Ethics Test 1
20. In what situations may a student be seen without informed consent?
(1) In emergency situations or (2) if there is reason to believe a student may pose a danger to others, (3) is at risk for self-harm, (4) or is in danger of injury, exploitation, or maltreatment. Additionally, if a student self-refers for assistance, it is ethically permissible to meet with the student for several meetings to determine the nature and degree of services.
63. What are the three situations in which the school psychologist is obligated to share confidential student disclosures?
(1) When the student requests it. (2) When there is a situation involving danger to the student or others. (3) When there is a legal obligation to testify in a court of law (JDH, p. 53-54).
12. What underlies all ethical codes?
(1) avoiding wrong doing, doing the right thing, doing what is best, and doing what we should do (2) establishing ethical principles of action (3) reflectively analyzing and evaluating the rightness or wrongness of actions (4) practically making decisions often in the context of conflicting values or competing stakeholders (5) prioritizing and integrating diverse values in crafting decisions, policies, or recommendations
8. When did APA first adopt an ethics code?
1953
7. When was the last revision to the NASP ethics code?
2010
78. Why is it helpful to understand the ethical codes for APA and other groups as well as the NASP ethical code?
A practitioner with a sounds knowledge base of ethics principles may be better prepared to make good choices when challenging situations arise. Furthermore, regardless of association membership or level of training, trainees and practitioners may be expected to know and abide by the NASP and APA ethics codes in their work setting.
25. What is meant by the term "mandated reporter?"
A professional due to the nature of their job, is required by law to report reasonable suspicions of abuse
70. Can a school psychologist provide a new intervention that she has heard about from a friend?
An intervention must be evidence-based and fit the demographics of the school.
50. How should ethical decisions be made?
Describe the parameters of the problem. Describe and consider complementary and conflicting ethical guidelines, federal & state laws, district policies, professional duties and personal values. Evaluate the rights & welfare of individual, CLD factors, function of the problem. Generate short-term and long-term consequences and risks/benefits. Consult with colleagues. Make decision and create plan of action. Evaluate effects of decision.
59. How many times can you see a student without permission?
Ethically zero times, unless in the case of emergency situations where "one or several meetings" may occur according the NASP ethics code, or otherwise dictated by state laws.
57. When can you bypass the child's assent?
If service is considered to be a direct benefit to the child and their well-being and/or is required by law.
32. What is the impact of sharing sole possession notes?
If the information is shared with anyone, the school psychologist can no longer claim the notes are confidential, and they are no longer privileged. If subpoenaed in court, it would be difficult to make a case for not disclosing private notes if they have been shared.
49. Who is responsible for the work and behavior of school psychology students in the field setting?
NASP-PPE II.2.4 "When supervising graduate students' field experiences or internships, school psychologists are responsible for the work of their supervisees"
72. How can a school psychologist protect teachers when gathering fidelity data?
Pg. 56-57 Ethics and Law book- Discuss the parameters of confidentiality at the onset of the school psychologist-consultee relationship with the teacher, and ensure that others in the school setting (principal) have a clear prior agreement about those parameters. Violation of confidentiality in consultation with teachers is likely to result in a loss of trust in the school psychologist and impair their ability to work with the consultee and other staff Pg. 239 Ethics and Law book- It is of critcal importance that researchers in the schools have a clear prior understanding with all parties involved, including students, parents, teachers, and administrators, regarding what information will be shared with whom, and what information will not be disclosed. School administrators may believe that they have a legitimate right to information gathered about individual teachers.
55. What are the three key elements of informed consent?
"Knowing, competent and voluntary" Knowing- clear understanding of what consenting to i.e. nature & scope, goals, risks, costs, etc. Competent- legally defined competence; children are not considered legally competent thus parents and guardians must be the ones to give consent Voluntary- freely agreed to; not coerced or agreed to through misrepresentation
52. Who is the school psychologist's primary client?
"Most agree that children (and parents) are the primary clients"
45. Who must provide consent for a minor child to be involved in research?
"When research involves children (minors) as study participants, legal standards and codes of ethics (SRCD Principles 2, 3) suggest that the researcher should seek informed consent or permission of the parent of legal guardian for the child to participate, and the child's assent to participate." (Jacob et al., 2011; pp. 232)
15. What are the ethical requirements to develop competence?
(1) have sensitivity to the ethical components of their work and aware that their actions have real ethical consequences that can potentially harm as well as help others (2) sound working knowledge of the codes of ethics, professional standards, and law pertinent to delivery of services (3) committed to proactive rather than reactive stance in ethical thinking and conduct (4) have the ability to analyze the ethical dimensions of a situation and demonstrate a well-developed ability to reason about ethical issues and have mastered the use of a problem-solving model (5) strive to understand the manner in which culture influences their own view of others and other's view of them (6) awareness of their own feelings, beliefs, and values and their potential influence on professional decision making (7) strive for excellence rather than meeting minimal obligations outlined in code of ethics (8) acknowledge and accept that there may be more than one appropriate course of action (9) have the personal strength to act on decisions made and accept responsibility for their action
51. Why was the Canadian code unique?
1-The Canadian code of ethics was the first to be conceptually organized and cohesive. It utilized empirical data and dilemmas to assist practitioners in ethical decision-making and generating solutions. 2-This was the first code to look beyond the individual client to address benefitting society and the environments clients function within, thus the responsible to promote healthy environments and advocate for vulnerable populations.
40. What ethical standards should a school psychologist follow during assessment?
Assessment should be: **Multifaceted: Psychoed assessment of child should be based on information "gathered from multiple measures and multiple informants." IDEA - evaluation procedures must include findings from a variety of assessment tools and strategies **Comprehensive: Children w/disabilities must be assessed in "all areas related to the suspected disability (NASP-PPE II.3.3; Standard 13.7) **Fair: SPs srive to conduct fair and valid assessments. "They actively pursue knowledge of the students disabilities, and developmental, cultural, linguistic, and experiential background and then select, administer, and interpret assessment instruments and procedures in light of those characteristics" (NASP-PPE II.3.5; also APA-EP 9.02) {Includes Limited English Proficiency, children w/ disabilities, and ethnic minority students} **Valid: SPs use assessment techniques and practices that the profession considers to be responsible, research-based practice (NASP-PPE II.3.2). The select instruments and strategies that are reliable and valid for the child and the purpose of assessment (NASP-PPE II.3.2; also APA-EP 9.02). Useful: School psychologists use their expertise in assessment for the purpose of improving the quality of life for the child (NASP-PPE Introduction). IDEA requires that assessment tools and strategies "provide relevant information that directly assists persons in determining the educational needs of the child" (Jacob p. 145-147)
62. When should the parameters of confidentiality be discussed?
At the onset of establishing a school psychologist-client professional relationship (JDH, p. 52). For students: During the initial interview (JDH, p. 53). For parents: When seeking consent to provide services to a minor (JDH, p. 53).
36. What are blanket consent and notice? What are the ethical issues involved?
Blanket consent is given only once, but covers the use of the material at any time in the future. Notice is the school supplying information about impending actions (Jacob p.51)
16. How are ethical complaints to be addressed first?
Both APA and NASP require members to monitor the ethical conduct of their professional colleagues, and support the attempt to resolve concerns informally before filing a complaint.
53. What kinds of rights to children have?
Children are protected under the U.S. Constitution, the Bill of Rights as well as all federal and state laws (IDEA, FERPA) Right to privacy (confidentiality is ethical but not a right) Right to autonomy or self-determination
47. What parameters surround the issue of confidentiality in supervision?
Client confidentiality applies to supervisor-supervisee relationships & should be addressed in a professional disclosure statement
48. When may confidentiality in the supervisory relationship be breached?
Confidentiality may be breached during evaluations of supervisee performance which will be shared with others (ex. university evaluations) or if a breach in confidentiality is necessary to protect the welfare of a client
68. Are school psychologists obligated to offer a number of options for consideration or specific recommendations?
Ethically, yes, according to the following NASP principles regarding both parents & students: "Practitioners discuss with parents the recommendations and plans for assisting their children. This discussion takes into account the ethical/cultural values of the family and includes alternatives that may be available (NASP-PPE-II.3.10) (JDH, p. 153). "Recommendations for program changes or additional services are discussed with the student, along with any alternatives that may be available (NASP-PPE-II.3.11) (JDH, p. 153).
71. Where would you find a scientific research-based intervention?
Evaluation of a SEL Curriculum- Resources on the Internet.pdf Children's Mental Health- http://nrepp.samhsa.gov/ Social, Emotional, and Behavioral- http://www.casel.org/sel/ meta.php Academic- http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/
76. When there is an ethical decision to make, how should school psychologists go about making the decision?
Follow the eight-step problem-solving model adapted from Koocher and Keith-Spiegel (2008, pp. 21-25) on pg 21 in the Ethics and Law book. 1. Describe the parameters of the situation. 2. Define the potential ethical-legal issues involved. 3. Consult ethical and legal guidelines and district policies that might apply to the resolution of each issue. Consider the broad ethical principles as well as specific mandates involved. 4. Evaluate the rights, and welfare of all parties (e.g., pupil, teachers, classmates, other school staff, parents, siblings). Consider the cultural characteristics of affected parties that may be salient to the decision. 5. Generate a list of alternative decisions possible for each issue. 6. Enumerate the consequences of making each decision. Evaluate the short-term, ongoing, and long-term consequences of each possible decision, considering the possible psychological, social, and economic costs to affected parties. Consider how each possible course of action would affect the dignity of and the responsible caring for all the people involved. Consultation with colleagues may be helpful. 7. Consider any evidence that the various consequences or benefits resulting from each decision will actually occur (i.e., a risk-benefit analysis). 8. Make the decision. Consistent with code of ethics (APA, NASP), the school psychologist accepts responsibility for the decision made and monitors the consequences of the course of action chosen.
61. What are the circumstances that require parental notice?
If RTI is used as part of the identification process (PowerPoint slides). Prior to the administration of a questionnaire that seeks information about mental or psychological problems potentially embarrassing to the student or family (PowerPoint slides).
35. What should a school psychologist do if a client discloses past criminal acts? What ethical considerations are necessary?
If a school-based psychologist believes the past crimes of a minor student should be reported to legal authorities, the issue should be discussed with the student and parents. The student's parents should be encouraged to report the crime but to obtain legal representation for their child before they contact legal authorities (Jacob p. 180)
41. What are the ethical implications of working with children from culturally diverse backgrounds?
Important to ensure that all assessments/evaluations/services are performed with consideration of a student's cultural background (NASP-PPE I.3) and be aware of how factors of diversity can influence development, behavior, and learning (NASP-PPE I.3.2) Obligation to pursue knowledge/understanding of diversity in order to ensure competent assessment/practice (NASP-PPE II.1.2) Acknowledgement of within-group and between-group differences with regards to cultural beliefs & practices soft universalism- assume basic universal values or goals but understand that cultures may differ on the specifics Consideration of level of acculturation of parents and children, language abilities, possible need for an interpreter
6. When did NASP first adopt an ethic code?
In 1974, NASP adopted its first code of ethics, the Principles for Professional Ethics (Principles), and revisions were made in 1984, 1992, 1997, and 2000.
56. When can you bypass parent consent?
In emergency situations to ensure the student is not a danger to self or others. If a student is 18, state regulations may deem parental consent unnecessary.
54. Is it important to ask about the family's income or religion?
Information about relevant family circumstances (poverty, acculturation, religion) should be ascertained in order to obtain an ecological understanding of the student and possible interventions. Families have a right to privacy and information gathering should be done in a professional and culturally sensitive manner.
39. Does confidentiality apply to the results of assessment? If so, how?
Information included in the student's school psychological file or other education record as defined by FERPA cannot be considered privileged because it is accessible to parties outside of an established school-psychologist-client professional relationship.
58. Why is it important to gain a student's assent to service?
It is morally and ethically desirable to gain a student's assent to services. Assent allows us to gain buy-in from a student and the student to actively express preferences, wishes and be part of the decision-making team.
33. Do parents have a right to review and copy test protocols? What ethical issues are involved?
Legally speaking, DOE policy is that the form on which an individual student's answers are recorded is an education record as defined by FERPA. Thus, parents have a legal right to inspect and review their child's responses recorded on a school psychological test protocol. Protocols cannot be considered private notes. However, this conflicts ethically with the practitioner's ethical obligation to maintain test security and respecting purchase agreements. - Under FERPA, a school is not legally required to provide copies of test protocols, w/ exception: "If circumstances effectively prevent the parent or eligible student from exercising the right to inspect and review the student's education records, the educational agency or institution, or State Educational Agency or its component, shall - 1. Provide the parent of eligible student w/ copy of records requested; or 2. Make arrangements for the parent or eligible student to inspect and review the requested records (Jacob p. 68-69)
38. Is student consent required for assessment?
Minors have no legal right to "consent, assent, or object to proposed psychoeducational evaluations. It is ethically permissible to assess a minor child without his or her explicit assent is the assessment promises to benefit his or her welfare
13. What are multiple relationships? What are the ethical concerns?
Multiple relationships: Taking on a professional role when their own interests could reasonably be expected to impair their objectivity, competence, or effectiveness or expose clients to harm or exploitation. In terms of parents; when the school psychologist takes on a role in relation to a students parents and at the same time has another relationship with the parents or a person closely associated with the parents. Ethical concerns: Will the relationship impair the school psychologist's performance? Will there be a blurring of professional boundaries? Will there be conflicting interests?
43. What ethical standards apply to the use of computers and software programs?
NASP Standards: Standard II.4.1 addresses discussion of creation, modification, storage, & disposal of records of services with parents & adult students, including notification of electronic storage & transmission as well as risks to privacy Standard II.4.7 addresses responsibility of school psychologists in protecting electronic files (i.e. encryption, passwords) Standards I.2.2 & I.2.5 address minimizing intrusion on privacy & boundaries to privacy Standard II.3.2 addresses use of accurate & valid programs for computer-administered assessments and/or computer-assisted scoring or interpreting APA Standards: p.1061 states that APA ethics code applies to activities across a variety of contexts, including internet & electronic transmissions Standard 4.02(c) limits of confidentiality includes informing clients of risks to privacy/confidentiality regarding electronic transmission of info
37. Is parent consent required for assessment? If so, what exceptions apply?
Practitioners are ethically obligated to seek informed consent to establish a psychologist-client relationship for the purpose of conducting a school psychological evaluation. Under IDEA, written consent of the parent is needed to conduct an initial evaluation of a child to determine if the child has a disability as defined in the law. However, also under IDEA, if the parent fails to provide consent for an initial evaluation of a child with a suspected disability, the school may use mediation and other due process procedures in an effort to overrule parent failure to consent. Schools are not require to pursue an initial evaluation of a child with a suspected disability if the parent fails to provide consent to do so. Furthermore, if child is homeschooled or enrolled in private school and fails to provide consent or respond to consent, the school may not use IDEA consent override procedures (Jacob p. 143).
2. Why were ethics codes established?
Protect the public and those who receive school psychological services by SENSITIZING school psychologists to the ethical aspects of their work, EDUCATING them about appropriate conduct, helping them monitor their own behavior, and providing STANDARDS to be used in the resolution of complaints of unethical conduct.
31. What is a sole possession record? May school psychologists keep such notes?
Records that are kept in the sole possession of the maker, are used only as a personal memory aid, and are not accessible or revealed to any other person except a temporary substitute for the maker of the record. Under FERPA it is permissible for school psychologists to keep personal notes about their contacts with pupils, parents, or other recipients of service. MUST BE KEPT CONFIDENTIAL.
75. What should school psychologist do when they feel they must speak against the school system?
School psychologists are wise to emphasize the potential positive effects of implementing new policies and practices in their systems-level advocacy efforts rather than simply criticizing existing practices. In addition, school psychologists must take care to identify when they are speaking as an employee versus speaking as a private citizen, recognizing that there are more constitutional protections for free speech as a private citizen than in their job role.
17. When dealing with multiple clients, what ethical stand should the school psychologist take?
School psychologists should avoid dealing with multiple relationships, and must refrain from any activity that may interfere with professional effectiveness. School psychologists must attempt to resolve such issues in a manner that best benefits the client.
74. Must school psychologists speak up as advocates for children if this is contrary to their obligations to the school district?
School-based practitioners are not ethically required to engage in insubordination as part of their efforts to advocate for children. Although widely varying definitions of the term insubordination exist across states, dismissal of school employees for insubordination has been upheld in many cases. If a school psychologist believes it is necessary to engage in insubordination to safeguard fundamental human rights, the practitioner should seek legal advice.
60. Can you administer a survey without parental permission?
Screening by a teacher or specialist: if instructional, consent is not required. Notify parents before school or classroom wide screening Notify parents re: mental health screening (and be given the opportunity to remove their chid from participation) (JDH, p. 143 & PowerPoint slides).
46. Who may provide supervision for school psychology students and practitioners?
Supervisors must be state-certified & have had 3 years of experience as a practicing school psychologist (NASP Model of Comprehensive & Integrated Services by School Psychologists, Organizational Principle 5)
21. What is privileged communication?
The LEGAL right of the client to prevent disclosure to other parties of information revealed in an established psychologist-client relationship.
14. How do ethical standards apply to multiple relationships?
The client's best interest must come first in making decisions regarding multiple relationships.
19. When can a student give informed consent?
The legal system considers children to be incompetent and not capable of making legally binding decisions, so in a school setting a student can only give informed consent if they are 18 years or older.
18. What are the 3 key elements of informed consent?
The person giving consent has the legal authority to: (1) make a consent decision, (2) a clear understanding of what it is he or she is consenting to, (3) and that his or her consent is freely given and may be withdrawn without prejudice.
11. How do ethics codes and professional guidelines differ?
They differ in both scope and intent. Ethics codes are the FORMAL principles that make clear the proper conduct of a professional school psychologist Professional guidelines are to PROTECT the public and those who receive school psychological services by sensitizing school psychologists to the ethical aspects of their work. Guidelines are viewed as suggestions or recommendations, and are generally advisory or aspirational.
69. What should a school psychologist do who does not have the expertise to implement a particular service?
They should seek assistance through supervision, consultation, and referral; they can also complete appropriate and verifiable training before offering services/techniques that expand the scope of their expertise.
44. What ethical considerations apply in consultation? Who is the client?
Ultimately, the client is whomever is in the most vulnerable position (Canadian Psych. Assoc., Principle I); this often means that the student, and by extension the parent/caregiver, is the client NASP Principles: Principle I. Respecting the Dignity & Rights of All Persons (school psychologists must respect dignity & rights of consultee & the student re: informed consent, confidentiality, fairness/nondiscrimination) Principle III. Honesty & Integrity in Professional Relationships Principle III.1. addresses accurate representation of one's professional qualifications (Standards III.1.1 & III.1.2) Principle III.2. addresses clear explanation of the nature & scope of one's services Standards III.2.1 & III.2.4 call for school psychologists to explain professional competencies, roles, assignments & relationships as well as make known priorities & commitments when providing services to different groups where loyalties may conflict Standard III.3.1 cooperation with other professionals based on mutual respect & promoting coordination of services Principle III.4 Multiple Relationships & Conflicts of Interest Standard IV.1.1 addresses one's awareness of factors influencing the settings in which services are provided in order to promote effective consultation APA Standards: Standard 3.05 Multiple Relationships Standard 3.06 Conflict of Interest
77. Why is it important to have a deep understanding of ethics?
Understanding appropriate professional conduct, encouraged by associations such as NASP and APA, will ensure that each person served by a school psychologist will receive the highest quality of professional service. As a result, the public's trust in psychologists and psychology is enhanced and maintained.
34. How should a school psychologist respond to a threat of client self harm?
When student is considered to be suicidal, the situation should be reported to a designated professional who has training in assessment of suicide lethality and suicide prevention. SP might serve as one of designated staff members. Student should be assessed for the lethality of suicidal ideation because the degree of lethality determines the appropriate course of action. Parents must be contacted in all cases, whether the risk is determined to be low or high (Jacob p. 175-176).
42. May practicum and intern students provide services? What ethical standards are involved?
Yes, practicum & intern students may provide services NASP Standards: Principle I. Respect for the Dignity & Rights of All Persons (supervisors must consider the welfare of clients & supervisees) Standard I.1.3 addresses the need to obtain informed consent from parents when a grad. student is providing services Principle II. Professional Competence & Responsibility (supervisors must provide supervision only in areas in which they are competent; supervisors ensure that supervisees are competent to provide services to protect client welfare) Standard II.2.4 addresses the school psychologist's responsibility for the work of supervisees in field experience settings Principle III. Honesty & Integrity in Professional Relationships (supervisor-supervisee relationship maintains a professional nature; consider issues of multiple relationships) Standard III.4.3 addresses non-exploitation of clients, supervisees, or grad. students Principle IV. Responsibility to Schools, Families, Communities, the Profession, & Society Standards IV.4.1 through IV.4.4 address responsibilities of school psychologists as mentors for practicum & intern students APA Standards: Standard 2.01 Boundaries of Competence Standard 2.05 Delegation of Work to Others Standard 7. Education & Training (7.01 through 7.07)
73. Is progress monitoring ethical?
Yes. Pg 165 Ethics and Law book says it is unethical not to monitor progress. Citing that NASP's code of ethics specifically requires practitioners to: "actively monitor the impact of there recommendations and intervention plans. They revise a recommendation, or modify or terminate an intervention plan, when data indicate the desired outcomes are not being attained. School psychologists seek the assistance of others in supervisory, consultative, or referral roles when progress monitoring indicates that their recommendations and interventions are not effective in assisting a client" (NASP-PPE II.2.2).
28. What is the duty to protect? With what famous case is this associated?
a. School based practitioners have a legal as well as an ethical obligation to take reasonable steps to protect all students from reasonably foreseeable harm. b. Tarrasoff v Regents of California, 1974 (page 55) Poddar was a client, when he made threats to kill his girlfriend. Tarasoff therapist notified police and they went to him, he said no I have no plan to do this. So, Poddar stopped going to therapy and in two months he killed Tarasoff. iv. Finding: therapists -patient relationships must yield in instances in which disclosure is essential to avert danger to others; the protective privilege end where the public peril begins: v. Second ruling: a therapist had a duty to exercise reasonable care to protect the foreseeable victim from harm. The professional may discharge the duty in several ways, including notifying police, warning the intended victim, and/or taking other reasonable steps to protect the threatened individual.
23. What is confidentiality? How should it be explained to parents, children, and teachers?
a. School psychologists respect he confidentiality of information obtained during their professional work. Information is not revealed to third parties without the agreement of minor child's parent or legal guardian (or adult student, expect in those situations in which failure to release information would result in danger to the student or others, or where otherwise required by law. Whenever feasible, student assent is obtained prior to disclosure of his or her confidence to third parties, including disclosures to the student's parents. (p 52) b. How should it be explained to parents, children, and teachers? i. (with the exception of urgent situations) schools psychologists define the parameters of confidentiality at the onset of establishing a school psychologist-client professional relationship. The parameters of the promise of confidentiality will vary depending on the nature of the services offered. ii. If information learned within a school psychologist-client relationship is shared with third parties, such information is disclosed only on a need to know basis. School psychologists discuss and/or release confidential information only for professional purposes and only with persons who have a legitimate need to know. ALSO- only information "essential to the understanding and resolution: of a students difficulties is disclosed. iii. Medical or other sensitive personal information "belongs to the student and family, not the school. Therefore it is generally the students (or parents) right to control who has access to that information, especially when disclosure might cause harm.
22. When must privileged communication be breached?
a. The parent or legal guardian has the rights to disclose/or not disclose information to third parties b. If the client knows the limits of their communications that are privileged- the school psychologist has the right to breach privilege under the rights of duty to protect. (p 60) c. SP is required to report information under state law: Suspected child abuse or other state mandates reporting d. Client expresses intent to engage in conduct likely to result in imminent death or serious injury to the client or others, during legal proceedings to hospitalize a client for mental illness, for court orders psychological examination of a client, when a client claims mental illness as part of a legal defense, and during malpractice suits filed by client against the psychologist. e. Judges may also waive privilege in child custody proceedings.
26. What circumstances impact confidentiality with children?
i. Student confidences must be shared with others when necessary to safeguard students from reasonably foreseeable risk of harm to self or others, a less stringent standard for disclosure of confidential information than clear or imminent danger, terms often used in state laws regulating mental health providers. ii. When the psychologist is working collaboratively with the teacher and/or parent in assisting the student, information will most likely be shared by those involved in the collaborative effort. - need to have assent from client about limitations of confidentiality and limits among those involved in collaborative effort iii. SP do not share information about the sexual orientation, gender identity, or transgender status of a student (including minors), parent, or school employee with anyone without individual's permission (1.2.6) same for sensitive health information (1.2.7) (p 56)
24. When must confidentiality be breached?
iv. When the student requests it v. There is a situation involving danger to the student or others vi. When it is the legal obligation to testify in a court of law. - Privileged communication. -When there is imminent risk of injury to the student, others, or property that would justify the breach of confidentiality (p 58) f. (p 55)Duty to protect-failure to release information would result in danger to the student or others, or where otherwise required by law g. (p 55) only with the consent of the person or the persons legal representative- except in those unusual circumstances where not to do so would result in clear danger to the person or others