima near the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn?
High levels of evaporation
Wind will flow from areas of ______ atmospheric pressure towards areas of ______ atmospheric pressure.
High; Low
In the above diagram of a river system where are most sedimentary clasts/grains produced?
Highest
Which process typically leads to the concentration of elements like gold, silver, and copper into economically viable deposits?
Hydrothermal activity around crystallizing magma
The amount of dissolved solids (i.e., salinity) at any point in the ocean is determined by the balance between delivery of fresh water (river discharge, rain) and evaporation. Where would you expect the highest level of dissolved solids (i.e., highest salinity)?
In the tropics
The mass extinction that occurred 251 million years ago at the end of the Permian period represents the worst ecological crisis in the history of our planet. Which of the following is the current hypothesis for why this extinction occurred?
Intense volcanism caused large quantities of fossil fuels to be burned over a short period of time, leading to rapid climate change
Which of the following elements was created during the 'Big Bang'?
Iron Fe Nitrogen N *Hydrogen H Carbon C
What is the name for a mud flow that is composed of volcanic debris?
Lahar
Plate tectonics modulates Earth's climate through all of the following processes except which one?
Leading to uplift and weathering during continental collisions Changing the amount of volcanic gases that are emitted into the atmosphere Changing the distribution of land and water between different latitudes as the continents move ***Burning fossil fuels
Each letter in the above diagram represents a species and the adjacent line represents the period of time it was present on Earth before it speciated or went extinct. Use this information to determine which of the following sedimentary rocks is the oldest.
Lowest
Use the labels on the above cross section of a delta and associated sedimentary deposits to answer the following question. Where would you most likely find sedimentary deposits composed of the smallest clasts/sedimentary grains?
Lowest
You walk up to this outcrop of sedimentary rocks. You know from previous observations that they have not been rotated or overturned. Using the principle of superposition, which of the labeled layers is the oldest?
Lowest
On the above diagram of a river delta, where would you expect the smallest sedimentary clasts to be deposited?
Lowest elevation
Using the principles of original horizontality, lateral continuity, superposition, and cross cutting relationships, please determine the oldest labeled rock unit in the above photograph?
Lowest elevation
Which of the following areas is most at risk for the development of a debris flow?
Mountainous
Seafloor spreading at mid-ocean ridges occurs when tectonic plates are ___________.
Moving apart
Which of the following is a way in which ocean waves can cause erosion along coastlines?
Moving sediment away from the coast Fracturing rock Abrading rock *All of the above
As CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere go up, the rate of weathering increases and more dissolved solids are delivered to the oceans. Dissolved solids can subsequently be incorporated into carbonate minerals and geologically sequester carbon. Would this process be considered a positive or a negative feedback?
Negative
Earth's climate has been fairly stable for much of the planets history (certainly for the last 500 million years). Does this indicate that the planet has many positive or negative climate feedbacks?
Negative
Which location would be the safest place to build a house on the Big Island of Hawaii. Remember, this island has several active volcanoes that produce basaltic lava flows?
On a ridge on a non-volcanically active part of the island
The above photograph was taken by the Curiosity Rover on Mars. They appear to be layered and flat lying. Fossil mud cracks were photographed within these rocks. What type of rocks are they?
Sedimentary
The Cambrian Explosion marks boundary between two great divisions of geologic time. What distinguishes sedimentary rocks that formed after the Cambrian Explosion from those that formed before the Cambrian Explosion?
Sedimentary rocks deposited after the Cambrian Explosion contain abundant animal and plant fossils.
As ocean waves approach the shore, the bottom of the wave ________ due to friction with the seafloor.
Slows down
What source of energy heats the Earth's atmosphere?
Solar radiation
Which type of seismic wave is most damaging to human infrastructure?
Surface waves
Magma is dominantly produced in subduction zones through which of the following processes?
The melting point of the mantle is lowered by the addition of water released as the sinking oceanic crust undergoes metamorphic reactions
What feature would not make a fossil useful for determining relative geologic ages?
The species had a very small population
Researchers have documented that magnetic minerals within the seafloor form zones that sometimes point toward the modern north pole and sometimes point toward the modern south pole. These zones form linear belts parallel to mid-ocean ridges. Which of the following is an observation regarding these zones that supports the idea of seafloor spreading?
The zones are symmetrical about the mid-ocean ridge
What is the name for the density driven circulation of seawater from shallow to deep depths (and back) within the ocean?
Thermohaline circulation
Continental collisions occur when continents are pulled into subduction zones. Why aren't continents pulled into the Earth's mantle like oceanic crust?
They are composed of rocks that are less dense than the Earth's mantle.
Which of the following is NOT an effective way to monitor for volcanic eruptions?
Use GPS to assess whether the volcano is inflating or deflating Monitor the composition of gases emitted from the volcano Monitor earthquake activity near the volcano *Monitor the water level in rivers near the volcano
The mid-latitudes have ________ weather due to interactions between high and low pressure systems that are related to the different atmospheric convection cells.
Variable
The environmental lapse rate represents the _________ distribution of air temperature at a give location and is typically measured using weather balloons.
Vertical
At low latitudes the ocean is stratified with respect to temperature such that shallow water is ____ and deep water is ____.
Warm; Cold
Warm fronts occur when a _____ air mass is advancing into an area where a _____ air mass had previously been located.
Warm; Cold
Will melting ice on a planet lead to planetary warming or cooling due to a positive feedback loop?
Warming
Ocean tides are generated because of gravitational attraction of the ocean to the moon and the sun. In what situation would the largest tidal range (i.e., highest high tide and lowest low tide) occur?
When the gravitational pull of the sun and moon are aligned
Lava flows, pyroclastic flows, and lahars are all different types of volcanic hazards. All of these hazards will ________ to minimize their gravitational potential energy. Please fill in the blank with the best answer choice.
flow downhill
The thickness of sedimentary rocks on the seafloor _________ with distance from mid-ocean ridges. This observation indicates that the seafloor gets progressively older with distance from the mid-ocean ridge and is one of the lines of evidence for seafloor spreading. Please fill in the blank with the most appropriate answer choice.
increases
Earthquakes produce three types of waves: p-waves, s-waves, and surface waves. Which of these waves causes the most ground motion and consequently the most damage during earthquakes?
surface waves