ethics exam 1

naturalistic fallacy

Argues that is fallacious to infer claims about what is good or right (moral properties) from claims about natural properties We act against nature all the time - with vaccinations, electricity, medicine - many of which are ethical. Lots of things that are natural are good, but not all unnatural things are unethical. This is what the naturalistic fallacy argues.

Aristotle's Virtue Ethics

Aristotle believed that to understand something, we need to understand its nature and proper function; he also believed that everything has an end/goal toward which it naturally moves

Buddhism vs Aristotle

As with Aristotle's virtue ethics - the more you practice virtue, the more capable of virtue you are

Natural Teleology

Assumes: nature operates with a purpose.

Do some pleasures have more quality than others?

Bentham: No Mill: Yes

Utilitarianism: are all pleasures the same?

Bentham: Yes Mill: No

Do some pleasures have more quality than others? Bentham vs Mill

Both thought that the moral value of an act was determined by the pleasure it produced. Bentham considered only quantity of pleasure, but Mill considered both quantity and quality of pleasure.

COMPARE AND CONTRAST Aristotle's system, Aquinas believed, was as good as humans could achieve on the basis of the natural realm, but our end as humans is to be perfected through union with God.

For Aquinas, every event occurs because there is some end toward which things are directed, and we humans, like everything else in the universe, have our own ends. Unlike everything else, we as humans can consciously choose which ends we pursue, and ethics concerns which ends are worth our efforts to pursue.

Hobbes's social contract theory claims that moral requirements are nothing but social convention that we as rational and self-interested agents agree upon for the sake of survival

Given that everyone's life is vulnerable in the state of nature, it is mutually advantageous to obey the social convention.

Hobbe's view of Distributive Justice

Hobbes believed justice is an artificial virtue, necessary for civil society, a function of the voluntary agreements of the social contract

Both Confucianist and Daoist ethical systems teach that a community flourishes when its members are in harmony with the Dao, and that the state flourishes when its leaders are in harmony with the Dao.

However, Confucianism and Daoism are in disagreement about how communities and governments can keep in harmony with the Dao and, thus, promulgate different ideas about how to attain virtue.

Daoist & Confucian virtue ethics

In harmony with the Cosmic Dao - founded on their teaching of the Dao "the way"

Submit to moral authority along the 3 Abrahamic religions

Islam = submission, "Muslim" is one to submits to "Allah", Jesus = made it clear to be a slave to God

Aristotle believed that our purpose is to purpose our proper human end, eudaimonia - human flourishing / living well, not momentary pleasure but enduring contentment - not just a good day, GOOD LIFE

It is human nature to move toward eudaimonia and this the purpose, function, or final goal (telos) of all human activity — we work to make money, to make a home, and we sacrifice to improve our future with the ultimate goal of living well

Theory of "morality as cooperation"

Kin selection explains why we feel a special duty of care for our families

Morality evolved to promote cooperation

Many types of cooperation = many types of morality

Kantian Deontology

Moral principles are determined through that which is rational

ethical egoism

One should pursue one's own best interest / promoting one's own best interest is in accord with morality

Rawls on the Original Position and the Veil of Ignorance

Rawls suggests that you imagine yourself in an original position behind a veil of ignorance. Behind this veil, you know nothing of yourself and your natural abilities, or your position in society. You know nothing of your sex, race, nationality, or individual tastes.

Rawls view on distributive justice

Rawls's "general conception of justice", which is that "all social values - liberty and opportunity, income and wealth, and the social bases of self-respect - are to be distributed equally unless an unequal distribution of any, or all, of these values is to everyone's advantage": injustice "is simply inequalities that are not to the benefit of all" - find the worst group/person in society and make them better

moral duties

Refers to what is right or wrong—what we are obligated to do or not to do. X is morally obligatory and only if God has commanded X Y is morally prohibited if and only if God has forbidden Y

psychological egoists

The belief that all human motivation is self-interested.

We learn how to act in a suitable way (sammā, meaning best or most effective in the circumstances) by focusing on thinking suitably because our thoughts lead to our actions.

The emphasis in Buddhism is on what is suitable and unsuitable rather than on the Western sense of right and wrong or good and evil.

the natural law theory of morality

The idea is that the universe is created by God with everything holding a natural purpose

Natural Law Theory

The universe makes sense and everything fits together / internal harmony, everything has a purpose

Moral Egoism

The view that an action is right if it serves your own self-interest. An action is wrong if it does not serve our own self-interest.

Aquinas Christian version of Aristotelian virtue ethics

Thomas Aquina wrote the Summa Theologia (The Sum of Theological Knowledge) creating a system that could as advertised, provide answers to all questions - Aquina's philosophy was based on the writings of Aristotle

Buddhist conception of time - "eventually" could mean in a future life (multiple reincarnations away)

To avoid future suffering, a Buddhist focuses on developing inner virtue to think and act suitably in order to avoid negative karma and generate good karma

Buddhist Virtue Ethics Founded by Siddhartha Gautama in India 5th century

Understood in terms of a life oriented toward the eightfold path that leads to the end of suffering

COMPARE AND CONTRAST Like Aristotle, Aquinas based ethics on the pursuit of our proper human end.

Unlike Aristotle, Aquinas believed that our proper human end of eudaimonia is not found in this world.

Peter is an unemployed poor man in NYC with a family (kids in school & sick wife), cannot afford to support the family and their needs Peter has no source of income and cannot get a loan His friend John who is a millionaire will not even help him From Peter's perspective, he has only 2 options: Either he pays by stealing or does not He steals $1K from Peter to pay for his wife's treatment and kid's school tuition

Utilitarianism: Will say that what Peter has done is morally right Stealing in itself is neither bad nor good; what makes it bad or good is the consequences it produces Peter's stealing from John (the "means") - stole from one person who has less need for the money and spent the money on 3 people who have more need for the money This justification is based on the calculation that the benefits of the theft outweigh the losses caused by theft

Mill's view of pleasure

We know what is intrinsically good by reflecting on our desires. Just as the only way to tell that something is VISIBLE is to note that it is SEEN, so also the only way to tell that something is DESIRABLE is to note that it is DESIRED. Since the only thing that we desire for its own sake is pleasure and the absence of pain, this must be the only thing of intrinsic worth.

Mutualism

Why we form groups and coalitions & why we value unity, solidarity, and loyalty

Natural Law

a body of unchanging moral principles regarded as a basis for all human conduct.

Nozick's view on distributive justice

a distribution of wealth obtaining in a society as a whole is a just distribution if everyone in that society is entitled to what he has, i.e. has gotten his holdings in accordance with the principles of acquisition, transfer, and rectification.

Utilitarianism

a form of consequentialism; the moral rightness or wrongness of an act depends on the consequences it produces

metaethical theory

a theory about the nature of ethical reasoning - that sees moral obligation as equivalent to, and dependent on, the commands of God

Categorical Imperative

absolute command - do A, don't steal

Human Flourishing

acting in ways that cause your essential human nature to achieve its most excellent form of expression

Virtue ethics tend to reject the view that ethical theory should provide a set of commands that dictate what we should do on all occasions

advocate the cultivate of wisdom and character that people can use to internalize basic ethical principles from which they can determine an ethical course of action in particular situations

Moral Relativism

an ethical theory of time-and-place ethics; that is, the belief that ethical truths depend on the individuals and groups holding them

moral realism

an inflexible view that behaviors are either right or wrong, with no in-between - morality really exists and is objective

Deontology - right actions

are ones we ought to do (are morally required to do)

Applied ethics

attempts to figure out, in actual cases, whether or not certain acts have those feature - devoted to the treatment of moral problems, practices, and policies in personal life, professions, technology, and government.

Morality

concern with the distinction between good and evil or right and wrong - requires us to keep promises, treat others fairly, benefit those in need , acting not in our own self-interest, helping the needy etc

Assess moral theories by

consulting moral intuitions about thought experiments or real life cases.These can be referred to as common sense.

Hypotheical Imperative

contingent command — if you want/need A, then you need to do B

Plato's Euthyphro is a Socratic dialogue

covers the subjects of piety and justice

Adepts of both Confucianism and Daoism believe that to be in the Dao and in harmony is to be virtuous and at peace

enduring harmony with Dao — similar to Aristotle's eudaimonia

objects fulfill their purpose, not out of conscious desire but because it is in their nature to fulfill their functions

example: a seed grows into a tree because the purpose and function of the seed is to grow into a tree

Virtue ethicists place more importance on being a person who is

honest, trustworthy, generous and other virtues that lead to a good life, and place less importance on one's ethical duty or obligations.

Rationality

is a quality of an individual to think or make decisions sensibly or logically i.e. with a valid reason.

The Divine Command Theory of Morality (DCT)

is a theory of moral obligation that equates our moral duties to the commandments of God

Reason

is the justification for an action or event. Rationality and reason are different because Rationality originates from reason but reason does not originate from rationality.

ayn rands ethical egoism

life is the ultimate value and hence, no society can be of value to man's life if the price is the surrender of his right to his life

consequentialist theory

maximizing the good / good defined in terms of happiness / pleasure

Theories of Kin Selection

moral belief / we evolve to have a basic morality (doing the right thing, honesty, fairness, and equality)

Kant's approach gives

no guidance about conflicts between rules.

example of ethical egoism

only when every player promotes their best interest (playing to win) would the best outcome ensue (the players will reach their potential and viewers will enjoy watching the game.

god designed our body for specific purposes

our sexual organs have the function for reproductive of our species, "walking on hands" is considered an abomination and inorganic, not intended in God's original purpose of how we use our hands

Dworkin's view on distributive justice

people begin with equal resources but be allowed to end up with unequal economic benefits as a result of their own choices.

Aristotle held that a good life of lasting contentment can be gained only by a life of virtue:

phronesis (practical wisdom) & arete (excellence)

Rawls idea of "original position"

represents equality between human beings as moral persons

Distributive Justice

seek to specify what is meant by a just distribution of good among members of society

instrumental value

something that has worth as an instrument or a tool that can be used to accomplish a goal

God's commands

source of morality

Hobbes state of nature

state of war "every man against every man" - - The state of nature was like an existence where each man lives for himself. It is characterized by extreme competition and no one looks out for another. He believed that when people have unlimited freedom, it leads to chaos and a war-like scenario

A common theme among virtue ethicists is

stressing the importance of cultivating ethical values in order to increase human happiness.

Normative ethics

studies what features make an action right or wrong - investigates the questions that arise regarding how one ought to act, in a moral sense

By making one's thoughts and actions suitable, one promotes positive outcomes and lessens harmful outcomes. A life of virtue is outlined by the eightfold path:

suitable view, intention, mindfulness, concentration, effort, speech, bodily conduct, and livelihood.

Social Contract Theory

the basic idea of social contract theory in ethics is that ethical rules are sets of conventionally established limits we impose on ourselves in keeping with our own longer-term interests

Ethical Egoism

the belief that individuals should live their lives so as to maximize their own pleasure and minimize their own pain

Both utilitarianism and Kantian theory emphasize

the equality of people

Descriptive Ethics

the scientific study of moral beliefs and practices

Psychological Egoism

the theory that people always act in their own self interest, whether they know it or not

Karma

thoughts and actions that intend to harm others will eventually cause harm to ourselves / thoughts and actions that intend to benefit others will eventually benefit us

There are two main objections to virtue ethics as an ethical system

vagueness and relativism

intrinsic value

value independent of any benefit to humans

Deontology - wrong actions

we ought not to do (morally forbidden)

conflict resolution

why we engage in costly displays of prowess such as bravery and generosity, why we defer to our superiors, why we divide disputed resources fairly, and why we recognise prior possession.

social exchange theory

why we trust others, reciprocate favours, feel guilt and gratitude, make amends, and forgive

A maxim is thought to be part of an agent's thought process for every rational action

(1) the action, or type of action; (2) the conditions under which it is to be done; and (3) the end or purpose to be achieved by the action, or the motive.

The truly virtuous person:

- Knows what she or he is doing - Chooses a virtuous act for its own sake. - Chooses as a result of a settled moral state. - Chooses gladly and easily.

COMPARISONS - ARISTOTLE & AQUINAS

- Like Aristotle, Aquinas believed that ethical understanding comes through virtue and that virtue is a skill that must be developed. - Also like Aristotle, Aquinas believed that we learn what is ethical through our reason, which we can use to uncover God's natural law that is imbued in creation. By rationally reflecting on what is in accord with nature and our own natural inclinations, we can understand the ethical virtues

We have intuitions about

- Rights - Justice - Obligations to family

Aquinas Aristotelian's idea that humans can rationally understand ethical principles had to deal with the Christian concept that humanity's sinful nature prevented such understanding

- Sins affect our moral life but not our rational life - Aquina borrows from Islamic philosophers the conception that intellect is both passive and and active - Intellect passively takes in sense experience and ideas but actively processes them to abstract universal truths

Utilitarianism: are all pleasures the same? BENTHAM

- The greatest happiness for the greatest number Example: if seven like chocolate and three like vanilla, and if all of them get the same amount of pleasure from the flavor they like, then you should choose chocolate

2 types of imperatives (Kantian Deontology)

1. Hypothetical 2. Categorical

Aristotle saw the human soul as having 3 components:

1. The nutritive part - responsible for taking in nutrition 2. The sensitive and appetitive part - response for sensing and responding to the environment including desires and appetites that motivate actions 3. The rational part - responsible for practical and productive intellect All 3 are essential to being human - but they exist in a clear hierarchy

the 7 cooperative behaviors

1. considered morally good 2. most of these morals were found in most societies / no counter examples 3. morals were observed with equal frequency across continents - not just the west

concept of virtue

4 ethical systems

How many moral rules appear to be universal across cultures?

7

Confucianism

A philosophy that adheres to the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius. It shows the way to ensure a stable government and an orderly society in the present world and stresses a moral code of conduct.

Rawl's maximin principle

A principle of decision theory, that counsels that at least in some circumstance, the right decision is that which maximizes the minimum outcome: i.e., that which makes the worst outcome as good as can be.

Daoism

A religion in China which emphasizes the removal from society and to become one with nature.

Criticisms of Moral Relativism

Criticisms of moral relativism: no room for universal rights, no room for ideas of moral progress

Virtue Ethics

Emphasis on developing oneself as a good person - Following rules is not that important, it is the sense that being ethical means more than simply just following the rules

Dworkin's Equality of Resources / Opportunity

Equal attention / The idea is to ensure that people have a fair, if not equal, distribution of resources so that they can make choices about the goods they want.

Utilitarianism: are all pleasures the same? MILL

Equates happiness with pleasure - Not all pleasures have equal value; higher pleasures of the mind are better than the lower pleasures of the body

ethical egoism vs psychological egoism

Ethical egoism is more appealing than psychological egoism however ethical egoism lacks authorization regulation of interpersonal conflicts of interest / incoherent

Adam Smith's ethical egoistic claims

Every man is, no doubt, by nature, first and principally recommended to his own care; and as he is fitter to take care of himself than of any other person, it is fit and right that it should be so. Although he believes that one should first pursue one's best interest, Smith does not advocate being a selfish, cold-blooded person /mutual kindness is necessary for happiness

Nozick's Libertarianism

Everyone has rights to basic freedoms or liberties / limited role for the state