Educational Psych Final

Corroboration

comparing different sources. are the sources the same or different?

Jigsaw

- In normal classrooms students learn that there is one and only one correct answer to any question asked, the answer in the teacher's head. the task is to figure out what answer the teacher expects. the student also learn that the payoff comes from pleasing the teacher by showing how quick, smart, neat, clean, and well behaved they are. the child knows that this is one way to gain the respect and love of this powerful person, this powerful person who may then be kind to the child and tell his or her parents what a wonderful person the child is. -students are assigned curriculum themes. students form separate research groups, each assigned responsibility for one of the five subtopics. these research groups prepare teaching materials. then the students regroup into reciprocal teaching seminars in which each student is expert in one subtopic, holding one fifth of the information. each fifth needs to be combined with the remaining fifths to make a whole unit. all children in a learning group are expert in one part of the material, teach it to others, and prepare questions for the test that all will take on the complete unity. all children are responsible for the mastery of the entire theme, not just their fifth of the material. -A jigsaw classroom is not a loose anything goes situation, it is highly structured, interdependence is required. it is the element of required interdependence among students that makes that makes this a unique method, and it is this interdependence that encourages students to take an active part in their learning. in becoming a teacher of sorts, each student becomes a valuable resource for the others. learning from each other gradually diminishes the need to try to outperform each other because one student's learning enhances the performance of the other students instead of inhibiting it. within this cooperative paradigm, the teacher learns to be a facilitating resource person, and shares in the learning and teacher process with the students instead of being the sole resource. rather than lecturing to her students, the teacher facilitates their mutual learning, in that all students are required to be active participants and to be responsible for what they learn. - the children learned to listen to each other and they learned two important lessons; (1) none of them could do well without the aid of every other person in the group, (2) each member had a unique and essential contribution to make. - The technique produces a classroom structure that enables children to cooperate with one another to attain their educational objectives simultaneously, to develop important interpersonal skills and a sharp increase in mutual appreciation in an atmosphere that is exciting and challenging rather than threatening and anxiety producing. - children in the jigsaw classrooms liked school better or at least hated school less than their counterparts in competitive classrooms. absenteeism among jigsaw students decrease dramatically. they grew to like their groupmates even more than they liked others in their classroom. the self esteem of the children increased to a greater extent than that of children in competitive classrooms. children in the jigsaw classrooms outperformed children in competitive classrooms. children learned to empathize with one another. -the children learned that it is possible to work together in a helpful way without sacrificing excellence and that working together increases their positive feelings about themselves and their happiness in school.

Expertise

-The goal. something you're good at. -Must have a deep foundation of factual knowledge, understand facts and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework, and organize knowledge in ways that facilitate retrieval application -They draw on a richly structured information base. they're able to plan a task, notice patterns, generate reasonable arguments and expectations and draw analogies to other problems. -Can see patterns, relationships, and discrepancies. their conceptual understanding allows them to extract a level of meaning from information and helps them select and remember relevant information. -Muscle memory, don't have to think about what they're doing. -Automacity, as they learn patterns they commit them to memory and they don't have to think about them anymore. -They thoroughly know the subject but that doesn't mean they're good teachers.

In Schoenfeld's view, why is metacognition a useful concept in mathematics education? How do experts and novices differ in their use of metacognition when solving mathematical problems?

-student driven -teacher steps to the side and students take control -metacognition is thinking about your own thinking -good problem solving calls for using efficiently what you know; if you don't have a good sense of what you know, you may find it difficult to be an efficient problem solver. -control or self regulation. how well do you manage your time and working as you are working on complex tasks? aspects of management include making sure that you understand what a problem is all about before you hastily attempt a solution, planning, monitoring, or keeping track of how well things are going during a solution, and allocating resources, or deciding what to do, and for how long, as you work out the problem -the main point about self regulation is that it's not what you know but how you use it that matters. -the mathematician spent the vast majority of his time thinking rather than doing. he spent a great deal of time analyzing the problem. -the difference between the mathematician's success and the student's failure cannot be attributed to a difference in knowledge of subject matter. the students started with a clear advantage, they knew all of the procedures required to solve the problem they were give, where as he didn't remember them and had to figure them out for himself. what made the difference was how they made use of what they did know. the students went on a wild goose chase, but the mathematician tried many approaches but only briefly if they didn't seem to work. with the efficient use of self monitoring and self regulation, he solved a problem that many students who know a lot more about geometry than he did, failed to solve. -beliefs and intuitions. people are interpreters of the world around them, the don't necessarily see what's out there, some version of objective reality, but instead perceive what they experience in the light of interpretive frameworks they have developed. -when we teach a new subject matter, we cannot assume that our students are empty containers waiting to be filled with knowledge. students may have preconceptions and misconceptions about much of the subject matter they study and we would do well to take that into account. -students who believe that all problems can be solved in 10 minutes or less will simply stop working on a problem after a few minutes, even if they would have been able to solve it with more effort. students concerned with form will spend more time worrying about the form of their answer than they will trying to understand the results they're writing down. students who believe that mathematical understanding simply beyond ordinary mortals like themselves become passive consumers of mathematics, accepting and memorizing what is handed to them without attempting to make sense of it on their own. -teacher should be the role model for metacognitive behavior.

What distinguishes cooperative learning from competitive or individualistic learning?

Cooperative learning -formal cooperative learning consists of students working together to achieve shared learning goals and complete jointly specific tasks and assignments. In formal cooperative learning teachers make a number or preinstructional decisions, explain the task and positive interdependence, monitor students' learning and intervene in the groups to provide task assistance or to increase students' interpersonal and group skills, and evaluate students' learning and help students process how well their groups functioned. - informal cooperative learning consists of having students work together to achieve a joint learning goal in temporary groups. students engage in quick dialogues or activities in response to a limited number of questions about what is being learned. -cooperative learning must have positive interdependence, individual accountability, promotive interaction, use of social skills, and group processing. - cooperative learning and vygotsky - in a group situation you can bounce ideas off of others and you can internalize it, you have multiple perspectives. - cooperative learning and behaviorism - you're getting reinforced for behaviors you do with others. - cooperative learning aims to organize classroom activities into group work. working with other people opens you up to new ideas. - the success of cooperative learning is largely based on its having a clear theoretical foundation and hundreds of validating research studies that point the way for operational procedures for practitioners such as teachers. - the more complex the procedures involved in interdependence, the longer it will take group members to reach their full levels of productivity. the more complex the teamwork procedures, the more members have to attend to teamwork and the less time they have to attend to task work. once the teamwork procedures are mastered, members concentrate on task work and outperform individuals working alone. - the average person cooperating was found to achieve about 2/3rds of a standard deviation above the average person performing with a competitive or individualistic situation. cooperative experiences promote more frequent insight into and use of higher level cognitive and moral reasoning strategies than do competitive. Competitive learning - competitors tend to achieve less than they would if they were working cooperatively because they tend to engage in self protection strategies. - engaging in competitive efforts inherently teaches the values of getting more than others, beating and defeating others, seeing winning as important, and believing that opposing and obstructing the success of others is a natural way of life. The values taught by individualistic experiences are commitment to one's self interest and the view that others' well being is irrelevant. - competition can be constructive and should be encouraged when it's appropriately structured. - competition tends to be more constructive when winning is relatively unimportant, all participants have a reasonable chance to win, and there are clear and specific rules, procedure, and criteria for winning. - individual efforts may be appropriate when the following occur (1) cooperation is too costly, difficult, or cumbersome because of the unavailability of skilled potential cooperators or the unavailability of the resources needed for cooperation to take place. (2) the group is perceived as important, relevant, and worthwhile. (3) participants expect to be successful in achieving their goals. (4) unitary, nondivisible, simple tasks need to be completed, such as the learning of specific facts or the acquisition or the performance of simple skills. (5) the directions for completing the tasks are clear and specific, so participants do not need further clarification on how to proceed and how to evaluate their work. (6) what is accomplished will be used subsequently in a cooperative effort, individualistic efforts can supplement cooperative efforts through a division of labor in which each person learns material or skills to be subsequently used in cooperative activities.

Extrinsic Motivation

Doing something because you're being rewarded or someone is making you do it

Centrism

Tendency of a young child to focus only on one feature of an object at a time, while ignoring other relevant features

Sourcing

looking at who wrote the piece, ask about what you know about the author and use that to make sense.

Howard Garner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

- Humans have certain kinds of intelligences; an intelligence entails the ability to solve problems or fashion products that are of consequence in a particular cultural setting or community. Each intelligence is activated or triggered by certain kinds of internally or externally presented information. - The human cognitive competence is better described in terms of a set of abilities, talents, or mental skills, called intelligences. All normal individuals posses each of these skills to some extent; individuals differ in the degree of skill and in the nature of their combination. - Leads us to three conclusions: (1) all of us have the full range of intelligence, that is what makes us human beings, cognitively speaking. (2) no two individuals, not even identical twins, have exactly the same intellectual profile, that is because even when the genetic material is identical, individuals have different experiences, and those who are identical twins are often highly motivated to distinguish themselves from one another. (3) having strong intelligence does not mean that one necessarily acts intelligently.

I-R-E (or I-R-F)

- I = initiation - R = response - E = Evaluation or F = followup - in a traditional recitation discussion, teacher poses a question, teacher calls on them, student responds, teacher says correct or not. in each case it's the teacher asking the question, the student answering the question, and the teacher gives an evaluation. there's an issue with this because students don't have the opportunity to learn from one another, only talking to the teacher and not their peers. teacher is control of the conversation and determining if the answer is correct or not.

The 8 Intelligences

- Logical-Mathematical = intelligence refers to the ability to make calculation, develop equations, and solve abstract problems. The ability to use logical methods and to solve mathematical problems. Intellectual powers of deduction and observation illustrate intelligence that's labeled as scientific thinking. The process of problem solving is often remarkably rapid. Mathematician, scientist. - Linguistic = intelligence describes an individual who can analyze information and produce work that includes written and oral language including books, speeches, and emails. writer, attorney. - Musical = allows individuals to make and produce meaning from different types of sound. the ability to create, perform, and appreciate music. Performer, composer. - Spatial = intelligence refers to the ability to comprehend graphical information such as maps. the ability to use and manipulate space. Spatial problem solving is required for navigation and the use of maps. Sculptor, architect. - Interpersonal = intelligence deals with the ability to recognize and understand people's desires, intentions, motivations, temperaments, moods. salesperson, politician, marketers, teachers, therapists, and parents. - Intrapersonal = intelligence reflects a persons' ability to assess and recognize people that share the same characteristics as themselves. the ability to understand one's own motivations and emotions. knowledge of the internal aspects of a person, access to one's own feeling life, one's range of emotions, the capacity to effect discriminations among these emotions and eventually to label them and draw upon them as means of understanding and guiding one's own behavior. Since it is the most private, it requires evidence from language, music, or some other more expressive form of intelligence if the observer is to detect it at work. novelist, therapist with self insight. - Naturalistic = intelligence describes the ability to both identify and distinguish between different types of things found in the natural world such as animals, plants, or weather formations. the ability to recognize, identify, and classify flora and fauna or other classes of objects. naturalist, cook. - Bodily-Kinesthetic = intelligence involves using a person's own body to solve problems or create products. The ability to use one's body. athlete, dancer.

According to Loewen, how does race, class, and gender affect students' achievement in school? What could explain the achievement gap?

- Teacher's expectations and how they treat their students affects the achievement gap. - We have to recognize that our opinions of kids might be biased and how much our expectations mater to kids, and we have to be able to reflect on that and change them. - Different expectations for different genders and races. Ex: people think boys excel in math and science. - Teachers have in mind that certain racial groups have better achievement so they set different expectations. - If teachers expect more from their students then their achievement will go up, if teachers expect less, then their achievement will go down. Teacher expectations play a big role in what students believe they can do. - If students look like they were from a lower class or racial group, then the teacher thought that they were less likely to succeed. Teachers got mad when they saw certain racial groups succeed and they were more reluctant to help them. They tend to stereotype names. - Segregation that isn't intentional. poorer neighborhoods don't get the same education. - Teachers have in mind that certain racial groups have better achievement so they set different expectations - Teachers tend to focus on the students who are doing very well rather than the ones who are struggling. - Families with higher income have more opportunities to get test prep, tutors, and opportunities. they can also send their children to better schools. - On tests, questions are aimed toward middle and upper class so they can succeed. Tests are culturally biased. This happens because test makers draw from their cultural knowledge. they also test new questions and they decide which ones to keep based on if they do well on those questions and the rest of the test, and this doesn't work because those questions are biased, so we'll never see change. - Standardized tests affect teachers expectations but the tests are biased and allow only upper class to succeed, so they're not an accurate representation. - Whenever teachers communicate with their students, they are conveying expectations to them. - Teacher expectations were largely responsible because teachers were simultaneously less likely to recommend children with black or lower class names for gifted and talented programs, and more likely to recommend them for promotion to the next grade. since they expected less from black and poor children, teachers didn't bother forcing them to repeat a grade. - Support from their parents, doing after school activities, helping them with their homework. Families that have a higher income or parents that are college graduates can do things that are better for their child's education. Families with lower income may not be home as much because they have to work multiple jobs, and when kids get older they might have to work to support their family.

Achievement Gap

- The difference in academic performance that shows up in grades, standardized test scores, and college completion rates - The richer their families are the better they do on standardized tests - Different racial groups do better on standardized tests regardless of income - The poorest Asian students do worse than whites, but the richest Asian students do better than whites. - The richest black students do similar to the poorest Asian students. - Over the years the gap has gotten smaller, but the gap is still pretty significant.

Reciprocal Teaching

- The fab 4 reading comprehension strategies: (1) questioning, (2) summarizing, (3) clarifying, (4) predicting - good readers pose questions about the text, link the content to something else. summarize as they go, abstracting the details and creating a larger picture, not get lost in the details. clarify what they are reading, if they get stuck they reread and try to understand and work out the confusion. predict what's going to happen next. -the teacher and students take turns playing the role of teacher. both the teacher and students read a paragraph silently. whoever is playing the role of teacher formulates a question based on the paragraph, constructs a summary, and makes a prediction or clarification, if any comes to mind. initially, the teacher models this process, eventually turning it over to the students. when the students first undertake the process, the teacher coaches them extensively on how to construct good questions and summaries, offering prompts and critiquing their efforts. in this was, the teacher provides scaffolding for the students, enabling them to take one whatever portion of the task they can. as the students become more proficient, the teacher fades, assuming the role of monitor and providing occasional hints or feedback. - the teacher models expert strategies in a problem context shared directly and immediately with the students. encourages students to focus their observations and then to reflect on their own performance relative to that of the teacher during subsequent modeling - the technique of providing scaffolding is crucial. it decomposes the task as necessary for the students to carry it out, thereby helping them see how, in detail, to go about it. -students assume dual roles of producer and critic. students take over more and more of the monitoring and problem solving process from the teacher as their skills improve. - reciprocal teaching was designed to improve reading in underachieving students. in a typical reciprocal teaching session, each participant in a reading group of approximately 6 members takes a turn leading a discussion. this learning leader begins by asking a question about the core content and ends by summarizing the gist of what has been read. questioning provokes discussion and summarizing helps students esstablish where they are in preparation for tackling a new segment of the text. the leader could ask for predictions about future content and attempths to clarify any comprehension problems that might arise. Questioning, summarizing, clarifying, and predicting provide the repeatable structure necessary to get a discussion going.

Promotive Interaction

- are students working together in small groups at some point during the lesson? the answer should be yes -face to face interaction -if groups are too large then its difficult to have a good conversation, groups of 5 are as large as you want, 4 is a good size. -occurs as individuals encourage and facilitate each other's efforts to accomplish the group's goal. -characterized by individuals, (1) acting in trusting and trustworthy ways, (2) exchanging needed resources, such as information and materials, and processing information more efficiently and effectively, (3) providing efficient and effective help and assistance to group mates, (4) being motivated to strive for mutual benefit, (5) advocating exerting effort to achieve mutual goals, (6) having a moderate level of arousal, characterized by low anxiety and stress, (7) influencing each other's efforts to achieve the group's goals, (8) providing group mates with feedback in order to improve their subsequent performance of assigned tasks and responsibilities, (9) challenging each other's reasoning and conclusions in order to promote higher quality decision making and greater creativity, and (10) taking the perspectives of others more accurately and thus being better able to explore different points of view. - oppositional interaction occurs as individuals discourage, block, and obstruct each other's efforts to achieve their goals; individuals focus both on being productive and on preventing any other person from being more productive than they are. - no interaction occurs when individuals work independently, without any interchange with each other, individuals focus only on being productive and ignore as irrelevant the efforts of others.

Individual Accountability

- could a student get away with being a moocher and allowing his group mates to do the work for him? if yes, then you dont have individual accountability. -where group grades become problematic because then there is a kid who isn't doing anything but getting the same grade. have to come up with a way to make sure that everyone is responsible for something. -to ensure individual accountability you could have students reflect on how everybody did, teachers could check in in the groups and watch students, they can talk to the students who they see are constantly not doing anything, give students separate roles and if you don't perform that role then you know who to blame. -group accountability exists when the overall performance of the group is assessed and the results are given back to the individual and the group to compare against a standard of performance. -the lack of individual accountability may reduce feelings of personal responsibility, members may reduce their contributions to goal achievement when the group works on tasks where it is difficult to identify members' contributions, when there is an increased likelihood of redundant efforts, when there is a lack of group cohesiveness, and when there is lessened responsibility for the final outcome. - if there is high individual accountability then the social loafing effect vanishes.

Positive Interdependence

- could a student get away with working on her own, instead of cooperatively with her group mates? if so, then you don't have positive interdependence. -my performance depends on yours. - if students decide that their group members are not as smart as they are and they want to do do it on their own then they don't have positive interdependence. - Exists when there is a positive correlation among individual's goal attainments; individuals perceive that they can attain their goals if and only if the other individuals with whom they are cooperatively linked attain their goals. It results in individuals encouraging and facilitating each other's efforts to complete tasks in order to reach the group's goals - it does more than simply motivate individuals to try harder, it facilitates the development of new insights and discoveries and the more frequent use of higher level reasoning strategies. - Goal Interdependence - produce something that is only one product. Ex: 1 worksheet per group. One student can do more of the work, but they can't do their own thing - Reward Interdependence - everyone gets the same grade, you have an incentive to work together. - Resource Interdependence - a certain set of resources that are given to the group and we have to share them. Ex: only given one poster board and you have to work together and share it. - Role interdependence - assign different students roles within the group. Ex: one person can be the art manager, one can be the facilitator, time keeper, research manager. if you assign roles to a group, everyone has something they're supposed to be doing so then the group is working together and running smoothly. -Negative interdependence - you are competing against others. there is a negative correlation among individuals' goal achievements; individuals with whom they are competitively linked fail to obtain their goals. this results in obstructing each other's effort to complete tasks in order to reach their goals. - No interdependence exists when there is no correlation among individuals' goal achievements, individuals perceive that their goals are unrelated to the goal achievement of others

Assigning Competence

- creates students in which students who are academically low achieving or who are social isolates are excluded from interactions. - higher status students tend to talk more and as a result learn more - expectation states theory describes how status characteristics come to affect interaction and influence in group situations. a status characteristic is an agreed upon social ranking where everyone feels that it is better to have a high rank than a low rank. - status characteristics become the basis for the group's expectations for competence for its members: low status students and high expectations for high status students, these expectations for competence are held by teachers, classmates, and that student themselves. - students who lack traditional academic skills or proficiency in the language of instruction, or who are social isolates, are often perceived as low status students. they barely participate, and are often ignored, and frequently are not given a share of the materials or a turn at the activity. students who are expected to be good at school or are popular talk more, have greater access to materials, and are more influential in group discussions. - assigning competence is a public statement that specifically recognizes the intellectual contribution a student has made to the group task. Teachers can assign competence to any student, but it's especially important and effective to focus attention on low status students.

Social Skills

- does the lesson promote the development of interpersonal and social skills? answer should be yes, this typically goes together with group processing. -one thing that can interfere with group work is when kids don't know how to work well with others, confusion between working together and copying, constantly arguing, confusion of project, not working and just talking. -have the skills that go into effective group work be graded. teach different strategies to work in a group. model ways of acting appropriately and effectively so overtime there is more cooperative work. -effective cooperation is based on skilled teamwork as well as on task work. to coordinate efforts to achieve mutual goals,, participants must get to know and trust each other, communicate accurately and unambiguously, accept and support each other, and resolve conflicts constructively. -promote higher achievement and they contribute to building more positive relationships among group members.

Social Interdependence

- exists when the outcomes of individuals are affected by their own and others actions. - positive social interdependence is when the actions of individuals promote the achievement of joint goals. - negative social interdependence is when the actions of individuals obstruct the achievement of each other's goals. - social dependence exists when the goal achievement of person A is affected by person B's action, but the reverse is not true - social independence exists when the goal achievement of person A is unaffected by person B's actions and vice versa. - social helplessness exists when neither the person nor others influence goal achievement.

Cognitive Apprenticeship

- general problem solving strategy. Modeling, scaffolding, fading. i do, we do, you do. first the teacher does something, then the teacher and student does it together, and then student does it on their own. -trying to make the invisible things visible. - apprenticeship = if you want to learn something, learn from someone who does it well and then you take more and more responsibility overtime. - refers to the focus of the learning through guided experience on cognitive and metacognitive, rather than physical skills and processes. -emphasizes 2 issues. first, the method is aimed primarily at teaching the process that experts use to handle complex tasks. it emphasizes conceptual and factual knowledge, and they are learned in terms of their uses in a variety of concepts and facts themselves, a rich web of memorable associations between them and problem solving contexts. - it encourages reflection of differences between novice and expert peformance by alteration between expert and novice efforts and by techniques that we have called abstracted replay. - it encourages the development of self monitoring and correction skills, and it is based on the insight that these skills require the problem solver to alternate among different cognitive activities while carrying out a complex task. - it is critical. observing the process by which an expert thinks and practicing these skills under the guidance of the expert can teach students to learn on their own more skillfully.

Modeling (cognitive apprenticeship)

- i do - first the teacher does something - an expert carrying out a task so that the students can observe and build a conceptual model of the processes that are required to accomplish a task. - requires the externalization of usually internal cognitive processes and activities - ex: a teacher might model the reading process by reading in one voice, while verbalizing her thought process in another voice.

What does classroom instruction involve when viewed as a form of apprenticeship?

- observation, coaching, and practice. modeling, coaching, and fading - apprenticeship embeds the learning of skills and knowledge in their social functional context. - apprenticeship focuses closely on the specific methods for carrying out tasks in a domain. apprentices learn these methods through a combination of modeling, coaching, and fading. apprentice repeatedly observes the master executing (modeling) the target process which usually involves some different but interrelated skills. The apprentice then attempts to execute the process with guidance and help from the master (coaching). a key aspect of coaching is the provision of scaffolding, which is the support in the form of reminders and help that the apprentice requires to approximate the execution of the entire composite of skills. once the learner has a grasp of the target skill, the master reduces (fades) his participation, providing only limited hints, refinements, and feedback to the learner, who practices by successively approximating smooth execution of the whole skill. - the interplay between observation, scaffolding, and increasingly independent practice aids apprentices both in developing self monitoring and correction skills and in integrating the skills and conceptual knowledge needed to advance the expertise. - apprenticeship derives many important cognitive characteristics. as a result, learners have continual access to models of expertise in use against which to refine their understanding of complex skills. - the externalization of relevant processes and methods make possible such characteristics of apprenticeship as its reliance on observation as a primary means of building a conceptual model of a complex target skill. - traditional apprenticeship is set in the workplace, the problems and tasks that are given to learners arise not from pedagogical concerns, but from the demands of the workplace. cognitive apprenticeship differs from traditional apprenticeship in the tasks and problems are chosen to illustrate the power of certain techniques or methods, to give students practice in applying these methods in diverse settings, and to increase the complexity of tasks slowly, so that component skills and models can be integrated. tasks are sequenced to reflect the changing demands of learning. - apprenticeship is the way we learn most naturally. it characterized learning before there were schools, from learning one's language to learning to run an empire. -apprenticeship does much more than provide training, it provides an initiation into a culture. when you learn about a discipline through apprenticeship into it, you are less likely to pick up the kinds of incorrect and counterproductive beliefs about it.

How can cooperative groups be used to reduce status differences in the classroom?

- social judgement theory is the social judgments that individuals make about each other that result in either a process of acceptance, resulting in mutual liking and respect, or a process of rejection, resulting in mutual dislike and lack of respect. - there are high and low status students. high status students tend to do more of the work and participate more, they are perceived as smarter. low status students are perceived as nor smart and not capable, they tend to not talk or do as much of the work, and in turn don't learn as much -complex instruction is an instrumental approach that allows educators to use cooperative group work to teach at a high academic level in diverse classrooms. they assign open ended, interdependent group tasks, and organize the classroom to maximize student interaction. In their small groups, students serve as academic and linguistic resources for one another. when implementing CT, teachers pay particular attention to unequal participation of students and employ strategies to address such status problems. - CI learning tasks are inherently uncertain and open ended both in their solution and in the process by which students arrive at that solution. open ended and inherently uncertain tasks increase the need for interaction since they force students to draw upon each other's expertise and repertoire of problem solving strategies. given the intellectual heterogeneity of students in the group, these repertoires are rich and varied. teachers encourage students to explore alternative solutions, communicate their thoughts effectively, justify their arguments, and examine issues form different perspectives. -students should design the task so everyone has to contribute and if there are issues they should be addressed right away to try and change it. -students in CI classes gain significantly more than students in comparison classes on questions requiring higher order thinking. - multiple abilities tasks are a necessary condition for teachers to be able to convince their students that there are different ways to be smart.

Guided Discovery

- student receives problems to solve but the teacher also provides hints, direction, coaching, feedback, and/or modeling to keep the student on track and expository methods, in which the student is given the problem along with the correct answer - some students don't learn the rule or principle under pure discovery methods, so some appropriate amount of guidance is required to help students mentally construct the desired learning outcome. -effective because it helps students meet two important criteria for active learning: (1) activating or constructing approprate knowledge to be used for making sense of new incoming information and (2) integrating new incoming information with an appropriate knowledge base. - teachers direct students' attention toward relevant aspects of the conservation task. - guided discovery group wrote more elegant programs, made better use of good design principles, and solved planning tasks better than the pure discovery group. - offers the best method for promoting constructivist learning. - the challenge for teaching by guided discovery is to know how much and what kind of guidance to provide and know how to specify the desired outcome of learning. - it allows students to retain more information, it's like a scaffold. promotes transfer. - guided discovery is the middle grounds between learning and didactic teaching. it's difficult to orchestrate, it takes sensitive clinical judgement to know when to intervene and when to leave well enough alone. to be successful, the guide must continually engage in online diagnosis of student understanding and must be sensitive to the current ZPD. it places a great deal of responsibility in the hands of the teacher who must model, foster, and guide the discovery process into forms of disciplined inquiry that may not be reached without this expert guidance.

What are the central features of Brown and Campione's Fostering Communities of Learners curriculum? How do they justify these features?

- teachers must see that curriculum content is discovered, understood, and transmitted students' independent majoring attempts - zone of proximal development - the students are free to direct their research efforts broadly, each group of students develops an idiosyncratic set of concerns in which people choose to major. - arrange students in small groups of about 6 people, it helps build new knowledge and makes them responsible for their own learning. - if students pick their own topic then it's something they are interested in and they will do better and have more motivation - guided discovery is the middle grounds between learning and didactic teaching. it's difficult to orchestrate, it takes sensitive clinical judgement to know when to intervene and when to leave well enough alone. to be successful, the guide must continually engage in online diagnosis of student understanding and must be sensitive to the current ZPD. it places a great deal of responsibility in the hands of the teacher who must model, foster, and guide the discovery process into forms of disciplined inquiry that may not be reached without this expert guidance. - reciprocal teaching was designed to improve reading in underachieving students. in a typical reciprocal teaching session, each participant in a reading group of approximately 6 members takes a turn leading a discussion. this learning leader begins by asking a question about the core content and ends by summarizing the gist of what has been read. questioning provokes discussion and summarizing helps students establish where they are in preparation for tackling a new segment of the text. the leader could ask for predictions about future content and attempts to clarify any comprehension problems that might arise. Questioning, summarizing, clarifying, and predicting provide the repeatable structure necessary to get a discussion going. - Jigsaw method = students are assigned curriculum themes. Students form separate research groups, each assigned responsibility for one of the five subtopics. These research groups prepare teaching materials using computer technology. Then the students regroup into reciprocal teaching seminars in which each student is expert in one subtopic, holding one fifth of the information. Each fifth needs to be combined with the remaining fifths to make a whole unit. All children in a learning group are expert on one part of the material, teach it to others, and prepare questions for the test that all will take on the complete unit. All children are responsible for the mastery of the entire theme, not just their fifth of the material. - students and teachers each have ownership of certain forms of expertise, but no one has it all; responsible members of the community share the expertise they have to take responsibility for finding out about needed knowledge - in cross talk, students from various research groups periodically report in about their progress to date, and students from other working groups ask questions of clarification or extension. The various groups thereby talk across groups and provide comprehension checks to each other. - the classroom is comprised of multiple ZPDs, which participants can navigate via different routes and different rates. -Mutual appropriation is the bidirectional nature of the appropriation process, one that shouldn't be viewed as limited to the process by which the child learns from the adult via a static process of limitation, internalizing observed behaviors in an untransformed manner. rather, learners of all ages and levels of expertise and interests seed the environment with ideas and knowledge that are appropriated by different learners at different rates, according to their needs and to the current state of the ZPD in which they are engaged. -cross age tutoring provides students valuable opportunities to talk about learning. peer discourse may act as a catalyst to other ideas and give you new points of view. peer discourse allows students to adopt complementary roles so that when working together they may draw on each other's strengths. it grants the opportunity for exploratory talk -older students act as discussion leaders, they mimic activities modeled by their teachers and enact them with their young charges. -bring in guest teachers and people who are experts on the topic

Scaffolding (cognitive apprenticeship)

- we do - teacher and student do the task together - refers to the supports the teacher provides to help the students carry out a task. these supports can either take the forms of suggestions or help, or they can take the form of physical supports. - it involves a cooperative problem solving effort by teacher and student in which the expressed intention is for the studnet to assume as much of the task on his own as possible, as soon as possible.

Fading (cognitive apprenticeship)

- you do - the student does it on its own - consists of the gradual removal of supports until students are on their own.

Behaviorism

-A perspective on learning that focuses on changes in individual's observable behaviors, changes in what people say or do -The science of behavior that focuses on observable behavior only -People learn in two ways, striving for positive things, and avoiding negative things -Believed animal learning is the same or very similar to human learning. -Critiques of behaviorism = animal learning isn't the same as human learning, humans do a lot of things that animals can't do, animals can't learn as well as we do. we can learn through classical and operant conditioning, but there is a lot of times we learn in other ways, we aren't always taught to do things. the argument that what happens in the mind doesn't matter is very limiting.

Formal Operational Stage

-Age 11 and beyond, final stage -Hypothetical reasoning, hypothesis testing, reason more abstractly, abstractions, analogies, what if -Think about logical possibilities -The individual can operate on forms or representations -Hypothetical reasoning = they must manipulate ideas that vary in several ways at once, and do so entirely in their minds

Preoperational Stage

-Ages 2-7, second stage -Centrism or egocentrism, conservation issues, irreversibility, pretend play -They have trouble understanding different people's perspectives. think people have the same view as they do. -Have trouble paying attention to more than one variable at a time -Mentally represent objects, words, or pictures, can talk. -Cant logically reason or consider many characteristics of an object -Represent objects in a variety of ways, but they do not yet do it in ways that are organized or fully logical -They're thinking on two levels at once, imaginative and realistic. -Dramatic play = the improvised make believe of preschool children

Concrete Operational Stage

-Ages 7-11, third stage -Reversibility, conservation, concrete logic -See other people's perspectives -Can see more than one variable at a time -Can reverse their thinking -Can reflect back on their experiences and see how the events that happened got them to where they are now -Classify things in terms of their many characteristics. can think logically and understand analogies, but only about concrete events, cant think about representations of objects or events -Reversibility = the ability to think about the steps of a process in any order -Decenter = focus on more than one feature of a problem at a time -Conservation = the belief that an amount or quantity stays the same even if it changes apparent size or shape

Identity

-Beliefs of what you can and cant do. self concept -People have their own identity and see themselves in the world. people's peer groups influence how they see themselves and what they think they can and cant do

Cognitivism

-Believed human mind is like a computer. -1950s-1970s = information processing model and schema theory -1980s-2010s = expertise and metacognition -People don't just learn through reinforcements and punishments -You have to build theories on your own, you cant just be told what to think. modeling human behavior. learn in natural settings.

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

-Believed you can identify a development trend based on moral dilemmas -Went from poorly developed moral reasoning to more advanced reasoning -Preconventional morality = stages 1 and 2. behavior motivated by biological and social impulses with results for morals. doesn't work -Conventional morality = stages 3 and 4. beliefs based on what the larger array of people agree on. conformity is good -Postconventional morality = stages 5 and 6. laws are serving a broader purpose. the government is there to protect people's well beings and if the law becomes unfair or the government fails to do that then it is okay if we break the law. there is a clear effort to define moral values and principles that have validity and application apart from authority from groups holding these principles and apart from the individuals own identification with these groups

Sensorimotor Stage

-Birth to age 2, first stage -Before language. since they can't talk they explore their world through actions and using their senses -Develop object permanence = objects exist even when they cant be seen -Concepts and mental images represent objects -Infants think by means of their senses and motor actions. they continually touch, manipulate, look, listen to, and chew on objects. these actions allow them to learn about the world and are crucial to their early cognitive development.

Describe the central features of the collaborative reasoning approach.

-Collaborative reasoning = students facilitate discussion. correctness is determined students. it's more collaborative, students are working at it together. -characteristics of collaborative reasoning; children's response to text, children's use of text to consider multiple possibilities, children's use of tools for persuading others, and children's control of topic and turn taking. -CR is based behind the practice of Vygotsky's notion of internalization. the discussions are intended to create a forum for children to listen to one another or think out loud. -offers a framework to help teachers facilitate small group discussions about stories children read. the goal of CR is to promote growth in student's abilities to engage in reasoned argumentation. it creates an opportunity for children to expand and their repertoire of responses to literature by learning to think in a reasoned manner to explore and argue diverse views prompted by what they read. - in collaborative reasoning, after the class reads the day's story, a small group comes together for a discussion, the teacher poses a cental question, the students freely explain their positions of the central question, then they expand on their ideas, adding reasons and supporting evidence from the story and everyday experience. they challenge each other's thinking and ways of reasoning. at the end of the discussion, a final poll is taken to see where everyone stands. finally, the teacher and students review the discussion an make suggestions on how to improve future discussions. -open participation is encouraged, students dont raise their hands for permission to speak, but gradually learn to enter the discussion as adults would a serious conversation. they learn to help each other stay on the topic and avoid interrupting each other. they stick to the topic, don't talk while others are talking, try to look at both sides of the issue, make sure everyone has a chance to participate, and respond to the idea and not the person. - a major goal of CR is to foster children's independence so they are able to carry on a discussion with little or no assistance from the teacher. as teachers refine their skills in facilitating, rather than leading, discussions, students begin to rely less on the teacher and more on each other. they learn that they are expected to talk to each other and not the teacher. - in the course of CR discussions, students have multiple opportunities to defend their positions, they may even decide to change their minds on the central question after listening to other students' arguments based on evidence found in the text and the reason others use to support their ideas. -help students facilitate class discussion. help them speak better and learn more vocab words. -children use of persuasion -response to text = correlate what's happening in their lives to text. make connections -change opinion based on other students -textual evidence to back up predictions - learn tools to persuade others -self expression and discussion abilities are improved. open discussion class. get different ideas and use classmates as resources, gain a new understanding. - when writing persuasive essays, children who have had the opportunity to participate in CR discussions write longer persuasive essays. they include more supporting reasons, use of text evidence, counterarguments, and rebuttals. - Children with learning or reading disabilities often are able to hold their own in CR discussions requiring an ability to reason well. even though a child may not be a good, or even average reader, he may be able to argue his point of view with some determination and skillfulness. - covering required material necessary for students to perform well on the end of the year tests was a major concern. also teachers said they weren't able to divide their attention between the group discussion and other two thirds of the class that had been put on hold.

Describe the central features of the collaborative reasoning approach.

-Collaborative reasoning = students facilitate discussion. correctness is determined students. it's more collaborative, students are working at it together. -characteristics of collaborative reasoning; children's response to text, children's use of text to consider multiple possibilities, children's use of tools for persuading others, and children's control of topic and turn taking. -CR is based behind the practice of Vygotsky's notion of internalization. the discussions are intended to create a forum for children to listen to one another or think out loud. -offers a framework to help teachers facilitate small group discussions about stories children read. the goal of CR is to promote growth in student's abilities to engage in reasoned argumentation. it creates an opportunity for children to expand and their repertoire of responses to literature by learning to think in a reasoned manner to explore and argue diverse views prompted by what they read. - in collaborative reasoning, after the class reads the day's story, a small group comes together for a discussion, the teacher poses a cental question, the students freely explain their positions of the central question, then they expand on their ideas, adding reasons and supporting evidence from the story and everyday experience. they challenge each other's thinking and ways of reasoning. at the end of the discussion, a final poll is taken to see where everyone stands. finally, the teacher and students review the discussion an make suggestions on how to improve future discussions. -open participation is encouraged, students dont raise their hands for permission to speak, but gradually learn to enter the discussion as adults would a serious conversation. they learn to help each other stay on the topic and avoid interrupting each other. they stick to the topic, don't talk while others are talking, try to look at both sides of the issue, make sure everyone has a chance to participate, and respond to the idea and not the person. - a major goal of CR is to foster children's independence so they are able to carry on a discussion with little or no assistance from the teacher. as teachers refine their skills in facilitating, rather than leading, discussions, students begin to rely less on the teacher and more on each other. they learn that they are expected to talk to each other and not the teacher. - in the course of CR discussions, students have multiple opportunities to defend their positions, they may even decide to change their minds on the central question after listening to other students' arguments based on evidence found in the text and the reason others use to support their ideas. -help students facilitate class discussion. help them speak better and learn more vocab words. -children use of persuasion -response to text = correlate what's happening in their lives to text. make connections -change opinion based on other students -textual evidence to back up predictions - learn tools to persuade others -self expression and discussion abilities are improved. open discussion class. get different ideas and use classmates as resources, gain a new understanding. - when writing persuasive essays, children who have had the opportunity to participate in CR discussions write longer persuasive essays. they include more supporting reasons, use of text evidence, counterarguments, and rebuttals. - Children with learning or reading disabilities often are able to hold their own in CR discussions requiring an ability to reason well. even though a child may not be a good, or even average reader, he may be able to argue his point of view with some determination and skillfulness. - covering required necessary for students to perform well on the end of the year tests was a major concern. also teachers said they weren't able to divide their attention between the group discussion and other two thirds of the class that had been put on hold.

Group Processing

-Do students reflect on how well they worked together and what they could improve on? answer should be yes. typically this is done via a group processing discussion or journaling exercise at the end of the lesson. -Evaluation of each group member -Students reflect how well they work together and what they can improve on -the group work is complete and now reflect on their experience. how the group worked together, how everything turned out, what you would improve on next time. -occurs when group members reflect on which member actions were helpful and unhelpful and make decisions about which actions to continue or change. the purpose is to clarify and improve the effectiveness with which members carry out the process necessary to achieve the group's goals.

Intrinsic Motivation

-Doing something because we like it, for our self -Usually more motivating and more likely to keep doing the task

Schema

-Each mental representation -Not just a concept but an elaborated mixture of vocabulary, actions, and experience, related to the concept - concepts that describe a pattern. patterns of information. - organized conceptual structures that guide how problems are represented and understood - every time you learn something new you're creating a schema - how we make sense of the world. how we organize our thoughts - in our long term memory we have old schemas and it helps us make sense of new experiences.

Shaping

-Gradually create new behaviors through selective reinforcement -Small steps, effective reinforcement, heavy and early reinforcement, reinforce less and less, incorporate harder steps. -Taught a pigeon how to turn in a circle. as time went on he kept making his reinforcement more selective, until the pigeon only got the reinforcement when he made a full circle.

Sociocultural

-Human learning has a social nature and a process by which children grow into the intellectual life of those around them. -Interacting with groups is a major part of how people learn. -Relationships and interactions between a learner and other individuals who are more knowledgeable or experienced. -Theories are scaffolding, ZPD, internalization, identity, culture, situated cognition, constructivism, schema, expertise, metacognition, and transfer

Constructivism

-Idea that people must build, or construct, their understandings of the world. you can't just tell people what to think, they have to discover it for themselves. -You have prior knowledge and then new experiences and you have to fit in your new experiences with your old experiences to create a new understanding. -Prior knowledge + new experiences = new understanding.

Transfer

-Learning something in one context and using it in another -Transfer within a discipline = teach them vocab words and then give them stories with those words in it -Transfer across disciplines = learn something in math and then that same concept comes up in a sociology class -Transfer from school to everyday life or everyday life to school = kids were selling gum on the street and had to calculate change in their head using addition and subtraction, when they were on the streets they could do it but when they took a test on it they couldn't do it (lack of transfer). -Initial learning is necessary for transfer -Transfer is promoted by breaking down barriers between what kids do outside of school and in school, we have to make things that we are teaching relevant to the real world. -Enhanced by instruction that helps students represent problems at higher levels of abstractions. develop representations that enables learners to think flexibly about complex domains. -Affected by the degree to which people learn with understanding rather than merely memorize sets of facts

Assimilation

-New experience added to older structure, and older structure remains intact. - New experience with your old beliefs, and your old beliefs don't change -Ex: a preschooler who already understands the concept of a bird might label any flying object with this term. -Process of trying to understand new things in terms of schemas one already possesses

Accomodation

-New experiences cause older structures to be reformulated -New experience with your old beliefs challenge your old beliefs -Ex: the preschooler who initially generalized the concept of a bird to include any flying object, eventually revises the concept to include particular kinds of flying objects -Process of altering old schemas to fit new info and experiences. -Conceptual change = the new information is so interruptive to the old information, that your idea changes radically, instantly

Discrimination

-Not learning to generalize -Distinguish between things that are similar but actually different -The tendency to stop making a generalization response to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus

Growth Mindset

-Nothing is set in stone, you can always improve your abilities. you're a developing person and everyone is interested in your development -Turn failure into a gift, aren't discouraged by failure, they don't even see it as failing, they see it as a learning experience. convert setbacks into successes -Enjoy challenges and keep working toward them. realize the importance of effort, it doesn't make sense for them to stop trying. -Believe a person's true potential is unknown and it's impossible to foresee what can be accomplished with years of passion, toil, and training. People may start with different aptitudes and temperaments, but experience, training, and personal effort take them the rest of the way. -Open to accurate information about your current abilities, even if it's unflattering, because you believe you can develop yourself -Tend to do better in school and if they don't do well on a test they're able to bounce back

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

-Novice > ZPD < expert -Distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. -Learning is like assisted performance. during learning, knowledge is found initially in the expert helper. the expert arranges experiences that let the novice practice crucial skills or construct new knowledge. gradually, by providing continual help, matched with the novice learner's emerging competencies, the expert makes it possible for the novice or apprentice to appropriate or make their own skills or knowledge that originally resided only with the expert -Actual development level is what the child has already mastered and they can do it without any help. -Causes internalization

Operant Conditioning

-Rewards and punishments. using reinforcement to get the desired behavior -Skinner developed this. said that if you reinforce a behavior it will occur more frequently. -Focuses on how the consequences of a behavior affect the behavior over time. certain consequences make the behavior appear more frequently. -How voluntary behavior is learned. learned through consequences. -Skinner box - placed rats in a box and they had to push down the lever in order to get the food. he shaped the rat to get closer to the lever and then push it down. the food was the reinforcer and pressing the bar was the operant. -Rewards and punishments are basically the same thing because you're manipulating the mind of a child. it's like bribery but in disguise. -Rewards lead to temporary obedience, they do the behavior for the rewards not for themselves.

Preconventional Morality

-Stage 1 = obedience and punishment, behavior driven by avoiding punishment. you should or should not do something based on the punishment or reward you are going to get. action that is rewarded and not punished is good. a sort of morality of keeping out of trouble. -Stage 2 = individual interest, behavior driven by self interest and rewards. action that is agreeable to the child and the child's partner is good. morally good actions favor not only the child, but another person directly involved. a bad action is one that lacks reciprocity. do something to someone else if they've done something good for you, you scratch my back i'll scratch yours. -Behavior motivated by biological and social impulses with results for morals -Doesn't work

Conventional Morality

-Stage 3 = interpersonal behavior driven by social approval. about relationships. you have to follow rules to preserve social order and gain approval. action that wins approval from friends or peers is good. behavior is frequently judged by intention -Stage 4 = authority, behavior driven by obeying authority and conforming to social order. law and order. we have laws to protect people of the society and breaking the law is bad because then there would be chaos. action that conforms to the community laws or customs is good. -Beliefs based on what this larger array of people agree on -Maintaining expectations of the individual's family, group, or nation is perceived as valuable in its own right, regardless of immediate and obvious consequences. attitude of conformity to personal expectations and social order, and loyalty of people or groups involved in it.

Postconventional Morality

-Stage 5 = social contract, behavior driven by balance of social order and individual rights. action that follows social accepted ways of making decisions is good. it's good if it has been created through fair, democratic processes that respect the rights of people affected. there's an emphasis on the legal point of view but also upon the changing the law in terms of rational considerations of social utility. -Stage 6 = universal ethics, behavior driven by internal moral principles. universal principles. actions that are consistent with self chosen, general principles, is good. the morally good action is based on personally held principles that apply both to the person's immediate life as well to the larger community and society. -Stage 5 and 6 are basically the same thing. laws are serving a broader purpose. the government is there to protect people's well beings and if the law becomes unfair or the government fails to do that, then it's okay if we break the law. we have an ethical obligation to break the law if the law is unfair.

Classical Conditioning

-Stimulus to produce a response -Unconditioned stimulus + neutral stimulus neutral stimulus > conditioned stimulus -Pavlov conditioned salivating dogs to respond to a certain stimuli. When he brought in the meat the dogs started salivating (unconditioned stimulus). he then rang the bell and brought in the meat and then after a while, when they heard the bell, the dogs would salivate without the meat (neutral stimulus which then becomes the conditioned stimulus) -Learning to make a reflexive response to a stimulus other than the original neutral stimulus it normally produces. -NS+UCS=CS -Unconditioned stimulus = a naturally occurring stimulus that leads to an involuntary reflex -Conditioned stimulus = a stimulus that becomes able to produce a response by being paired with the original unconditioned stimulus. -Unconditioned response = a reflex to a naturally occurring unconditioned stimulus. - Conditioned response = learned reflex to a conditioned stimulus

Scaffolding

-Support that aids in a task -The help that a teacher provides in order for a child to do what they wouldn't have been able to do otherwise. kids wouldn't be able to do the task without this kind of help. -When scaffolding is provided, students seem more competent and intelligent and they learn more -Situated cognition = thinking scaffolds are in the real world. iPhones are scaffolds

Internalization

-Taking social experiences and internalizing them in your mind. -Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice, first on the social level, interpsychological, and then on the individual level, intrapsychological -At first you need help and then you internalize the task and do it by yourself.

Racial Identity Development (Tatum)

-Target group = the members of the group that have experienced some form of discrimination -Dominant group = anyone who because of their ethnicity or color of their skin are given certain principles that others don't get. -Preencounter stage = target group and dominant group are unaware of race/racism. very young children but can stay in this stage longer if you're in a town of only one race. the belief that race has not been or will not be a relevant factor in one's own white privilege. -Encounter/Contact = first time you notice someone looks different because of their skin color. could be the first time you see discrimination or felt discriminated against. -Immersion/Reintegration = target group finds safety in their own racial group, they study their own culture/history and blame all whites. dominant group denies that racism exists, blame the victim, feelings of guilt/resentment. they stay in their own racial group, can see this in a school cafeteria. many people stay in this stage forever -Internalization/Autonomy = target group forms relationships with accepting members of the outside group, but still maintains relationships with their own group. work for change. dominant group seeks to understand racism, privilege, and discrimination. speak out. recognize discrimination and figure out why it exists and try to do something about it. target group is secure in one's own sense of racial identity. -can be applied to other aspects of identity like gender and sexuality

Reversibility

-The ability to think about the steps of a process in any order -Very helpful skill on any task involving multiple steps -Happens during concrete operational stage

Extinction

-The disappearance of an operant behavior or learned response because of the lack of reinforcement. -When you don't want someone to do something that they're already doing so you don't give them the reinforcement for doing the behavior. -Ex: when a child whines they don't get anything but when they ask nicely then they're reinforced.

Fixed Mindset

-There is nothing we can do to improve. i am born with what i have. traits are permanent. -Intelligence is not something that can develop, it is a fixed, deep seated trait -Creates the urgency to prove yourself. if you only have a certain amount of intelligence, then you better prove you have healthy dose -Every situation is evaluated; will i succeed or fail, look smart or dumb, be accepted or rejected, be a winner or a loser. -Feel like you're constantly being judged -Don't like challenges or anything that questions their intelligence. fear challenge, devalue effort. they stop trying when things get too hard. -tend to do worse in school and don't bounce back when they do poorly on a test

Metacognition

-Thinking about thinking -Three aspects of metacognition = knowledge of own thought process (I am doing ______ right now), self regulation (comprehension error checks while reading), beliefs about the nature of the work (math is thoughtful problem solving vs math is following procedures) -Awareness of own thought process. experts don't do this because they've done it so much -Self regulation = error checking as you go. monitor what you're doing -People's abilities to predict their performances on various tasks and to monitor their current levels of mastery and understanding. can recognize the limits of one's current knowledge, then take steps to fix that situation -Gradually frees learners from dependence on expert teachers to guide their learning. can be difficult to achieve

Information Processing Model

-Tried to diagram the inner workings of the black box of the brain, focused on networking -sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch, all go into your sensory register, some is lost and then some goes in to your long term memory. the long term memory gives background knowledge to the working memory and sensory register so you can process information. -Sensory register = everything you're witnessing at a given moment. it's a lot of information and most of it you don't notice, we only pay attention to some of it. we filter out what isn't important to us. 99% of it is lost and we don't pay attention to it. -Short term memory = what you remember from the last few seconds of your experience. if you don't have any reason to remember it or don't repeat it, then you forget it. very limited. most people are able to hold 7 pieces of information at a time. -if you don't convert something to your long term memory then it's lost -Executive processes = our ability to focus our attention. pointing our attention to something we know we have to pay attention to.

Multiple Abilities Treatment

-rather than assuming that all students can be ranked along a single dimension of intelligence, the multiple abilities treatment highlights specific skills and abilities students need for their particular tasks. each student will have different strengths and weaknesses among these multiple abilities. - multiple abilities tasks are a necessary condition for teachers to be able to convince their students that there are different ways to be smart -the treatment creates a mixed set of expectations for each student. it is essential that each student perceives that he or she will be strong on some of the abilities and weaker on others. - one way to minimize the problem of unequal access and learning for low status students is to broaden the conception of what it means to be smart. the multiple abilities treatment is grounded in the teacher's public recognition of a wealth of intellectual abilities that are relevant and valued in the classroom and in daily life. - it can help to equalize interaction between high and low status students, but status order in the classroom is deeply engraved.

Heuristic

-trick of the trade -general problem solving strategy. it's more universal than how we would solve a specific problem - unless we take the time to figure them out, we will never know them because they're invisible since experts do them automatically without realizing it. -EX: how to distinguish special cases in solving math problems. - a standard heruistic for writing is to plan to rewrite the introduction of a text, it is based on the recognition that a writer's initial plan for a text is likely to undergo radical refinement and revision through the process of writing and therefore, that the beginning of a text often needs to be rewritten to fit the emergent organization and arguments of the main body and conclusion.

Conservation

Ability to understand that changing the appearance of an object doesn't change the objects' nature

Pros and Cons of Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Pros: - It is a pluralistic view of mind, recognizing many different and discrete facets of cognition, acknowledging that people have different cognitive strengths and contrasting cognitive styles. - Different ways to teach students. Promotes individualization and differentiated teaching styles. Cons: - It is impossible as teachers to assume that each lesson can be taught by using multiple intelligence. It's impossible to individualize each lesson plan. Trying to teach a lesson with 8 different styles is unrealistic. - Are these intelligences or just abilities? Are they good at math or do they actually understand it? - Just because you teach math with music to a musically intelligent child, doesn't mean that they'll understand math, they'll just memorize the song, not understand the concepts. - It's unlikely to help students - Regardless of kids' intelligences, if they learn by songs or go outside, they'll find it fun and be more motivated to learn. - Promotes a fixed mindset. If you have the linguistic intelligence then you're a good writer. It makes kids feel good in the moment, but it's bad long term. You either have the intelligence or you don't. Tries to make kids feel good because tests only focus on reading and math and if kids aren't good at those then they might feel bad about themselves, but if there are more things they could be good at then it makes them feel better. Encourages the belief that you're born with certain intelligences and that these intelligences don't develop.

Pros and Cons of Group Work

Pros: - provides deeper understanding, get to hear other people's perspectives. learn from one another. -allows students to do more advanced work they couldn't do on their own (scaffold) -students are more comfortable asking questions to their peers rather than asking teachers for help -helps develop social skills -can be more fun Cons: -students don't stay on task -one student does all the work -lack of trust of other students to contribute well -nature of task doesn't require cooperation

What are the shortcomings of pure discovery learning?

Pure discovery learning - is where there is no help from a teacher and you work completely by yourself. -student receives problems to solve with little or no guidance from the teacher -students don't have a concrete foundation to build their structure on. they might not have come into contact with the to be learned principle and therefore have nothing to integrate with their knowledge base. it discourages learners from actively making sense of the presented material. - conservation problems. teaching kids how to solve conservation problems doesn't work well if they're too young. if you give students tools and tell them how conservation works you can move them faster and more efficiently through teacher help. - students don't really have a foundation to lead their information into.

Generalization

The tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the original conditioned stimulus because the similar stimulus is never paired with the unconditioned stimulus

Contextualization

Understanding events as occurring in time period they occurred. not with today's standards, but instead what it meant at that time.