Emotion EXAM 3 TEXT

Distress

-An undifferentiated protest against anything that is unpleasant or aversive

Situation Modification

-Taking steps to change a situation, typically to improve it

19. What do the findings of Robinson et al. (2004) tell us about the truthfulness of the phrase "Once bitten, twice shy?"

- A brief flare-up of anger produces emotional scars that heal slowly. People who feel frequent anger have few friends & feel dissatisfied with their lives

CH 6 EMOTION REGULATION Process Model of Emotion Regulation

- a model that organizes emotion regulation strategies according to their place in the emotion process itself

Moro reflex

- a sequence in which the infant flings out its arms and spread its fingers, then contracts quickly into a fetal position with fingers bent

Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis

- proposal that anything interferes with one's ability to obtain some expected gratification leads to aggressive behavior

Ch 12 Development of Emotion Attachment

-A long lasting emotional bond between an infant and a caregiver indicated by distress upon separation, joy upon reunion, and much emotional sharing

Themed Dot -Probe Task

- task in which two words (one of which might be aggressive) flash briefly on the screen, one above the other. Then a dot appears in the same position as one of them, and the person must press a key as quickly as possible to indicate whether the dot appeared in the upper or lower position

Object permanence

- the understanding that objects continue to exist even when we do not see or hear them

Somatic Marker Hypothesis

- when we have to make a decision, our mind quickly estimates the likely outcomes of possible options, activates emotional responses to these outcomes, and uses the emotion to guide the decision

Dot Probe Task

-A task in which participants indicate the location of dots replacing emotional or neutral stimuli; used to measure attentional control

14. Describe the study conducted by Tiedens & Linton (2001) in which they assessed the effect of uncertainty, on how careful an individual evaluates evidence.

-According to their interpretation, the decisive factor is certainty vs. uncertainty. -In their study, participants were assigned to write about an experience that made them feel content, surprised, worried, or angry. They then had to read an essay & say if they agreed with its conclusions. the students in the low-certainty moods (surprised/worried) evaluated the logic of the argument itself & didn't regard it based on the prestige of its author. The students in the high-certainty moods (contented/angry) were more persuaded if they thought that a professor wrote the essay. They were more vulnerable to "peripheral route" persuasion

dysthymia

-Being mildly depressed or having a mixture of depressed & happy characteristics

4. Describe the results of the Cahill et al. (1994) study in which they assessed the role of emotional arousal in memory by giving some of the subjects in the study a beta-blocker. Why did they use a beta-blocker?

-Beta-blocker: drug that temporarily disables some aspects of sympathetic arousal -People who had hear the neutral version of the story had mediocre scores of the test a week later. For participants in the arousal version, memory depended on whether they had taken the beta-blocker pill or the placebo. Participants who had the beta-blocker performed the same as those in the neutral condition. Participants who had the placebo did much better -This suggests that the effects of emotions on memory depend at least partly on the physiological changes observed with strong emotion. -They used a beta-blocker because it would stop the participants from feeling a racing heart or similar symptoms, even when recognizing that the story was upsetting.

10. Describe the difference between the central route to persuasion and the peripheral route to persuasion? Which type of persuasive message is most effective when someone is in a happy mood versus a sad mood?

-Central route to persuasion: providing facts & logic -Peripheral route to persuasion: superficial factors such as frequent repetition of a slogan or endorsements by celebrities. -When people are happy, they are more susceptible to peripheral route influences & less susceptible to the central route. -Happy people are more apt to jump to conclusions without critically examining the evidence. Sad people pay more attention to the quality of evidence.

9. What is cognitive restructuring? Describe the therapy example given in the book.

-Cognitive restructuring: when people change the way they think about a larger emotional issue or frequently occurring situation -it's a frequent goal in therapies for mood disorders like depression & anxiety

19. When is crying most likely to lead to improved feelings (see Bylsma et al. 2008)?

-Crying is more likely to lead to improved feelings when it evoked social support from others, specifically in the form of comforting words or touch, or other friendly behaviors.

15. Describe the Stone et al. (2001) study and the McKendree-Smith & Scogin (2000) study and indicate the implications of the results of the two studies with respect to the idea that depressed individuals, compared to non-depressed people, are more accurate in their judgments: this is referred to as depressive realism.

-Depressive realism: people who are mildly depressed are more realistic than happy, optimistic people. They're more likely to perceive themselves & the situation accurately. -When people had no control over the light at all, non-depressed students estimated having 40% control, whereas depressed students estimate 15%. The depressed students more correctly recognized their lack of control.

Executive Control

-Effortful control over cognitive processes such as attention, working memory, and planning.

3. Explain the results of the Bradley et al. (1992) study in terms of epinephrine, cortisol, the vagus nerve and the amygdala (Cahill & McGaugh, 1998).

-Emotional arousal leads to increased release of the hormones epinephrine (adrenalin) & cortisol from the adrenal gland. A direct injection of epinephrine or cortisol strengthens the memory of an event that was just experienced. -Epinephrine & cortisol stimulate the vagus nerve, which in turn excites the amygdala. Direct simulation of this strengthens memory storage.

3. Why does having a sense of prediction and control help an individual to actively cope with a stressor.

-Even if something unpleasant is unavoidable, it will feel less disturbing if you take steps to control some aspect of the situation, or if you can at least predict what is going to happen & prepare for it -When you have some sense of prediction & control, anxiety is much less severe

21. What is the role of distraction in the effectiveness of exercise in coping? What are the benefits of exercise with respect to responses to stress (see Crews & Landers, 1987)? What is the role of endorphins in the effects of exercise?

-Exercise is a distraction from the source of stress -Exercise improves overall health & people in good health show less tension & sympathetic arousal n response to stressful events -Any stress readies the body for fight or flight even if it doesn't call for physical activity. Once the body has engaged in physical activity after stress, it tends to relax -Neurotransmitters called endorphins become more active during physical exercise. These chemicals are a natural pain-killer which is sociated with improvement of mood

13. What is the effect of mood on how careful an individual examines evidence? In what mood state is an individual most likely to base judgments on first impressions or on stereotypes, and make impulsive judgments?

-Sad people tend to examine evidence more carefully, whereas happy people answer more impulsively, follow first impressions, rely on stereotypes, etc.

Heuristic Cognition

-Making judgements on the basis of simple "rules of thumb"

8. What is the major disadvantage of attentional control as a mood regulation strategy?

-It takes a lot of cognitive energy & as a result, people can run out of ability to control their attention fi they are fatigued or have been controlling their thoughts for too long

23. Is suppressing emotional expression helpful in emotion regulation?

-It's important in some situations, however, as with some other emotion regulation strategies, suppressing emotions indiscriminately is problematic. It's costly in terms of cognitive resources & has negative implications

Ego Defense Mechanism

-KEEP DISTURBING WISHES AND DESIRES HIDDEN FROM CONSCIOUSNESS

2. Which types of pictures were remembered best in the Bradley et al. (1992) study? What do the findings tell us about the relationship between emotion and memory formation?

-People were more likely to remember pictures that they rated arousing than pictures they rated as calming, regardless of whether the pictures were pleasant or unpleasant. A year later, people were still more likely to remember the intense, arousal-producing pictures than the mundane ones -This shows that we may be able to strengthen or weaken memory encoding by increasing or decreasing physiological arousal of the kind seen in strong emotion.

15. What do the results of the Jerome & Liss (2005) study, the Kraemer & Hastrup (1988) study and the Fincham (2003) study tell us about the effectiveness of venting emotions (Freud's idea of catharsis) as a way to regulate emotions (decrease the intensity of negative emotions such as anger)?

-People who deal with their negative emotions by venting them tend to have more anxiety than average in their interpersonal relationships -When people are encouraged to cry during sad movies, they end up feelings worse, not better, than people who tried to restrain their tears -Distressed couples who vent all their anger against each other are taking a major step toward divorce, not reconciliation

7. Describe the results of the Keltner et al. (1993) of the influence of mood on the interpretation of ambiguous events (an invited guest of the opposite sex who brings a date).

-People who imagined themselves in an anger-prducing situation are more likely to blame the roommates, whereas people who imagined themselves in a sad situation are more likely to blame it on bad luck -Angry people blame most bad events on other people rather than chance circumstances, whereas the reverse is true for sad people.

22. What are the benefits of meditation in emotion regulation (see Sheppard et al., 1997)?

-People who practice meditation report feeling less stress. They have a decrease in anxiety & depression

11. Describe the results of the Park & Banaji (2000) study in which subjects were asked to identify which names in a list were famous basketball players, famous politicians, or infamous criminals when the subjects were experiencing a sad, happy or neutral mood

-People who watched a sad or neutral movie make few errors classifying the names as famous, infamous, or neither. -People who have just watched a funny movie make significantly more errors, identifying many of the black names as either basketball players or criminals & more of the white names as politicians. -Happy people are more likely than others to apply stereotypes. Sadness seems to discourage reliance on stereotypes when judging new targets.

peripheral route to persuasion

-Persuasion based on superficial factors such as frequent repetition of a slogan or endorsements by celebrities

13. According to the findings of the Garnefski et. al. (2002) study, what cognitive coping strategy that is used most frequently among emotionally healthy individuals? In this study, subjects were asked to indicate the cognitive strategy (e.g., self-blame, other-blame, rumination) that they typically used.

-Positive reappraisal

14. According to the findings of the Moskowitz et al. (2009) study, what was the most effective cognitive strategy used by AIDS patients?

-Positive reappraisal

Depressive Realism

-Proposed tendency for people who are mildly depressed to be more realistic than happy people. to perceive their situation with more accuracy to make careful and correct decisions

12. Define resilient. What is the relationship between positive reappraisal and resilience?

-Resilient: those who recover relatively easily from negative events -People who are resilient report thinking about the potential positive effects of negative events more often than less resilient people

16. Define rumination and indicate its role in clinical depression. Is this a good cognitive coping method?

-Rumination: thinking continuously about a problem for a long time, focusing on negative aspects of the situation instead of possible solutions -Not a good cognitive coping method

2. Distinguish situation selection from situation modification. Give an example of each. What is the disadvantage of situation selection (avoidant coping)? Use the findings from Holahan et al. (2005), Murberg et al. (2003) and Wolf & Mori (2009) studies to support your point.

-Situation selection: decide whether or not to enter a situation that's likely to elicit a particular emotion. completely avoiding unpleasant situations is not always a realistic option. Extreme use limits people's opportunities & relationships. A study found that people who reported more avoidance-based coping in the first year of assessment experienced a greater number of life stressors over the next 4 years, which in turn predicted increased depressive symptoms. Another said patients with heart disease reported highly avoid ant coping styles were more likely to die of heart failure over next 6 years. A third found kidney disease patients with these were more likely to die over the next 9 years -Situation modification: enter the situation, but take steps to change it

1. Define situation-focused strategies, cognition-focused strategies, and response-focused strategies. Give an example of each strategy.

-Situation-focused strategies: used to control the situation, either by choosing to be in one situation rather than another, or by changing the situation somehow. Ex, if you're worried about a test, you spend most of your time studying, so you have less reason for anxiety. -Cognitive-focused strategies: we pay attention to certain aspects of the situation, in order to encourage some emotions and/or deter others. -Response-focused strategies: alter the effects of emotions once they have already started. Person's already experiencing a motion and they want some aspect of that emotion to change. Ex, getting it out of your system.

9. What is the difference between systematic cognition and heuristic cognition?

-Systematic cognition: thorough & deliberate analysis of the available information -Heuristic cognition: making decisions on the basis of simple "rules of thumb"

5. What is the impact of amygdala damage on the strength of the memory (declarative memory) of an emotionally arousing stimulus (studies by Canli et al., 2000; LaBar and Phelps, 1998)?

-The greater degree of amygdala activation, the more accurately participants remember images -People with damage in this area can still form memories, but the strength of their memory formation is no longer affected by emotion. -Amygdala-damaged people wouldn't remember emotion arousing events any more than non-emotion arousing ones.

Socio-emotional Selectivity

-The view that midlife triggers an increase in adults motivation to make the most of their remaining time and that, consequently, older adults put a HIGH priority on emotional quality of life.

Coping

-The ways that people reduce negative emotion after a stressful event.

Beta blocker

-drug that temporarily disables the stress hormone system responsible for some aspects of emotional arousal

Rumination

-Thinking continuously about problem for a long period of time. focusing on negatives instead of positive solutions

8. Describe the results of the Lerner et al., (2003) in which subjects were asked to write about their angry, sad or fearful feelings after the September 11 attacks. Describe the relevance of the appraisal tendency theory (presented in lecture but not the book) to these findings. Do the findings provide support for the theory?

-Those who wrote about fear estimated greater probabilities of danger for both themselves & the country. These findings support the appraisal tendency theory.

6. What is the effect of mood on the retrieval of memories (declarative memories)?

-When you are in a good mood, you are more likely to remember previous events that happened when you were in a good mood. -When you are sad, you are more likely than usual to recall prior events when you were sad. -Similarly, when you are frightened & angry -You are most likely to strengthen one set of memories or another if your mood is strong & stable over a fairly long time, & if you participate actively in events, as opposed to taking the passive role imposed in many lab studies.

12. What is the effect of mood on the use of "scripts" (of what usually happens or what seems likely to happen) compared to retrieved memories in the Bliss et al. (1996) study?

-When you're in a happy mood, you're more likely than others to make the mistake of "remembering" typical sentences that were not in the story. These people relied more on their "script" of what usually happens or what seems likely, instead of the info they had actually heard.

CH. 8 (Anger & Disgust) CONTEMPT

-emotional reaction to a violation of community standards

17. Does writing about a traumatic event effective as a coping technique? Describe the study conducted by Pennebaker (1997) and indicate its relevance to using writing as a coping technique. Is writing helpful because the individual is venting his emotions (See the study by Pennebaker & Graybeal (2001).

-Yes -Students spent 30 mins a day writing about their deepest thoughts & feelings concerning some intensely upsetting experience or an unemotional topic. Nearly all said it was a valuable experience & those in the treatment group were less ill, drank less alcohol, & got better grades than control group

Response-focused strategies

-alter the effects of emotions once they have already started. Person's already experiencing a motion and they want some aspect of that emotion to change. Ex, getting it out of your system.

Cognitive Reappraisal

-changing the way we think about a particular situation order to control emotional experience.

20. What are the benefits of exercise with respect to emotional health (see Leppamaki et al., 2002; Salmon 2001)?

-consistent exercise prevents depression & anxiety

Emotion Regulation

-control emotions we have, when we have them, and how strongly we express them

1. What are the functions of crying and smiling in newborn infants?

-crying, showing distress, but they don't display anything that would distinguish between fear, sadness and anger -has an immediate and powerful effect on people --nearby, especially parents -getting attention and care -sympathetic crying -smiling and laughing, sometime long and loud. However, they do not know embarrassment, shame or pride until they are at least a couple of years old during REM sleep social smiling

Psychological inoculation

-dealing with a stressor by exposing yourself to milder versions of the stressful events

Positive reappraisal

-focusing on positive aspects of negative or challenging situations

Hostile aggression

-harmful behavior motivated by anger and the events that preceded it

Instrumental aggression

-harmful or threatening behavior used purely as a way to obtain something or to achieve some end

2. Discuss evidence relevant to whether infants experience discrete emotions?

-infants dont look surprised, they stare but don't show the facial expression of surprise (begin to see in 2 year-olds) -show infants sequence of events (Carrot- short/tall)

CH . 14 EFFECTS OF EMOTION ON COGNITION Yerkes-Dodson Law

-learning is at its best when arousal is neither too strong nor too weak

-Social referencing

-looking at the emotional expressions of trusted caregivers before responding to novel objects, people, or situations

16. What is the relationship between affect and creativity?

-positive affect promotes creative thinking

Strange situation

-procedure in which an infant and parent enter a toy-filled room and the infant is allowed to play. A stranger then enters the room; after a few minutes, the parent leaves the room, then returns; next both the stranger and the parent leave the room, the stranger returns alone, and finally the parent returns

Flashbulb memories

-recollections of highly emotional events that are vivid and detailed with a clear, almost photographic quality

Visual search task

-task in which a target word appears briefly in the center of the screen, surrounded by three other words. Then the target word and three new words appear, and the task is to locate the target word

Anger

-the emotional state associated with feeling injured or offended, and with a desire to threaten or hurt the person who offended you

Broaden and build theory

-theory that positive emotions promote broadened attention to the environment, as well as greater flexibility in thought/action repertoires

systematic cognition

-thorough & deliberate analysis of the available information

Situation-focused strategies

-used to control the situation, either by choosing to be in one situation rather than another, or by changing the situation somehow. Ex, if you're worried about a test, you spend most of your time studying, so you have less reason for anxiety

24. Describe the fMRI study by Tisserand et al., (2004). What changes in activity in the amygdala, hypothalamus and prefrontal cortex took place when subjects were inhibiting their arousal to pornographic films?

-young men watched a series of porn. Some were allowed to be aroused & other had to inhibit it. While they were sexually aroused, activity increased in the hypothalamus, right amygdala, & part of the right temporal cortex (sexuality & emotion). While they were inhibiting, activity was lower in the amygdala & hypothalamus, but increased in the prefrontal cortex (cognitive control)

6. If you are in danger and have no control, the emotion fear trumps the emotion anger.

Fear/ anger

18. By the time a child leaves elementary school he will have watched depictions of 8,000 murders on television.

8,000

3. Describe the results of studies that focus on the development of anger in infants.

A. Sternberg and Campos study: sequence reflects development from a fuzzy sense of frustration to prototypical anger directed at the experimenter. (Infant not being able to move arms and developed anger) B. Mother or Stranger holding down baby's arm (child shows more distress when mother holds arm down- accustomed to strangers intrusions but betrayed by mothers mistreatment)

Which facial expression attracted the most attention and higher cortical arousal in the Schupp et. al. (2004) study?

ANGER

Cognitive Focused Strategies

Changing the way we attend to or think about a situation, in order to encourage some emotions and/or deter others.

Attention Control

Directing ones attention away from stimuli and thoughts likely to elicit unwanted emotions

23. fMRI studies indicate that neurons in the insular cortex become active in response to disgust and fear.

FEAR

18. Is writing about positive experiences beneficial? (see Burton & King, 2004)?

Yes, they experience improved mood & health over the next several months

-Secondary Intersubjectivity

a process by which the infant and the caregiver share their experience of an object or a third person

7. Sometimes people choose to be angry. Use the research of Tamir et al. (2008) and van kleef et al. (2004) to describe the circumstances that will lead to this choice.

a. A quick, mild "constructive" display of anger on your part tells your friend or romantic partner, "Hey, that hurt! Don't do it again." The person will detect your irritation, apologize, understand you better, & avoid similar acts int he future. b. People who express mild anger in situations tend to get more of what they want. Anger lets people know your limits & demands. c. If you expect to get into a conflict with someone, it will probably help you to be angry. In one study, participants assigned to play the aggressive game were more likely to choose angry memories to recall while preparing for the game, when compared with those preparing for a non-aggresive game. Moreover, those who recalled angry experiences, & felt angry as a result, performed better on the aggressive video game (but not the non-aggressive game) d. We may choose to feel angry when preparing for a confrontational situation & it may help us get our way.

5. What does the Cognitive-Neoassociationistic Model of Anger Generation (CNA) say is the cause of anger? According to this theory, is an attribution of blame a necessary condition for the generation of anger?

a. Anger sometimes arises directly from an unpleasant, uncomfortable sensation, without any appraisal of blame. b. According to CNA, any unpleasant event or sensation facilitates anger & aggression. The unpleasant thing might be frustration, but could also be pain, an aversive odor, etc. Ex, the probability of aggression increases when it's hot. c. Therefore, an attribution of blame is not necessary for the generation of anger.

1. In what way do Rozin and Haidt define of anger, disgust and contempt? Describe the study, conducted by Rozin et al. (2005) that provides evidence for these definitions.

a. Anger: the emotional state associated with feeling injured or offended, with a desire to threaten or hurt the person who offended you b. Contempt: A response to violation of community standards. Ex, you might feel contempt toward someone who cheated on a test c. Disgust: "revulsion at the prospect of oral incorporation of offensive objects." Entails a desire to stay away from something, especially to keep it out of your mouth, but it is also a rejection of the mere thought of touching the object. d. Researchers made a list of actions that seemed to violate autonomy, community standards, or divinity/purity. Then they asked college students in the US & Japan to label their reaction to each one as anger, contempt or disgust, and to choose the proper facial expression from choices. Although participants often confused these expressions when giving them verbal labels they typically chose angry facial expressions for the autonomy violations, a disgust expression for the divinity/purity violations, & a contemptuous expressions for community violations

10. What does research on people with damage to the prefrontal cortex tell us about the consequences of damage to this structure?

a. Damage to the prefrontal cortex is one basis for impulsivity. People with this damage are impaired at suppressing their emotional expressions after such instructions as "try not to act startled after the sudden sound you're about to hear." They are also more likely to lose money by making bad gambling decisions, & to choose smaller reward now over a larger reward later.

11. Why do people experience a lower level of anger in response to an insult when lying on their back during an fMRI (Harmon Jones & Peterson, 2009)?

a. Emotions are "embodied" in the sense that total body activity is central to the emotional experience. When you are angry, you get ready to attack or threaten. If you're lying on your back in an fMRI device & have to remain motionless, people experience much less anger.

5. What is psychological inoculation? Give an example.

a. Expose yourself to mild versions of the stressful events in order to gain a sense of control and becomes "immunized" b. For example, armies make soldiers practice combat skills under realistic but non-life-threatening conditions

8. What is the difference between hostile aggression and instrumental aggression?

a. Hostile aggression: motivated by anger, with the specific intent to hurt someone b. Instrumental aggression: harmful or threatening behavior used purely as a way to obtain something or achieve some end. Ex, bullying, theft, warfare, & killing prey. Much of human aggression is instrumental

4. What do the findings of the study by Kuppens et al. (2008) tell us about the role of blame in anger?

a. In general, when students perceived a situation as blameworthy, they said they would feel angry. The students who tended to feel angry most often in everyday life were also most likely to interpret unpleasant situations as ones ins which someone was to blame. So does having someone to blame lead to anger? Or does being angry make you look for someone to blame? It might go in both directions.

6. In what way are the responses of people with anxiety disorders to threat words in the dot-probe task different from those of healthy controls?

a. Most people respond more quickly when the dot replaces a neutral stimulus, indicating that their attention tends to orient toward threat. b. People with anxiety disorders show especially slow reaction times if the dot replaces neutral stimulus when a threat stimulus was also present, suggesting they have a difficult time pulling their attention away from the threat

12. What is the relationship between the level of serotonin in the brain and aggression?

a. Rats & mice with low levels of serotonin release are more likely to fight with one another. b. In monkeys, low serotonin seemed to be linked to a high-risk, high-payoff strategy. c. In humans, low levels of serotonin have been found in people convicted of arson & other violent crimes. Inmates let out of prison with low serotonin levels are most likely to be convicted of additional violent crimes within the next few years.

4. Self-help books often encourage a person to "visual success." What do the authors of the text say you should visualize? Use the study by Brown et al. (2002) to show how cognitive rehearsal can be a beneficial coping mechanism. The Brown et al. study examined the effects of cognitive rehearsal on coping with stress in pregnant women.

a. Success b. First-time pregnant womb were asked to imagine & describe going through labor & those whose descriptions were rated as the most accurate & most detailed showed the least worry about the upcoming delivery.

2. What do the findings of the studies by Ohbuchi et al. (2004) and by Kuppens et al. (2003) tell us about prototypical situations that elicit anger?

a. The core relational theme eliciting anger is a "demeaning offense against me & mine." Many studies find that anger arises against someone who has caused harm intentionally & carelessly. b. In this study, American, European, & Asian students all reported anger most strongly when someone treated them unfairly. c. In another study, people reported recent events in which things went badly for them. They reported feeling anger only when they had someone to blame for their misfortune.

3. What does the study by Ellsworth & Tong (2006) tell us about the differences between anger felt toward someone else and self-anger?

a. We typically become angry about another person's actions, but self-anger is different from other-anger. When you are angry toward someone else, you might seek revenge in some way. You don't attack yourself. Self-anger is usually mixed with sadness & guilt or embarrassment.

Facial Mimicry

copying other people's facial expressions

Core disgust

emotional response to an object that threatens your physical purity, such as feces, rotting food, or unclean animals

Social smiling

exchanging smiles with another person

Moral disgust

experience relating to violations of right and wrong

Central route to persuasion

persuasion based on facts and logic

Resilient

recovering relatively well or easily from negative events

Core Relational themes

the appraisal meaning of some event in terms of one's relationship with the environment, thought to lead to experience of a "basic" emotion

Theory of Mind

the understanding that other people have minds too and the ability to discern what other people know or think

Affect Infusion Model

theory that people use their emotional state as information in reaching a decision about some target

10. In what way does cognitive reappraisal affect activity in the amygdala (Ochsner et. al. (2002)? What is the relationship between cognitive reappraisal and dispositional positive affect?

• Cognitive reappraisal reduces amygdala activation to upsetting photos • People who report using cognitive reappraisal more often also report higher dispositional positive affect

24. What is the difference between core disgust and moral disgust? Do people who are sensitive to the stimuli that elicit core disgust also sensitive to situations that elicit moral disgust?

• Core disgust: the idea of putting something into your mouth • Moral disgust: violations of right & wrong • Yes, people who easily experience disgust, including core disgust, are more likely than other people to feel extreme antipathy toward criminal behavior. They are more likely than average to vote "guilty" if they are on a mock jury.

20. Describe how exposure therapy would be used to treat people who show high levels of anger.

• Exposure therapy: someone with a fear of something is gradually exposed to that object while remaining relaxed. • With anger, the person is told to relax & then is gradually exposed to the kinds of events or insults that would usually provoke anger. the person practices remaining calm in the presence of these insults.

11. Give an example of positive reappraisal (benefit finding).

• If every graduate school you applied to rejected you, you might say, "Oh well. I learned a lot from applying the first time, & next time I'll do better."

15. What do the studies conducted by Dodge & Cole (1987) and Crick & Dodge (1994, 1996) tell us about biases in the appraisal (biases in attribution) process among aggressive boys?

• More aggressive boys usually thought the offense was deliberate, even when the facial expressions & verbal cues indicated an accident. • Children who attribute hostile intentions to others are more likely than other children to start fights, especially in response to teasing. • They evidently regard the teasing as hostile, & react accordingly. • The most anger-prone people are more likely than others to attribute malicious intent to the antagonists, even in the ambiguous situations.

22. According to Rozin and colleagues (Rozen & Fallon, 1987; Rozin et al., 1999) disgust is elicited by items and circumstances that remind us of our animal nature. Give examples.

• Most everything we find disgusting is animal in nature. • We like to think of ourselves as noble, clean, & pure & the sights of intestines, feces or blood reminds us of the most unclean aspects of our existence. Animals in general evoke disgust when they urinate & defecate in public, have sex in public, & in other ways do the things that we like to hide about ourselves.

21. Was bringing together a group of individuals, who showed high levels of aggressive and delinquent behavior, for group therapy over a 12 week period helpful in terms of regulation of future antisocial behavior (Poulin et al. 2001)?

• No, group therapy sometimes backfires. • Bringing together a group of violent individuals sometimes aggravates the problem. • Sometimes it even makes the problems increase

9. What do the implicit measures, the themed dot-probe and the visual search task, tell about the relationship between attention to aggressive words and people who are prone to anger and violence.

• Not all behavioral measures of anger require overt aggression. Implicit measures can be used to detect the emotion in a more subtle way. In once study, on average, men included more aggression in their endings than women, & people who described themselves as frequently angry tended to include more aggression than did people who reported less anger. • Themed dot-probe task: 2 words flash briefly on the screen, one above the other. Then a dot appears in the same position as one word, & the person must press a key as quickly as possible to indicate where the dot appeared. A violent word will distract attention & slow the response, depending on where the dot appears. People with a history of violence are more affected by aggression-related words in this task. • Visual search task: a target word appears briefly in the center of the screen, surrounded by three other words. Then the target word & three new words appear, & the task is to identify the location of the target word. When the target word is surrounded by violent words, people with a history of violence tend to respond more slowly in finding the target word on the second screen. • Aggressive words capture attention more thoroughly for people who are prone to anger & violence than for other people.

14. According to the authors of the textbook, the experience of anger per se, is not the critical risk factor in heart disease. What is their view regarding the relationship between anger and heart disease?

• Some research suggests that how anger is expressed, rather than the experience of anger itself, predicts health problems. • Hostile people who express anger frequently & explosively are more vulnerable to cardiovascular problems, whereas people who experience it often but express it differently are at less risk. • People who express their anger verbally while trying to understand the other person's point of view had lower resting blood pressure than people who were less articulate when angry

13. What is the effect of suddenly lowering serotonin in the brain on the following individuals: 1). people with a previous history of violence; 2). people with a history of depression; 3). people with a history of substance abuse?

• The people with a previous history of violence became violent, those with a history of depression became depressed, and those with a history of substance abuse reported a sudden craving for drugs. • It is as if low serotonin release removes inhibitions against various impulses, but different people have different impulses.

16. Studies of juvenile and adult offenders among dizygotic twins and monozygotic twins (Lyons et al., 1995) show that the effect of heredity on antisocial behavior increases as people get older. Explain.

• There are greater similarities between monozygotic (identical) twins than dizygotic (fraternal) twins. • Adopted children tend to resemble their biological parents in these regards. • A possible explanation of the increase in heredity with age is that children have little choice of where or how they live. Both member of a twin pair share mostly the same environment. As adults, they have more choices. The effect of the genes depends on the environment.

7. Describe the studies conducted by Ozlem et al. (2002) and by Reijntnes et al. (2006) and indicate the significance of these experiments with respect to the effectiveness of attentional control and distraction in emotion regulation. The Ozlem et al. (2002) study asked subjects to vividly remember an experience in which someone had rejected them. Half of the subjects were asked to focus their attention on their emotions and physiological sensations during the rejection, and half of the subjects were told to focus their attention on the room in which the rejection took place. In the Reijntnes et. al. (2006) study, children played a game based on the Survivor television show. Children were then asked (after being eliminated from the game) to focus on reading comic books or listening to music.

• Those asked to focus on the characteristics of the room in their memories identified hostility-felted words more slowly, reporter fewer angry feelings, & wrote less about feeling angry & hurt in essays than participants instructed to focus on their feelings & physiology. In the second study, the more time they spent on the distraction the more their mood improved, as well as their ability to focus on the second task

17. Is it true that men get angry more often and are more likely to show aggressive behavior than women?

• When the cause is reasonable, women get just as angry as men & are less likely to she their anger in some way. • The difference is in what they do when they are angry. Males engage in more physically aggressive behavior. Women are more likely to attack indirectly (refusing to communicate, spreading unkind rumors, or manipulating one person to hurt another) • Men & women are just as likely to experience anger, and they both act aggressively, but men are more likely to act that could produce serious injury