English Language Theories
Gatekeeping (LEWIN)
Reporters, editors and those in the media act as what Kurt Lewin calls 'gatekeepers'. They control what news items make it through and what do not, in turn, shaping society.
Theory Of Politeness (LAKOFF)
1) Be clear (Grice's Maxims) 2) Be polite (don't impose, give options, and make others feel good).
Speech Act Theory (AUSTIN AND SEARLE)
An utterance that serves a function in communication. For example, we perform a speech act when we offer a(n): apology, greeting, request, complaint, invitation, compliment, refusal, etc. Conversational implicature refers to what the speaker or writer was implying or suggesting.
Footing (GOFFMAN)
Goffman uses the term 'footing' to refer to participants stance towards each other. Goffman points out that the footing can shift during interaction. For example, you'd use a formal footing for a first meeting, but an informal footing for close friends.
Communicative Competence (HYMES)
Hymes used the term 'communicative competence' to describe a person's grammatical knowledge and their social, pragmatic knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately.
Co-operative Principles (GRICE'S MAXIMS)
Maxim of Quantity (don't speak too much/too little), Maxim of Quality (be truthful), Maxim of Manner (speak clearly and avoid ambiguity), Maxim of Relation/Relevance (make relevant contributions). Sometimes we 'flout' (or violate) these maxims.
Selective Perception
Occasions when a newspaper does not report a certain event while others do, or when it doesn't report certain features of an event. This is a form of bias
Face Needs (BROWN AND LEVINSON)
Positive face refers to our needs to be liked, accepted and approved of. Negative face refers to our right to not be imposed on.
Politeness Maxims (LEECH)
Tact Maxim Generosity Maxim Approbation Maxim Modesty* Agreement Maxim* Sympathy Maxim*
Telephone Discourse Openings (SHEGLOFF)
The linguist Shegloff categorised the beginnings of telephone conversations in this way: summons/answer, identification/recognitions, greetings, 'how are you' sequence.
Synthetic Personalisation
The process of addressing mass audiences as though they were individuals through inclusive language usage, e.g. 'Have a nice day', and 'Welcome to Wimpy!'