EBP Final
Type I Error
Occurs when the researcher rejects the null hypothesis when it should have been accepted
Negative Correlation
Occurs when two variables covary inversely; when one decreases, the other increases
What are the significance levels (alpha) commonly used in nursing research?
- Alpha level: probability of making a type 1 error - Type 1 and Type 2 errors have an inverse relationship; Risks for these errors are adjusted for selecting the alpha level, which is the probability of making a type one error - The alpha levels are usually 0.05 or 0.01 - Alpha level chart - area under curve to left is amount of type 2 error; to right is amount of type 1 error o When the alpha 1 area is larger, there is more space to the right of the line than when it is smaller
What is a journal club?
- Bullshit. - Disseminating research among nurses by discussing articles in a small group - Another technique to engage others in transitioning evidence to practice - Provide a relaxed atmosphere where nurses can be exposed to practice issues and current evidence, ask questions - Designed to empower nurses in clinical practice to consider the patient, the clinical setting, resources and evidence as they transition evidence to practice - Because the model addresses unit problems and relies on the unit staff to be engaged in the process, nurses tend to be more collaborative, thus creating a unit culture of support and accomplishment
What are the criteria for evaluating rigor in qualitative studies?
- Credibility - Transferability - Dependability - Confirmability
What are common ways qualitative data are presented in written reports?
- Detailed description and integration of discussion methods - Introduction, explanation of significance of project, review of the relevant literature, description of methods, findings, discussion & conclusions, results of the study must be report with sufficient rigor & details about the methods used to establish trustworthiness of the findings so that the reader can have confidence that the results represent suggestions for best practice - Realist tales→ used by ethnographers, write real life account of the culture being studied and present in a third person voice, focus on details of the group with little mention of the methods - Confessional tales→ more personalized accounts in which the writer gives more insight into the process of data collection and shows scientific rigor of the field methods, written in the researcher's viewpoint, with personal authority and thick description - Impressionist tales→ allow researchers to chronicle their experiences in a sort of auto-ethnography, speak more personally about their experiences of conducting the study, and they are participant observers versus disconnected realists. Reports are more like storytelling and help reader relive the experience - The goal is to communicating results in the most useful manner, written with audience in mind, most important is focus, include enough detail but not too much as to preclude the major purpose of communicating useful, evidence based information that impacts practice - Phenomological→ use realist tales, confesssionist tales, impressionist tales personal narrative - Grounded→ seeks to communicate a process that the researcher has discovered, detached, analytic mode of reporting - Ethnography→choose the realist voice - Historical→ realist because the data was obtained from documents, include more talk and observation
What are key ethical issues in qualitative research?
- Getting informed consent, protecting confidentiality, allow volunteers to withdraw from the study and avoid harms to individuals who participate - Worthiness of project→ is this a worthwhile project to pursue, have value, add to nursing knowledge - Competence boundaries→ prepared, what do need to prepare - Informed consent→ obtained consent from participant, explain risks, purposes, risk and benefits - Benefits, costs and reciprocity→ cost/benefit ratio make sense, fiscally responsible - Harm and risk→ minimal harm/risk to participants, have any potential effects been explained to participants - Honesty and truth→ established trust and been honest with participants - Privacy, confidentiality and anonymity→ board approval, confidentiality and anonymity - Intervention and advocacy→ advocate for the right when observe wrong behavior, put best interests above own - Research integrity and quality→ adhere to standards of practice, true to the data and avoid fraud and deception in analysis - Ownership of data and conclusions→ clarified who owns work and results, access, protected the data and subjects - Use and misuse of results→ adequate care to avoid interventions and persuasions, described so not misinterpreted - Conflicts, dilemmas and trade-offs→ examined ethical dilemmas that may arise, thought of how would handle them
How might you engage others in transitioning evidence into practice?
- If you do not have a skill related to creating and communicating a problem statement ... o Develop competencies related to data collection and problem identification o Identify someone on the unit or within the organization who collects, organizes, and presents the data well o Otherwise, could volunteer to help a more experienced nurse o Collaboration will accomplish: • Better understanding of the process can be gained • You will develop a collegial relationship with someone who can assist you in the future
If given an example, be able to match an outcome with an indicator
- Indicator → outcome o Patient will not hemorrhage → patient-related, short-term o Patient will maintain weight loss after two years → patient-related, long term o Patient will be afebrile after surgery → patient-related, short-term o The rate of hospital-inquired infections → system-related, care-related o Patient satisfaction will be 90% or greater → system-related
How are outcomes classified or organized?
- They can be classified by focusing on who is to be measured: individuals, groups, or organizations - Can be grouped as care-related, patient-related, and performance-related - According to time: short-term, intermediate, long term
How are qualitative data analyzed?
- Involves description, data reduction, analysis and interpretation - Analysis of data occurs as the data is collected - Immersion → the data collection process in which the researcher lives with the data over time, constantly reflect on the data & make comparisons with existing data as new info is obtained, reading & rereading the transcriptions is crucial - Memo-ing → recording ideas that come to researchers as they live with data, important to memo as go because could be difficult to recreate them after a period of time - Use self-reflection to explore personal feelings nd experiences to minimize their bias - Bracketing → Setting aside personal interpretations to avoid bias - Data reduction → simplification of large amounts of data from interviews and other sources - Terms, ideas, or quotes are transcribed to help focus on common themes and patterns that will emerge, after reduced, identify these common themes, patterns and relationships - Essential that the themes, categories, or patterns that are ultimately chosen to represent the data do that - must be true to data and represent what most participants said, build in checks and rechecks - Interpretation brings the message of the participants to the public for reading and application, provide meaning that can be used in EBP, agree that the interpretation & results reported are true to the data obtained form participants
List 3 ethical dilemmas that can arise when nurses are involved in testing protocols
- Issues can concern the selection of the sample, data collection and reporting o When considering the recruitment of patients to participate in protocol testing, you must make certain that they fit the criteria and are not included simply to reach the sample size needed - Obligated to collect data as directed by the protocol - Nurses can have a tendency to change behaviors when they are aware data is being collected
What are ethical behaviors to maintain throughout your career?
- Nursing professionals have an obligation to develop self-awareness. Developing yourself is necessary if you are to remain current about practice issues and new technologies o Sense of self-awareness can bring a level of maturing that is necessary for ethical decision making - Professional nurses need to promote themselves & the profession by making others aware of their accomplishments o Don't overstate your capability. Records never falsified and must accurately reflect work history - Take advantage of both formal and informal opportunities for professional growth. o Educational benefits? Conferences? - Responsibility to give back to the profession. Assist novice nurses to establish their practices
What is the relationship between outcomes-based measurements and EBP?
- Outcomes-based measurements are a means used to establish EBP and to evaluate the care delivered. - In healthcare, many activities are outcome-drive. The rising costs of healthcare, increasing stringent accreditation standards, and public reporting are several reasons why outcomes are closely scrutinized and are integral to ensuring the successful implementation of an innovations - Outcomes are quantitative, not qualitative in healthcare
What is continuous quality improvement?
- Participatory process involving indicators that measure quality - Participation with internal quality improvements measures
What factors should be considered in selecting an outcome?
- Patient populations o Necessary to select outcomes that reflect the patient population served by the healthcare facility o Use of generic patient outcome is a good strategy to measure outcomes when populations are diverse - Team selection - Give consideration to the composition of members who form the team responsible for monitoring the outcome. Includes the personnel members and capabilities that would be involved in implementing the innovation and outcome measurements - Staff nurses may be involved at several different levels during outcome selection and subsequent measurements - Organizational priorities o Outcomes can be linked to the mission of the healthcare organization o Can also use outcomes to evaluate specific areas that need improvement - Mandated reporting o Benchmarking o Clinical practice guidelines or standards of care recommended by professional organizations can also drive outcome selection
Clinical Practice Guidelines
- Recommendations based on evidence that serve as useful tools to direct clinical practice - Most have a standard formation - provide similar information o Most often identify the names of reviews or development team or a listing of the background of experts who served on the panel o Method of review is presented (number of citations, databases reached, other means to capture relevant research, and secondary sources of interest) o List limitations of review (exclusion of certain topics, shit beyond scope of practice, iddes related to legal, economics, or healthcare system issues) - Recommendations by the panel members form the basis of clinical practice guidelines - The guidelines serve as useful tools to direct clinical practice - typically included all relevant process and outcome measures that would be indicated for the average patient with a specific diagnosis or treatment problem o Provide an easy-to-read consolidation of research findings - Appear to be comprehensive- but do not include all of the variables that clinicians encounter when managing patient conditions or treatments o Guidelines are unable to address unique patient characteristics
Critical Thinking
- Skill set that involves critical appraisal of information. Skills include: o Identifying the problem for practice o Deciphering the purpose by reading critically to understand the why behind the problem o Uncovering assumptions that may include personal or institutional biases o Recognizing and using different paradigms such as looking at evidence in different ways o Demonstrating different methods of reasoning by examining values and rationale behind decisions for change o Examining data, which entails an understanding of statistical or other methods for critiquing o Creating alteration solutions using creativity to invent new options to the problem o Evaluating one's thing to improve it
7. What questions should the reader ask in appraising the data analysis section of an article?
- What statistics were used to describe the characteristics of the sample and the results of the instruments used? Were the stats appropriate for the level of measurement? - Were measures of central tendency provided? If so, which ones were used? Are they the most appropriate? How sensitive to outliers is the measure reported - Were measures of variation/dispersion provided? Were standard deviations reported for each mean that was reported - What was the distribution of the stats? Were the data normally distributed? Was skewness or kurtosis discusses? - What stats determined the differences among groups? Were the results significant? - What stats were sued to express relationships among variables of interest? What was the magnitude and direction of the relationship? Was it significant? - Are all hypotheses addressed in the analysis section of the report - Is the level of significance selected appropriate for the purpose of the study and the types of analyses being conducted? - Do the tables and graphs agree with the text? Are they precise and do they offer the economy of information? - Are the results understandable and presented objectively?
Multitrait-Multimethod Testing
A new instrument & established instrument of the same concept are given at the same time
Focus Group
A strategy to obtain data from a small group of people using interview questions
Response Rate
AKA return rate, refers to the number of people who answered the survey divided by the number of people in the sample; usually a percentage
How does an evidence pyramid help nurses in evaluating studies?
Allows ranking evidence from strongest to weakest; guides decisions for ranking studies
Face Validity
Ask colleagues or subjects to examine an instrument and indicate whether the instrument appears to measure the concept, uses an intuitive approach
Qualitative Studies: Oberservation
Capturing information by watching participants; must be consistent with aims of the study, in natural or unstructured setting by being present or recording and viewing later
Care-related Outcome
Category of outcomes that measures the effect of nursing interventions
Hypothesis Testing
Collection of objectively measurable data that are gathered though the five senses to confirm or refute a hypothesis
Meta-Analysis
Combination of results of studies into a measurable format; statistically estimates effects of proposed interventions When appraising them, nurses should establish if well-designed studies that fit with the research question are included (both published and unpublished should be included) One must be confident that the literature was systematically searched to obtain an adequate sample size; there should be evidence that statistical findings from the studies were merged to identify incongruences and similarities of findings among the studies
Benchmarking
Comparison of organizational outcome data to other organizations or national databases Organizations sometimes use data to gain a picture of how they compare to similar facilities
Outcome
Consequence or visible result Necessary to ensure successful incorporation into clinical practice
4 Elements Used to Evaluate Qualitative Studies
Credibility o Believing the findings of the study, the qualitative equivalent of validity, refers to truth/believability of the findings o Established through many strategies that are built into qualitative research → persistent observation, peer debriefing, referential adequacy, member checks o Persistent observations → spending quality time with the participants attempting to thoroughly describe the phenomenon, requires prolonged engagement o Peer debriefing → when the researcher enlists the help of another person who is educationally prepared at a similar level to the researcher and would be considered a peer, discuss the data and findings as well as the researchers' reflections, feelings & struggles, provides a pair of eyes to examine the consistence of the researcher's interpretation, holding them accountable o Referential adequacy → when multiple sources of data are compared and the findings hold true, involve the researcher going back to study participants either during or after the study, or both and sharing the results with them to be sure the end product reflects what the participant said Transferability o Related to whether the findings from one study can be transferred to a similar context, goal is to understand a particular phenomenon rather than generalizing to a population o Accomplished through eliciting thick descriptions, adequate sampling, and achieving data saturation • Thick description→ rich, written comments and narrative related to the situation being studied, journals and mementos, deep and detailed description is needed to establish the scientific rigor of the study • Audit trail → documentation of the researcher's process and researcher's decision making • Adequate sampling→ means that the researcher took enough time to be sure that data saturation was reached, • Data saturation→enough subjects were interviewed to that consistent patterns & themes emerged prior to stopping data collection, when no new information is obtained, saturation is achieved Dependability o Satisfied when the researcher ahs established sufficient audit and paper trails through accurate & details journals and logs o Record keeping and reflective writing are essential in this type of research o Other people should be able to look at the researcher's writings and see that the theory or results accurately reflect the data Confirmability o Means that the researcher made rigorous attempts to be objective and that audit trails were kept to document the research process o Evaluating interview questions to ensure that they are open ended and not leading is important, must be satisfied the researcher has revealed that data were confirmed with the participants through member check o Written records should reveal a detailed review of the data, careful analysis and coding and detailed logs and field notes
Mandated Reporting
Data that must be shared with supervising or governmental agencies by a specified timeline
Criterion Related Validity
Degree to which the observed score and the true score are related
Qualitative Studies: Case Studies
Description of a single or novel event, used to gain understanding of circumstances around a rare or sentinel heath event; group of individuals involved are brought home to analyze and draw conclusions about the event; examine participant's behavior and decision making, circumstances examined to ensure that this type of error is avoided are identified
Range
Difference between the maximum and minimum values in a data set Because the range is very sample specific, it is considered an unstable measure of variability Semiquartile range: range of the middle 50% of the data; lies between the lower (first) and upper (third) quartile of ages
Homogenous
Elements that share many common characteristics If the data are very similar, there is little variability
Sampling Error
Error resulting when elements in the sample do not adequately represent the population The tendency for stats to fluctuate from one sample to another Always a possibility when randomly selected - the characteristics of any given sample are usually different from those of the population
Random Error
Error that occurs by chance during each measurement
Content Validity
Established when researchers know that the instrument measured concept intended to be measured, requires that the researchers clearly define the concept being studies to ensure that the selected instrument fits
Outcomes Research
Examines the effects of care and treatments on individuals and populations
Clinical Significance
Example: Suppose a drug lowered cholesterol levels on average from 135 to 118. Analysis indicates that the decrease is statistically significant; however, because any cholesterol value below 200 is considered to be within normal range, there is no clinical significance to this finding
Qualitative Research Definition
Focused on words instead of numbers, on understanding and giving meaning to a phenomenon or an event Data often stems from telling stories, describing events and examining contest, all of which emphasize words More exploratory and inductive
Construct Validity
Focuses on theory, threat to external validity when instrument does not accurately measure the theoretical concepts, required empirical testing
3 Types of Qualitative Data
In-depth interviews o Often the key source of data in qualitative o Questions are generally open-ended, allow participant to respond freely, and provide the most information possible, may use unstructured interview, following up with questions as the informant leads o Most have a set of questions that have arisen from viewing literature & previous interviews that will guide discussion o Must give attention to what appear to be simple details, quiet place without interruption o Recruiting can be a challenge, generally audio or video taped as unobtrusively a possible, typically lasts between 60-90 min, open ended responses and direct quotations are basic sources of data, record thoughts, ideas and reflection on the interview itself Direct Observations → research is not only an observer, but an active participant in data collections o Cannot be detached observer since active participant in data collection o Nurse asks questions of the group while keeping notes on their interactions and main topics of concern, part of the support group rather tan a nonparticipating attendee o Takes on greater importance if the nurse has experienced the phenomenon Artifacts → written documents, photographs, and physical objects o Provide additional sources of data o Particularly true in historical research when the main source of data is governmental reports, journals, books, memos, photographs, letters, diaries o When using these sources is important for researchers to remember that they can only provide a snapshot of the time, and must determine the authenticity of the sources
Measures of Variation
Include range, semiquartile range, percentile, and standard deviation
Parametric
Inferential statistical tests involving interval or ratio level data to infer to the population Use to infer to the population when specific conditions have been met. The conditions include: • Use of probability sampling • Normal distribution of data • Measurements of variables at the interval or ratio level • Reduction of error
7. In reading a report of an experiment, why is it important for the nurse to consider instrument validity and reliability?
It demonstrates how much you can trust the experiment findings, should appraise if instruments represent the concepts and variables being operationalized
Systemic Error
Occurs in the say way each measurement
Standard Deviation
Measure of the variability to determine the number of data values within a specific interval in a normal distribution Deviations from the mean of the data; measure of average deviations of a value from the mean in a data set Because it is a measure of deviation from the mean, it should always be reported with a mean Allows you to interpret an individual score in comparison with all other scores in the data set
Percentile
Measure representing the percentage of cases that a given value exceeds A measure or rank; median is 50th percentile; the first quartile is the 25th percentile, etc. If a baby boy is in 39th percentile, he weighs more than 39%, but less than 61%
Qualitative Studies: Interviews
Method for collecting data in person or over the phone, one on one, makes them more personal than self-administered questionnaires, structured interviews emphasize obtaining answers based on carefully predetermined questions, or could not have structure. Could do a 'grand tour' where a question is asked that then guides the dialogue, taped to be transcribed later, more time consuming, may not answer truthfully since its not anonymous
3 Measures of Central Tendency
Mode o The most frequently occurring value in a data set o Highest tally and is the highest frequency in a distribution table o Modality→ refers to the number of modes found in a data distribution o Amodal→ without a mode o Unimodal→ one mode o Bimodal→ two modes Median o The center of the data set o If there is an odd number of data points, median is the middle value or the score where exactly 50% of the data lie above the median and 50% of the data lie below o If there is an even number, median is the average of the two middle most values so the number may not be found in the data set o Refers to the average position in the data, minimally affected by the existence of an outlier o Position of the median→ (n+1)/2, n is number of data in value sets, calculate the position of the median Mean o Mathematical average calculated by adding all values and then dividing by the total number of values o Most common measure of cultural tendency, larger the sampler size the less an outlier will affect the mean
What are some sources of outcomes?
NOC, clinical practice guidelines, standards of care, Forces of magnetism
Known Group Testing
New instruments administered to individuals known to be high or low on the characteristic being measured
Divergent Testing
New instruments are administered at the same time as an instrument measuring the opposite of the concept; compare two instruments that measure different concepts
Type II Error
Occurs when researchers inaccurately conclude that there is no relationship between the independent and dependent variables when an actual relationship does exist
4 Levels of Measurement
Nominal: lowest and weakest level of measurement, whereby data are categorized simply into groups, use nominal measurements to classify or categorize variables, also called categorical data; numbers assigned to each category are just label and do not indicate value Ordinal: a continuum of numeric values where the intervals are not meant to be equal, small numbers lower on continuum and higher numbers are higher values, values are ranked, not meant to be equal Interval: continuum of numeric values with equal intervals but lacks an absolute zero, values have meaning and intervals are equal; zero is arbitrary point (no zero) Ratio: highest level of data; involves number values that begin with an absolute ero and have equal intervals; age, weight, height, and income
Qualitative Studies: Focus Groups
Obtain data from a small group of people using interview questions, usually 12 or less participants; brought together to explore attitudes and thought about a particular subject; group interactions see insights not need in interviews, must identify and define the objective of the focus group, guide by stating rules, objective & questions, must represent intended population; approx. 60-90 min, no more than 10 structured questions; economic but participants must be secure about the topic
Reliability
Obtainment of consistent measurements over time
Qualitative Studies: Questionnaires
Open or closed ended questions, wealth of data, relatively inexpensive, can't ensure fully answered questions
Likert Scale
Ordinal level scale containing seven points on an agree or disagree continuum
Etic
Outsider's view
Gatekeeper
Person who facilitates or hinders the entry of the researcher into a particular group or setting
4 Types of Qualitative Designs
Phenomenology o Describing the lived experience to achieve understanding of an experience from a participants' perspective o Focus on lived experience, asking what is the meaning of o Goal is to achieve understanding of an experience from a perspective of the participants o Small sample sizes, important to keep in mind that one person's experience may be unique and not totally reflective of the experiences of others o Data obtained from fieldwork, interviews, statements, identifies broad themes with categories and subcategories that are consistent among participants o Thematic analysis→ the reasons, feelings and thoughts of participants are explored, meanings of the categories are analyzed and integrated into a theme or themes o Analyzing exemplars→ when researchers repeatedly read data for possible new categories, corrections of thematic or categoric assignments and analysis of differences among the data o Identifies the paradigms→ checking the themes and categories to be sure that they are representative of the responses from all participants Grounded theory o Method of choice when researcher wants to discuss the process of something, ask what is the process? o Used in areas where there is little or no previous research o Concerns a review of literature, done prior to beginning the study to shed light on the phenomenon in question and identify gaps in literature, just enough to identify gaps but more extensive review of literature is done after the research is completed o Avoid bias, writing a reflective journal, after the theory has been generated a thorough review of literature is done, compares the theory with other research o Comparative analysis→ obtaining accurate evidence, making empirical generalizations, specifying a concept, verifying theory, generating theory` Ethnography o The work of describing a culture, instead of studying people, involves learning from people, cultural behavior, cultural knowledge, and cultural artifacts, involves studying groups and making collective observations, method of choice o Ethonosicence→ a method used in anthropology to discover nursing knowledge o Ethnonursing→ systematic study and classification of nursing care beliefs, values and practices in a particular culture o Participant observation is key but must gain access to the group, must go through gatekeeper, usually have authority in the group o Strive to discover the emic perspective, emic perspective is essential, need to record and observe what the key informant says and what they do, looking for consistencies and inconsistencies between perspectives o Descriptive, structural and contrast questions Historical o Based on documentation of sources that are sued to retrospectively examine events or people, who are we? Where did we come from? o Goal is to explain and understand the past with the hope of guiding the present and future o Strategic sampling→ sampling in historical research to locate a small group of either witnesses or participants to the phenomenon o Major sources of data are eyewitness accounts and documentation, reflecting on past events and data are based on their recollection o Accurate and detailed documentation on the part of the researcher is needed to maximize credibility o Documentation sources include→ government reports, professional journals, oral evidence, books, memos, photographs, letters, newsletters, newspapers, diaries, journals, videos, films, official publications, written responses to surveys and memorabilia o After obtained sources of data, central themes are identified from disciplined reflection, analysis and interpretation should be logical and easy to follow
Long-term Outcome
Primary changes in patients' behaviors or status over time
Quantitative Studies: Questionnaires
Printed instruments used to gather numerical data; inexpensive way to gather data from potentially large number of respondents, can be expensive to interpret, each question must be monitored for clarity, sensitivity to respondent, reading level and absence of bias
Physiological Observation
Provide range of biological, chemical, and microbio data; tend to be accurate, typically accessible in healthcare settings, allow for ease of collection with minimal or no cost to researched; must specify measurements protocols that include specific equipment used for measurement, frequency, and methods for calibration of equipment, training data collectors, and specific times to obtain measurements, procedures and any storage considerations • Biological → BP, cardiac output, weight • Chemical → electrolytes, hormones, cholesterol • Microbio → bacterial counts obtained from urine and blood cultures
Forces of Magnetism
Qualities that exhibit nursing excellence; 14 components 1. Quality of nursing leadership 2. Organizational structure 3. Management style 4. Personnel policies and programs 5. Professional models of care 6. Quality of care 7. Quality improvement 8. Consultation and resources 9. Autonomy 10. Community and the healthcare organization 11. Nurses as teachers 12. Image of nursing 13. Interdisciplinary relationships 14. Professional development
Indicator
Quantitative criteria used to measure outcomes; specify how the outcome should be measured
Visual Analog Scale
Ratio level scale of a 100mm line anchored on each end with words or symbols, use to measure the intensity of sensations & feelings; collect data about pain, fatigue, etc.
Sampling Strategy Used in Qualitative Research: Snowball
Recruitment of participants based on word of mouth or referrals from other participants o Researcher interviews a participant and mentions that he attended a support group with others who might want to talk about it, extra information for the study o Members are referred, from there it snowballs into having more samples o Often finds it an effective way t o identify key informants
Short-term Outcome
Results achieved in a relatively brief period of time that usually involve a change in condition (such as absence of condition, increase in knowledge or skills)
Nursing Sensitive Outcome
Results that demonstrate the effectiveness of nursing care Measurements can assist in in determining responsibility in patient care
Sampling Strategy Used in Qualitative Research: Purposive
Sampling method to recruit specific persons who could provide inside information o The researchers want to obtain information from specific persons who could provide inside information about the subject being studies o Called 'key informants' because they have intimate knowledge of the subject being investigated and are willing and able to share this with the researchers o One is selected intentionally, yet is comprised of volunteers who are willing to tell their stories
Data Reduction
Simplification of large amounts of data obtained from qualitative interviews or other sources
Correlation Coefficient
Statistic used to describe the relationship between two variables Provide information regarding the degree to which variables are related Evaluated in terms of magnitude direction (magnitude=strength of the relationship between two variables; direction =the way two variables covary) and sometimes significance
Factor Analysis
Statistical approach to identify items that group together
Member Checks
Strategy in which the researcher goes back to participants and shares the results with them to ensure the findings reflect what the participants said
Bracketing
Strategy used by qualitative researchers to set aside personal interpretations to avoid bias
Convergent Testing
Test for constrict validity in new instruments; administered at the same time as an instrument known to be valid, use two or more instruments to measure the same theoretical component, focuses on how observed scores relate to one another
Measurement Reliability: Kuder Richardson Coefficient
Test for instrument reliability for use with dichotomous items
Measurement Reliability: Test-retest Reliability
Test for instrument reliability when new instruments are given at two different times under the same conditions
Validity
The degree than an instrument measures what is supposed to measure
Heterogenous
The degree to which elements are diverse or not alike If there is wide variation
Measurement Error
The difference between the true score and observed score
Open Coding
The grouping of qualitative data into categories that seem logical
Emic
The insiders or participants' perspective
Data Saturation
The time when no new info is being obtained & repetition of info is consistently heard
Performance-related Outcome
Type of outcome related to how nurses perform their jobs
Patient-related Outcome
Types of outcome related to patient behaviors and actions
Scales of Observation
Used to assign a numeric value or score a continuum, developed to measure social and psychological concepts specific to nursing, choose either scaled based on the ability to measure identified concepts, designed to measure wither a single or multidimensional concept
Measurement Reliability: Chronbach's Alpha
Used with interval or ratio items
6. Is instrument reliability or validity more important?
Validity
Quantitative Studies: Observation
Way to quantify an explicit feature of the phenomenon under observation, objective observes and follow systematic methods using specific directions during a scheduled period of time
Positive Correlation
When an increase in one variable is associated with an increase in another or when a decease in one variable is associated with a decrease in the other
Statistical Significance
When findings did not happen by chance Critical values fall in the tails of the normal distributions, usually three standard deviations from the mean or where about only 0.3% of the data occur. Thus, when critical values are in that area, researchers believe it is appropriate to claim that the finding did not happen by chance.
Non-parametric Statistics
When not all 4 of the above conditions are met Inferential statistic involving nominal or ordinal level data to infer to the population Frequently used because many variable are measured at nominal and ordinal levels
Measurement Reliability: Split Half Reliability
When the items are divided to form two instruments
Peer Debriefing
When the researcher enlists the help of another person, who is a peer, to discuss data & findings
Measurement Reliability: Interrater Reliability
When two observers measure the same event
Measurement Reliability: Alternate Form
Where new instruments are given in two versions
Measurement Reliability: Parallel Form
Where new instruments are given in two versions
Measurement Reliability: Item to Total Correlation
when each item is correlated to a total score