Enligh

Anastrophe

A departure from normal word order for the sake of emphasis. Example: Glistens the dew upon the morning grass. And: She looked at the sky dark and menacing.

extended metaphor

A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work.

Motif

A recurring theme, element, or dramatic situation.

complex sentence

A sentence with one independent and at least one subordinate clause.

Sarcasm

From the Greek meaning "to tear flesh," sarcasm involves bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something. It may use irony as a device, but not all ironic statements are sarcastic (that is, intended to ridicule). When well executed, sarcasm can be witty and insightful; when poorly done, it is simply cruel.

Homily

This term literally means "sermon," but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.

False Dilemma

(a form of bifurcation) implies that one of two outcomes is inevitable, and both have negative consequences. Example: Either you buy a large car and watch it guzzle away your paycheck, or you buy a small car and take a greater risk of being injured or killed in the event of an accident.

faulty analogy

(can be literal or figurative) assumes that because two things, events, or situations are alike in some known r espects, that they are alike in other unknown respects. Example: What's the big deal about the early pioneers killing a few Indians in order to settle the West? After all, you can't make an omelet without breaking a few eggs.

Sweeping generalization

(dicto simpliciter) assumes that what is true of the whole will also be true of the part, or that what is true in most instances will be true in all instances.

appeal to tradition

(don't rock the boat or ad verecundiam) based on the principle of "letting sleeping dogs lie". We should continue to do things as they have been done in the past. We shouldn't challenge time-honored customs or traditions. Example: Why do I make wine this way? Because my father made wine this way, and his father made wine this way.

bifurcation

(either-or, black or white, all or nothing fallacy) assumes that two categories are mutually exclusive and exhaustive, that is, something is either a member of one or the other, but not both or some third category. Example: Either you favor a strong national defense, or you favor allowing other nations to dictate our foreign policy.

Non sequitur

(literally means "does not follow") in a general sense any argument which fails to establish a connection between the premises and the conclusion may be called a non-sequitur. In practice, however, the label non-sequitur tends to be reserved for arguments in which irrelevant reasons are offered to support a claim. Example: I wore a red shirt when I took the test, so that is probably why I did so well on the test. -and- Mr Boswell couldn't be the person who poisoned our cat, Truffles, because when I used to take Truffles for walks he always smiled and said "Hello" when we walked by.

Tu Quoque

(look who's talking or two wrongs make a right) pointing to a similar wrong or error committed by another. Examples: Mom and Dad, how can you tell me not to do drugs when you both smoke cigarettes and drink alcohol? -and- The United States has no business criticizing the human rights policies of the Third World nations, not as long as discrimination and segregation c ontinue to exist in the United States.

Faulty cause

(post hoc ergo propter hoc) mistakes correlation or association for causation, by assuming that because one thing follows another it was caused by the other. Example: A black cat crossed Amy's path yesterday and, sure enough, she was involved in an automobile accident later that same afternoon.

Slippery slope

(sometimes called a snowball argument or domino theory) suggests that if one step or action is taken it will invariably lead to similar steps or actions, the end results of which are negative or undesirable. A slippery slope always assume a chain reaction of cause-effect events which result in some eventual dire outcome. Example: If the Supreme Court allows abortion, next think you know they'll allow euthanasia, and it won't be long before society disposes of all those persons whom it deems unwanted or undesirable.

Inference

A conclusion one draws (infers) based on premises or evidence. To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented. When a multiple choice question asks for an inference to be drawn from a passage, the most direct, most reasonable inference is the safest answer choice. If an inference is implausible, it's unlikely to be the correct answer. Note that if the answer choice is directly stated, it is not inferred and it is wrong. You must be careful to note the connotation - negative or positive - of the choices.

Anticlimax

A descent in discourse from the significant or important to the trivial, inconsequential, etc.

Epithet

A descriptive title for a person, often used in place of a name or in conjunction with a name.

Archetype

A detail, image, or character type that occurs frequently in literature and myth and is thought to appeal in a universal way to the unconscious and to evoke a response.

Allusion

A direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known, such as an event, book, myth, place, or work of art. Allusions can be historical, literary, religious, topical, or mythical. There are many more possibilities, and a work may simultaneously use multiple layers of allusion. Examples: "That's why I thank Almighty God you're both built like Adonises" (Willy Loman, Death of a Salesman. Here, Arthur Miller compares Biff and Happy to the mythological Adonis, an idealized, youthful, attractive figure). "Maycomb County had recently been told that it had nothing to fear but fear itself" (Harper Lee alludes to FDR).

Conceit

A far-fetched simile, metaphor, or surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects. A conceit displays intellectual cleverness as a result of the unusual comparison being made. The classic example is probably John Donne's "The Flea", in which a flea-bite is compared to a marriage, and like most conceits, the extended comparison is more notable for its invention than its believability.

conceit

A far-fetched simile, metaphor, or surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects. A conceit displays intellectual cleverness as a result of the unusual comparison being made. The classic example is probably John Donne's "The Flea", in which a flea-bite is compared to a marriage, and like most conceits, the extended comparison is more notable for its invention than its believability.

climax

A figure of repetition in which words or phrases or sentences are arranged in order of increasing intensity or importance, often in parallel construction. Example: "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God." - John 1:1-2 (KJV)

Synecdoche

A figure of speech in which a part of something is used to represent the whole or, occasionally, the whole is used to represent a part. Examples: To refer to a boat as a "sail"; to refer to a car as "wheels"; to refer to the v iolins, violas, etc. in an orchestra as "the strings." **Different than metonymy, in which one thing is represented by another thing that is commonly physically associated with it (but is not necessarily a part of it), i.e., referring to a monarch as "the crown" or the President as "The White House."

Personification

A figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts, animals, or inanimate objects by endowing them with human attributes or emotions. Personification is used to make these abstractions, animals, or objects appear more vivid to the reader.

Apostrophe

A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. It is an address to someone or something that cannot answer. The effect may add familiarity or emotional intensity. William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes, "Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: / England hath need of thee." Another example is Keats' "Ode to a Grecian Urn," in which Keats addresses the urn itself: "Thou still unravished bride of quietness." Many apostrophes imply a personification of the object addressed.

hyperbole

A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. (The literal Greek meaning is "overshoot.") Hyperboles often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is also possible. Often, hyperbole produces irony. The opposi te of hyperbole is understatement.

metaphor

A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for the other, suggesting some similarity. Metaphorical language makes writing more vivid, imaginative, thought provoking, and meaningful. Example: "the withered leaves of industrial enterprise lie on every side." -FDR

Clause

A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or main, clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate clause, cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause.

Idiom

A phrase that cannot be understood by knowing what the individual words in the phrase mean. Example: kicked the bucket

Cliche

A saying, expression, idea, or element which has been overused to the point of losing its original meaning or effect rendering it a stereotype. AVOID THESE IN YOUR WRITING! Examples: the calm before the storm, third time's the charm

Interrupted sentence

A sentence in which the subordinate elements come in the middle, often set off by dashes. Example: These students—selfish, deceitful, and sadistic—were evidence of their parents' muddled values.

Simple sentence

A sentence with only one independent clause (may contain many phrases)

Compound-complex sentece

A sentence with two or more independent clauses and at least one subordinate clause.

Compound sentence

A sentence with two or more independent clauses.

Anecdote

A short account of a particular incident or event of an interesting or amusing nature, often biographical.

Analogy

A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them. An analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its similarity to something more familiar. Analogies can also make writing more vivid, imaginative, or intellectually engaging.

Paradox

A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity. Example: the beginning of Dickens' Tale of Two Cities: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times...."

Metonymy

A term from the Greek meaning "changed label" or "substitute name," metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it. For example, a news release that claims "the White House declared" rather than "the President declared" is using metonymy; Shakespeare uses it to signify the male and female sexes in As You Like It: "doublet and hose ought to show itself courageous to petticoat." The substituted term generally carries a more potent emotional impact.

Aphorism

A terse statement of known authorship which expresses a general truth or a moral principle. (If the authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb.) An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author's point. Example: "A slip of the foot you may soon recover, but a slip of the tongue you may never get over" (Ben Franklin).

loose sentence/non-periodic sentence/cumulative sentence

A type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) comes first, followed by dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a period were placed at the end of the independent clause, the clause would be a complete sentence. A work containing many loose sentences often seems informal, relaxed, or conversational. Generally, loose sentences create loose style. Example: I arrived at the San Diego airport after a long, bump y ride and multiple delays. Could stop at: I arrived at the San Diego airport. The opposite of a loose sentence is the periodic sentence.

Parody

A work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule. It exploits peculiarities of an author's expression (propensity to use too many parentheses, certain favorite words, etc.) Well -written parody offers enlightenment about the original, but poorly written parody offers only ineffectual imitation. Usually an audience must grasp literary allusion and understand the work being parodied in order to fully appreciate the nuances of the newer work. Occasion ally, however, parodies take on a life of their own and don't require knowledge of the original. (Example: Scary Movie, etc.)

satire

A work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and conventions for reform or ridicule. Regardless of whether or not the work aims to reform human behavior, satire is best seen as a style o f writing rather than a purpose for writing. It can be recognized by the many devices used effectively by the satirist: irony, wit, parody, caricature, hyperbole, understate ment, and sarcasm. The effects of satire are varied, depending on the writer's goal, but good satire, often humorous, is thought provoking and insightful about the human condition. Examples: Jonathan Swift's "A Modest Proposal", The Colbert Report, The Onion

anaphora

Also a sub-type of parallelism, it's the exact repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of successive lines or sentences. MLK used anaphora in his famous "I Have a Dream" speech (1963): "I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up...I have a dream that my four children will one day live in a nation... I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia..."

parallelism

Also referred to as parallel construction or parallel structure, this term comes from Greek roots meaning "beside one another." It refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural s imilarity. This can involve, but is not limited to, repetition of a grammatical element such as a preposition or verbal phrase. (Again, the opening of Dickens' Tale of Two Cities is an example: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of believe, it was the epoch of incredulity....") The effects of parallelism are numerou s, but frequently they act as an organizing force to attract the reader's attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply provide a musical rhythm.

Invective

An emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language. For example, in Henry IV, Part I, Prince Hal calls the large character of Falstaff "this sanguine coward, this bedpresser, this horseback breaker, this huge hill of flesh."

euphemism

An indirect, less offensive way of saying something that is considered unpleasant.

Interrogative sentence

Asks a question

Deductive reasoning

Based on broad information, draw a specific conclusion. See syllogism.

Inductive reasoning

Based on specific information, draw a general conclusion. Example: The sky is cloudy and dark, the thermometer indicates that it is chilly, and the weather forecast on the news says there is a chance of showers. You can conclude that you should wear a coat and bring an umbrella. Note: Inductive reasoning rarely provides an absolute certainty.

Definition

Clarify abstractions, explain unfamiliar terms, or distinguish one idea from another similar idea.

Synesthesia

Describing one sensation in terms of another. In literature, synesthesia refers to the practice of associating two or more different senses in the same image. It involves taking one type of sensory input (sight, sound, smell, touch, taste) and comi ngling it with another separate sense in an impossible way. In the resulting figure of speech, we end up talking about how a color sounds, or how a smell looks. Examples: The sight of red ants makes you itchy. Red Hot Chili Peppers' song title "Taste the Pain," a loud color, a sweet sound.

Division and classification

Examines more than one item and then separates the items into groups according to their similarities on a specific principle or criteria. Critical thinkers rely on the power of ______________ during the analysis of complex information.

Hubris

Excessive pride or arrogance that results in the downfall of the protagonist of a tragedy.

Comparison and contrast

Explain two or more ideas, one in terms of the other. ___________ examine similarities; _________ examine differences, often serve as an essay's primary rhetorical strategy.

Analysis of cause and effect

Exploration of the ______ of a phenomena demands that a writer critically analyze the origins of that phenomena. Often, casual analysis is the focusing rhetorical pattern of an essay. Or a significant part of an essay may be an explanation of ______ followed by an examination of ________.

Process analysis

Explores how a phenomena works, a descriptive chronology of the stages in the development of a controlling idea. (Example: basic cookbook recipe, lab report, etc.)

Exclamatory sentence

Expresses strong feeling (usually punctuated by an exclamation mark)

Scheme

Figures of speech that deal with word order, syntax, letters, and sounds (rather than the meaning of words).

Oxymoron

From the Greek for "pointedly foolish," an oxymoron is a figure of speech wherein the author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox. Simple examples include "jumbo shrimp" and "cruel kindness." This term does not usually appear in the multiple-choice questions, but there is a chance that you might find it in an essay. Take note of the effect that the author achieves with the use of oxymoron.

Syllogism

From the Greek for "reckoning together," a syllogism (or syllogistic reasoning or syllogistic logic) is a deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises (the first one called "major" and the second called "minor") that inevitably lead to a sound conclusion. A frequently cited example proceeds as follows: major premise: All men are mortal. minor premise: Socrates is a man. conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is a mortal. A syllogism's conclusion is valid only if each of the two premises is valid. Syllogisms may also present the specific idea fi rst ("Socrates") and the general second ("all men").

symbol/symbolism

Generally, anything that represents itself and stands for something else. Usually a symbol is something concrete—such as an object, action, character, or scene— that represents something more abstract. However, symbols and symbolism can be much more complex. One system classifies symbols into three categories

Thesis

In expository writing, the ______ statement is the sentence or group of sentences that directly expresses the authors's opinion, purpose, meaning, or position. Expository writing is usually judged by analyzing how accurately, effectively, and thoroughly a writer has proven the ______

Point of view

In literature, the perspective from which a story is told. There are two general divisions of point of view, and many subdivisions within those. In addition, be aware that the term point of view carries an additional meaning. When you are asked to analyze the author's point of view, the appropriate point for you to address is the author's attitude.

Ad hominem

Latin for "to the man." An argument attacking an individual's character rather than his/her position on an issue. Example: There is no reason to listen to the arguments of those who oppose school prayer, for they are the arguments of atheists!

Subordinate clause

Like all clauses, this word group contains both a subject and a verb (plus any accompanying phrases or modifiers), but unlike the independent clause, the subordinate clause cannot stand alone; it does not express a complete thought. Also called a dependent clause, the subordinate clause depends on a main clause (or independent clause) to complete its meaning. Easily recognized key words and phrases usually begin these clauses. For example: although, because, unless, if, even though, since, as soon as, while, who, when, where, how and that. Example: Yellowstone is a national park in the West that is known for its geysers. The point that you want to consider is the question of what or why the author subordinates. Note: You should also make effective use of subordination in your own writing.

Declarative sentence

Makes a statement or declaration

Balanced sentence

One in which two parallel elements are set off against each other like equal weights on a scale. Both parts of the sentence have the same form; that is, they are parallel grammatically. Examples: Faulkner's imagery is richly evocative, b ut his syntax is often opaque. -and- "If a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich" (JFK). [As in the second example, balanced sentences lend themselves to antithesis and related figures.]

Syllepsis

One word used to evoke two syntactical meanings. Example: We must all hang together or assuredly we will all hang separately (Ben Franklin). Here, hang is used to refer first to loyalty and fidelity, and then to death by hanging on the gallows. Example: There is a certain kind of woman who'd rather press grapes than clothes. Here, press is used to refer to squeezing the juice out of grapes, and then to ironing clothes.

Zeugma

One word used to evoke two syntactical meanings. VERY similar to syllepsis, but the single word does not fit grammatically or idiomatically with one member of the pair. Example: "Kill all the poys [boys] and luggage!" (Fluellen in William Shakespeare's Henry V).

Juxtaposition

Placing two elements side by side to present a comparison or contrast.

Discription

Provides the significant details which explain ideas. Action verbs, sharp adjectives and adverbs, and precise nouns create powerful details. These concrete details are the force that carries the more abstract ideas; careful word choice and sentence structure are crucial elements of ___________ writing. Strong ___________ relies on sensory details—

Qualify/qualifier

Qualify your argument by adding information or evidence in order to make it less strong or less generalized. It is not good practice to produce lots of strong (or categorical) statements. These are statements which you appear to support 100 %. If for example you say "It is undeniable that...", you are making a categorical statement (not recommended). You might think that by making strong statements you sound confident. Nothing could be further from the truth. Your reader will probably think you la ck wisdom. It is far better to write in a cautious style and not to commit yourself absolutely to generalizations.

Diction

Related to style,_______ refers to the writer's word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. For the AP exam, you should be able to describe an author's _______ (for example, formal or informal, ornate or plain) and understand the ways in which _______ can complement the author's purpose. _______, combined with syntax, figurative language, literary devices, etc., creates an author's style. _______ can be described using the same adjectives from the Tone Words list.

asyndeton (omitting conjunctions)

Sometimes authors omit conjunctions between a series of words or clauses. When conjunctions are eliminated between words, it can lead to a broken, hurried delivery. Example: "Phillip! Rise! Eat! Leave!" When conjunctions are eliminated between phrases or clauses, the result is a hurried rhythm or vehement effect. Example: "I came, I saw, I conquered." — Julius Caesar (Opposite of polysyndeton)

Narration

Storytelling, frequently paired with specific and concrete description.

Climax

The arrangement of words, phrases, or clauses in an order of increasing importance, often in parallel structure. Example: Miss America was not so much interested in serving herself as she was eager to serve her family, her community, and her natio n.

Rapport

The author/speaker's connection to the audience: his ability to establish credibility, believability, and even a sense of camaraderie. (ties into ethos)

Semantics

The branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, their historical and psychological development, their connotations, and their relation to one another.

Theme

The central idea or message of a work, the insight it offers into life. Usually the _____ is unstated in fictional works, but in nonfiction, the _____ may be directly stated, especially in expository or argumentative writing.

Style

The consideration of style has two purposes: (1) An evaluation of the sum of the choices an author makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative language, and other literary devices. Some authors' styles are so idiosyncratic that we can quickly recognize works by the same author. We can analyze and describe an author's personal style and make judgments on how appropriate it is to the author's purpose. Styles can be called flowery, explicit, succinct, rambling, bombastic, commonplace, incisive, laconic, etc. (2) Classification of authors to a group and comparison of an author to similar authors. By means of such classification and comparison, we can see how an author's style reflects and helps to define a historical period, such as the Renaissance or the Victorian period, or a literary movement, such as the romantic, transcendental, or realist movement.

irony/ironic

The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant, or the difference between what appears to be and what is actually true. Irony is often used to create poignancy or humor. In general, there are three major types of irony used in language

Repetition

The duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such as a sound, word, phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern.

vernacular

The everyday speech of a particular country or region, often involving non-standard usage.

Parenthesis

The insertion of a word, phrase, or whole sentence that interrupts the syntactical flow of the primary sentence. Example: Every time I try to think of a good rhetorical example, I rack my brains but--you guessed--nothing happens.

Genre

The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama. However, genre is a flexible term; within these broad boundaries exist many subdivisions that are often called genres themselves. For example , prose can be divided into fiction (novels and short stories) or nonfiction (essays, biographies, autobiographies, etc.). Poet ry can be divided into lyric, dramatic, narrative, epic, etc. Drama can be divided into tragedy, comedy, melodrama, farce, etc. On the AP language exam, expect the majority of the passages to be from the following genres: autobiography, biography, diaries, cri ticism, essays, and journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing. There may be fiction or poetry.

Malapropism

The mistaken (or often purposeful for comic effect) substitution of one word for another word that sounds similar. Example: The doctor wrote a subscription. (rather than "prescription")

Ambiguity

The multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage.

Connotation

The non-literal, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning. ___________ may involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes. Example: "The name reservation has a negative ___________ among Native Americans—an intern camp of sorts." -John Russell

Ellipsis

The omission of a word or words readily implied by context. Example: "The average person thinks he isn't." -Father Larry Lorenzoni

periodic sentence

The opposite of loose sentence, a sentence that presents its central meaning in a main clause at the end. This independent clause is preceded by a phrase or clause that cannot stand alone. The effect of a periodic sentence is to add emphasis and structural variety. It is also a much stronger sentence than the loose sentence. (Example: After a long, bumpy flight and mul tiple delays, I arrived at the San Diego airport.)

Antithesis

The opposition or contrast of ideas (often in parallel structure); the direct opposite. Example: Extremism in defense of liberty is no vice, moderation in the pursuit of justice is no virtue.

alliteration

The repetition initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words (as in "she sells sea shells"). Although the term is not frequently in the multiple choice section, you can look for alliteration in any essay passage. The repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, supply a musical sound, and/or echo the sense of the passage.

polysyndeton

The repetition of conjunctions in close order for effect. Example: "[I]t is respectable to have no illusions--and safe-- and profitable--and dull" (Joseph Conrad). (Opposite of asyndeton.)

chiasmus

The repetition of grammatical structures in reverse order in successive phrases or clauses (not to be mistaken with antimetabole). Example: "He knowingly lied and we followed blindly"; "By day the frolic, and the dance by night". -Samuel Johnson

epistrophe/antistrophe

The repetition of the same word or group of words at the ends of successive clauses.

antimetabole

The repetition of words, in successive clauses, in reverse grammatical order. (Sometimes mistaken as chiasmus) Examples: "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country." -JFK; "The Sabbath was made for man, and not man for the Sabbath." -Jesus (Mark 2:27)

Imagery

The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions. On a physical level, imagery uses terms related to the five senses. On a broader and deeper level, however, one image can represent more than one thing. For example, a rose may present visual imagery while also representing the color in a woman's cheeks and/or symbolizing some degree of perfection. An author may use complex imagery while simultaneously employing other figures of speech, especially metaphor and simile. In addition, this term can apply to the total of all the images in a work. On the AP language exam, pay attention to how an author creates imagery and to the effect of this imagery.

Jargon

The specialized language or vocabulary of a particular group or profession.

Denotation

The strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color. (Example: the denotation of a knife would be a utensil used to cut; the connotation of a knife might be fear, violence, anger, foreboding, etc.)

narrative

The telling of a story or an account of an event or series of events.

trope

The use of a word, phrase, or image in a way not intended by its normal signification.

Exemplification

The use of examples to explain or elaborate an idea, no example can replace logic and evidence; it can only serve to elaborate or clarify a point.

colloquial/colloquialism

The use of slang or informalities in speech or writing. Not generally acceptable for formal writing, __________ give a work a conversational, familiar tone. _________ expressions in writing include local or regional dialects.

Subject complement

The word (with any accompanying phrases) or clause that follows a linking verb and complements, or completes, the subject of the sentence by either (1) renaming it (the predicate nominative) or (2) describing it (the predicate adjective).

prepositional phrase

These always begin with a preposition and end with a noun (or something acting like a noun: pronoun, gerund, clause), called the object of the preposition. The preposition and its object are often separated by modifiers. Basic examp le: on the ground. More examples: under the flaky, delicious crust; below the icy sea water; with our friends.

Generic Conventions

This term describes traditions for each genre. These conventions help to define each genre; for example, they differentiate an essay and journalistic writing or an autobiography and political writing. On the AP language exam, try to distinguish the unique features of a writer's work from those dictated by convention.

Allegory

Using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. In some allegories, for example, an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. The allegorica l meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence.

apposition

When two elements, normally noun phrases, are placed side by side, with one element serving to define or modify the other. Example: Albert Einstein, perhaps the greatest of scientists, seemed not to have mastered the physics of hair combing.

Sentence

a complete thought with a subject and predicate/verb

Litotes

a form of understatement that involves making an affirmative point by denying its opposite. Litote is the opposite of hyperbole. Examples: "Not a bad idea," "Not many," "It isn't very serious. I have this tiny little tumor on the brain" (Salinger, Catcher in the Rye).

Predicate nominative

a noun, group of nouns, or noun clause that renames the subject. It, like the predicate adjective, follows a linking verb and is located in the predicate of the sentence. Example: Julia Roberts is a movie star. movie star = predicate nominative, as it renames the subject, Julia Roberts

Equivocation

allows a key word or term in an argument to shift its meaning during the course of the argument. The result is that the conclusion of the argument is not concerned with the same thing as the premise(s). Example: No one who has the slightest acquaintance with science can reasonably doubt that the miracles in the Bible actually took place. Every year we witness countless new miracles in the form recombinant DNA, micro-chips, organ transplants, and the like. (the word "miracle" does not have the same meaning in each case)

Predicate adjective

an adjective, a group of adjectives, or adjective clause that follows a linking verb. It is in the predicate of the sentence, and modifies, or describes, the subject. Example: Warren remained optimistic. optimistic = predicate adjective, as it modifies the subject, Warren

Natural symbols

are objects and occurrences from nature to symbolize ideas commonly associated with them (dawn symbolizing hope or a new beginning, a rose symbolizing love, a tree symbolizing knowledge).

Literary symbols

are sometimes also conventional in the sense that they are found in a variety of works and are more generally recognized. However, a work's symbols may be more complicated, as is the jungle in Heart of Darkness.

conventional symbol

are those that have been invested with meaning by a group (religious symbols such as a cross or Star of David; national symbols, such as a flag or an eagle; or group symbols, such as a skull and crossbones for pirates or the scale of justice for lawyers).

red herring

attempting to hide a weakness in an argument by drawing attention away from the real issue. A red herring fallacy is thus a diversionary tactic or an attempt to confuse or fog the issue being debated. Example: (after being accused by his wife of cheating at cards) Ned replies "Nothing I do ever pleases you. I spent all last week repainting the bathroom, and then you said you didn't like the color."

appeal to authority

attempts to justify an argument by citing a highly admired or well-known (but not necessarily qualified) figure who supports the conclusion being offered. Example: Laws against marijuana are plain silly. Why, Thomas Jefferson is known to have raised hemp on his own plantation.

Hasty Generalization

bases an inference on too small a sample, or on an unrepresentative sample. Often, a single example or instance is used as the basis for a broader generalization. Example: All of those movie stars are really rude. I asked Kevin Costner for his autograph in a restaurant in Westwood the other evening, and he told me to get lost.

begging the question

entails making an argument, the conclusion of which is based on an unstated or unproven assumption. In question form, this fallacy is known as a complex question. Examples: Abortion is murder, since killing a baby is an act of murder. Have you stopped beating your wife?

imperative sentence

gives a commandment

Third person limited omniscient

in which the narrator presents the feelings and thoughts of only one character, presenting only the actions of all the remaining characters.

third person omniscient

in which the narrator, with godlike knowledge, presents the thoughts and actions of any or all characters

prose

one of the major divisions of genre, prose refers to fiction and nonfiction, including all its forms. In prose the printer determines the length of the line; in poetry, the poet determines the length of the line.

ad populum

refers to popular opinion or majority sentiment in order to provide support for a claim. Often the "common man" or "common sense" provides the basis for the claim. Example: Dr. Burns's test was extremely unfair. Just ask anyone who took it.

Third person narrator

relates the events with the third person pronouns, "he," "she," and "it." There are two main subdivisions to be aware of:

Straw man

stating an opponent's argument in an extreme or exaggerated form, or attacking a weaker, irrelevant portion of an opponent's argument. Example: A mandatory seat belt law could never be enforced. You can't issue citations to dead people.

First person narrator

tells the story with the first person pronoun, "I," and is a character in the story. This narrator can be the protagonist, a secondary character, or an observing character.

Tone

the attitude of a writer, usually implied, toward the subject or audience

Subjunctive mood

typically used in dependent clauses to express wishes, commands, emotion, possibility, judgment, opinion, necessity, or statements that are contrary to fact at present. Examples: I wish that this book were still in print. If that were true, I would know it.

Situational irony

when events turn out the opposite of what was expected; when what the characters and readers think ought to happen is not what does happen

Dramatic irony

when facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of fiction but known to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work.

Verbal irony

when the words literally state the opposite of the writer's (or speaker's) meaning