Euro Unit Test 3

Immanuel Kant

"What is Enlightenment", represented declaration of intellectual independence and awakening, likened intellectual history of humanity to growth of a child, escape from humanity's self-imposed immaturity, an overdue break from the parental figure (Catholic Church), reason required autonomy, freedom from tradition

War of Spanish Succession (1701 - 1714) Belligerents

France, Spain loyal to Philip against HRE, Austria, Prussia, various German states, England/Great Britain, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain loyal to Habsburgs, because France is so powerful, no one wants them to be more powerful

Story of Calas and Voltaire

Calas was convicted of murdering his son, was a protestant in a high religious tension area, was tortured twice then his head was finally cut off, Voltaire was appalled by the verdict and punishment, wrote to clear Calas's name, case exemplified everything backwards in European culture: ignorance and religious fanaticism, torture showed power of the courts but didn't uncover the truth, barbaric punishments defied reason, morality and human dignity, showed concerns of dangers of arbitrary and unchecked authority, value of religious tolerance, importance of the law reason and human dignity,

Ranking of Revolution Factors

1) Weak leadership and poor image of the royal family, 2) Economic crises, 3) Enlightenment influences, 4) Economic influences, 5) Political influences

How Louis XVI made everything worse

1787 and 1788 principal ministers Charles de Calonne and Lomenie de Brienne proposed new taxes to meet growing deficit, stamp duty and direct tax on annual produce of land, king summoned Assembly of Notables from aristocracy 1787, trying to get the nobles to start paying taxes, insisted that any new taxes must be approved by Estates General, (representative body of the Three Estates) say they don't have ability or permission, said king had no legal authority to arrest and imprison arbitrarily, echoed the English in 1688 and Americans in 1776, Louis XVI summoned Estates General (hadn't met since 1614, absolutism) in 1789, seemed like the only solution to the worsening problems, long-term grievances and short-term hardships produced bread riots in spring of 1789, fear of forces of law and order were collapsing and that common people might take matters into their hands, each estate elected own deputies, Third Estate elected indirectly through assemblies, assemblies had to make list of grievances, fFurther heightened expectations of fundamental reform, delegates of the Third Estates represented outlook of an elite, previously each estate met and voted as a body, First and Second Estates would join together to beat out the Third Estate, Third said they would no tolerate this, leaders of Third Estate agreed the three orders should sit together and vote as individuals, insisted the Third Estate should have twice as many members as the First and Second, had the feeling of they weren't as important, a put down to the Third Estate, Louis opposed this, and then changed his position, very indecisive, no yes maybe, unwillingness to take a strong stand on voting cost him potential support from Third Estate, June 27 Louis XVI conceded his right by ordering all delegated to join the National Assembly (what an idiot), week after the Tennis Court Oath, tells them to join in, many won't but many also do

French Revolution Fourth Stage (1789 - 1815)

Bonaparte's rule punctuated by victories and catastrophes stretched from 1799 to 1815, began as a republic, became an empire and ended in Battle at Waterloo, after his defeat, other monarchs restored the Bourbons to the throne, this restoration was short lived, and cycle of revolution and reaction continued into the 1800s, was Napoleon a continuation of the revolution, or the end?

First wave of revolutionary actions

Abbe Emmanuel Sieyes, radical member of clergy wrote pamphlet called "What is the Third Estate?", said everything and pointed to 18th century social changes to bolster his argument, May 1789 Third Estate was angry, took revolutionary step to leave the body and declared itself the National Assembly, were locked out of the Estates General on June 20, so Third Estate and some sympathetic nobles and clergymen moved to an indoor tennis court, said their meeting mansion was closed for repairs, really wanted the other two estates to be taxes, National Assembly had leadership of volatile and maverick aristocrat Mirabeau and radical clergyman Sieyes (an abbot), Third Estate bound not to separate until they drafted a constitution for France, called the Tennis Court Oath of June 20, 1789, continue to meet their and will not be silenced until their demands are met, marked as beginning of the revolution, Sieyes will be one of the few early revolutionaries who would survive the revolution, claimed authority to remake the government in the name of the people, National Assembly asserted right to act as highest sovereign power in the nation, first real representative body, government from 1789 to 1791, initial governing body during the revolution

Mary Wollstonecraft

British writer, Rousseau's sharpest critic, published "A Vindication of the Rights of Women" 1792 during French Revolution, men are the audience because they are the only ones who can make a change, also published at a time when major decisions in France are made in terms of rights to vote, argument was anchored on Enlightenment debates, shared Rousseau's political views and admired his writing and influence, was a republican and called monarchy awful, made equation to patriarchy as many monarchs made analogies with patriarchal structure, more force against inequality and artificial distinctions of rank birth and wealth, said society should seek perfection of our nature and capability of happiness, argued that women had the same innate capacity for reason and self-government as men (that it wasn't determined by sex), virtue should mean the same thing for men and women, relations between sexes should be based on equality, said education for woman had to promote liberty and self-reliance, moralist's version of a corrupt society, concern with virtues and community

Seven Years War (1754/56 - 1763) Results

France looses all of Canada to Great Britain, temporarily loses Louisiana to Spain, Indian trade and territories to Great Britain (leads to eventual colonial domination of the subcontinent), basically the biggest loser, Britain gains the mentioned above, becomes dominant naval power, helped lead to loss of America, almost bankrupt from the war, leads to controversial taxes and customs enforcement, sensitive to new France citizens and Native American allies, forbid settlement beyond Appalachians, Prussia emerged victorious (thanks in part to Russian withdraw), maintained possession of Silesia and gained enormous influence over smaller German states, at expense of Austria, start looking to Prussia for leadership, no boundary changes, all the fighting and no changes, last major war in Europe until the French Revolutionary Wars in 1792, peace for a while

Prussia before Frederick II

Frederick William I further developed the army and bureaucracy, Frederick William I promoted evolution of civil bureaucracy by establishing General Directory, chief administrative agent of the central government, supervised military, police, economic and financial affairs, wanted to maintain efficient bureaucracy of civil service workers, own code of values of obedience, honor and service to the king, said one must serve the king with life and limb, kept close watch over officials, only salvation was saved for God, had rigid class stratification, used nobles as officers, ensured close bond between nobility and army and loyalty of the nobility, virtues of duty, obedience and sacrifice, army most important institution in the state, other classes less important than the nobles, peasants lived on estates or in army, had feel real rights and needed permission to marry, only opportunity for social prestige was civil service (loyal service to the state)

French Revolution: Overview of the Time

French Revolution is 26 years, very condensed, all about France, rapid pace, four distinct groups: bourgeoisie, urban working class, peasants, women of France, all will do something significant and unique, tension between political aspirations and cruel violence was at the heart, proved that the residents of an old monarchy in old monarchy in middle of Europe could come together to constitute themselves as citizens of a new political idea, a nation, new questions about the role of women in public life, separation of church and state, rights of Jews and other minorities, then said these rights also belonged to African slaves, wars sparked from this was the first time entire populations were mobilized in a new type of devastating international conflict, one of first total wars, quickly became costly, complex, and violent, can be divided into four stages

Cultures of Philosophes (Enlightenment Thinkers)

French became the the educated language, admired British institution and scholarship, saw Thomas Jefferson as part of the group, flourished across central and southern Europe as well despite religious authorities and state censors, Frederick II housed Voltaire and patronized group of thinkers, Northern Italy also important center of Enlightenment thought, was the french word for philosophers, meant a free thinker, reflections unhampered by constraints of religion or dogma, engaged in reasoning and trying to make the big ideas practical, integrate these into society, practical sense to improve society, prided on clarity

Bernard de Fontanelle

Frenchman, considered earliest Enlightenment writer, wrote "Conversations on the plurality of worlds" which followed Galileo's conversational dialogue style, won't be in conflict with the church because he is in France, scientists and non-scientists discussing, asking questions and more accessible, admired for making science popularized so people started to think about science, then later applied sciences to things outside the field

France in the Enlightenment

King Louis XV (1715 - 1774), talked about the least, attempted absolutism, lazy and easily influenced, always under advice of ministers and mistresses, liked absolutism, but wasn't very good at it, Enlightenment happened under Louis XV, so much comes out of France during his time, a lot of stuff is let go, king isn't demanding great prosecution, Madam de Pompadour, is official mistress for about 10 years, had her own apartment and stipend, official mistress is an actual title, great influence of Louis XV, patron and protector of philosophes and physiocrats, covered for both, big loss of power and prestige, large debts left over from Louis XIV, additional from 18th century war, makes it worse, unready heir, Louis XVI, the next one who said "all I really want in life is to be loved"

War of Austrian Succession (1740 - 1748) Belligerents

Prussia, France, Spain, small German and Italian states against Habsburg Austria, Great Britain, Netherlands, smaller German and Italian states

Seven Years War (1754/56 - 1763) Belligerents

Prussia, Great Britain (and Native American allies), Hanover and other small German states, Portugal against Austria, France (and Native American allies), Russia, Sweden, Spain Saxony and other small German states

War of Austrian Succession (1740 - 1748) Results

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, only significant territory gain was Silesia by Prussia, doubling its population and gaining a territory rich in iron and coal, went from small with powerful military, to medium with even bigger military, can further industry and military production, King Louis XV of France gave back all conquered territories, not popular in France, believed he would be an Enlightened Monarch, there for sporting, French people wonder why all the money and lives lost for nothing, Spain regained some Italian territories, France formally recognized Hanoverian Succession in Great Britain, previously didn't recognize it, hoped that James II's son would be king, as a condition, had to recognize it, kicked James the Pretender (the son who said he was king) out of his palace, beginning of German dualism - the struggle for dominance between Austria and Prussia over German states, sometimes best friends, sometimes worst enemies, will go against each other and sometime allies, always trying to get support of small German states, eventually Prussia gets the upper hand and way later unites into Germany

War of Spanish Succession (1701 - 1714) Results

Treaty of Utrecht and other treaties, King Philip of Spain renounces place in French line of success, centralizes Spain in the style of absolutist France, will never be French king, British gains! get atlantic slave trade from Spain, Gibraltar at the southern tip of Spain, French lands in Canada, Newfoundland and some islands, Austria gains Spanish territories in Italy, Prussia becomes a kingdom (Frederick I), privateers lose their commissions and turn to piracy, ushering the Golden Age of Piracy

Joseph II

Vienna filled with magnificent palaces and churches built in Baroque style, became music capital of Europe, difficult to provide common laws and centralized administration for its people, was determined to make changes and continue goal of enhancing Habsburg power within monarchy and Europe, reform program was far reaching, abolished serfdom and tried to give peasants hereditary rights to holdings instituted new penal code that abrogated death penalty and established principle of equality of all before the law, drastic religious reforms, complete religious toleration and restriction on Catholic Church, but this was too overwhelming for Austria, he alienated the nobility by freeing serfs and alienated church in attacks on monastic establishment, peasants unhappy, unable to comprehend the drastic changes, tried to rationalize administration of empire by imposing German as official language, alienated non-German nationalities, said there were not enough people for the bureaucracy he wanted to create, successors undid many of his reform efforts

Philosophical Letter by Voltaire

a big critique of French culture and other absolutist countries, praised open-mindedness and empiricism, respect for scientists and research, respected commerce and people to engage in it, tax system was rational, free of complex exemptions for the privileged, middle class represented and brought balance to government and check power, religious toleration brought together citizens in harmonious and productive culture but not equal rights

The Persian Letters by Montesquieu

a satirical novel, detailed odd superstitions in religion and compared absolutism to abuse of government authority, way of offering social criticism in the form of travel letters, not directly criticizing, had travelers from another country wander around and make it sound like foreigners who don't know know the place, talk about how backwards the place it

Philosophical Dictionary by Voltaire

aimed at his own time in prison and being thrown out, may have been dragged out in the middle of the night, references that England might not be totally great at being as tolerant as they say, can only join the government if part of the Church of England, basically only other Protestants could operate semi-openly, couldn't hold offices, schools in major cities, cannot use banks in major cities

Wollstonecraft's views of the family

applied Enlightenment critique of monarchy and inequality to the family, legal inequalities of marriage law, deprived women of property rights, gave husbands despotic power over wives, just as kings cultivated deference, culture cultivated women's weakness, said middle-class girls are trained to be dependent creatures, culture that encouraged feminine weakness produced women who were childish, cunning, cruel and vulnerable

Argument against capital punishment itself

argue that it is inhumane, harder argument to make, some who were "Enlightened Monarchs" do enlighten things, ban or reduce use of torture, several reduced number of crimes capital punishment is applied to, lessen against censorship, aren't saying they shouldn't be punished, scything there should be justice and rehabilitation, if you can't kill them you can't rehabilitate, is it justice of revenge? does killing them make us any better than the person who committed the crime? once they are secured as a prisoner they aren't going to hurt anybody so what makes it ok to kill them? to them it is no longer punishment, it is murder, by 1800 most European countries abolished torture, branding, whipping, mutilation and reserved death for capital crimes

The Social Contract 1762 by Rousseau

argued state of nature of men had been equal, social inequality anchored in private property was corrupted by the social contract or formation of government, society puts people into boxes that come from society, sees civilization as bad and corrupt, that institutions and government parents and teachers are bad influences because they influence us, inequality governments and law represented only the rich and privileged, became instruments of repression and enslavement, legit governments could be formed, freedom did not mean absence of, meant equal citizens obeyed laws they made, a bible to Robespierre, said natural was better, simpler, and uncorrupted, had idea that heart was as important as the mind, idea that passion was more important than reason, developed an emphasis on spontaneous expression of feelings, belief that sentiment was expression of authentic humanity, more closely related to romanticism

Rousseau's View of Women

argued women should have different educations, should be relative to men, pleasing them, being useful to them, raising them when they are young and caring for them when they are old, advising them, consoling them, making their lives pleasant and agreeable, useful socially as mothers and wives, convinced women naturally sought this role, said dependence was a natural state, sometimes said girls need to be disciplined and weaned from natural vices, shifting meaning of nature

Social standing definitions

aristocrats have the blood or title, middle-class are skilled laborers, work with the mind, generally have an education, large range in economic standing, lower-class have skilled and unskilled laborers, working in factories, work with their hands, becomes difficult in distinction of arts, doing stuff with their hands but it takes a lot of skill and technique, money can largely vary, money lines are blurred, its more of what you do and which culture you participate in (high vs popular)

David Hume

author of "A Treatise of Human Nature" and "Enquiries Concerning Human Understanding", this was the most direct bridge between science and the Enlightenment, studied morality, the mind, government, drew analogies to scientific laws, experience and careful observation

Catherine the Great

autocrat of Russia, intelligent woman and was familiar with work of philosophes, claimed she wished to reform Russia, but realized she couldn't do this because she depended on support of palace guards, initially was eager to reform, called for election of an assembly to debate new law code, wrote guidelines to deliberations, questioned institutions of serfdom, torture and capital punishment, advocated principle of equality of all people in eye of law, but really didn't do anything about it, her policies actually strengthened landholding class at expense of others, divided Russia into provinces which were divided into districts ruled by officials chosen by nobles, nobility was responsible for day-to-day governing, gentry formed into corporate groups with special legal privileges (right to trial by peers, exemption from personal taxation and corporal punishment), policies favored landed nobility and got worse for peasants, led to a full scale peasant revolt, continued with even greater repression of peasants, rural reforms stopped and serfdom expanded

Common themes, goals and results of 18th century wars

balance of power: maintenance and shifts, no one country will be strong enough to beat all the other ones, French power decreases a bit and English and Prussian power increase, mMultinational conflict, almost all of the Great Powers, new diplomatic relations, necessary allies and enemies, imperial and economic interests

Why would a work be censored?

based on regulation, government required publisher to apply in advance for license to print and sell, usually published without permission and hoped they wouldn't notice, usually overlooked unless it was controversial, ways to make sure content was okay and tied to mercantilist economics, want to stimulate the national economy, must be published in the country (France), based on content, criticizing the king, church or someone in power, anything considered censorable was called "philosophical book" could be philosophical or just gossip, penalty could be a fine, if you were the creator could be exiled or put in prison, if you printed it you could lose your license to print, best way to get a book sold was to have it censored, people want to read what they can't have, more frequent targets of criticism were the ones who bought it the most (aristocrats, clergy, politicians), made more money if the books were illegal, more lucrative

Law and Punishment

before torture was a method of extracting truth, wasn't a punishment, idea that pain bring out honesty (question of paternity, as the woman gives birth they would ask and whatever name she said was the guy, the idea that she couldn't lie in that amount of pain), more about pain that brings out truth, corporal punishment was not seen as torture, new beliefs brought up questions about harsh treatment of criminals by courts, large argument was that it was ineffective, the purpose was to extract a confession that was true, idea that people will say anything if you apply enough pain to them,

Deism

belief that God acted as a divine watchmaker, created everything and then let it go, took the Newton idea that everything has universal laws, the unmoved mover, moves everything but not moved by our prayers

Environmental determinism

belief that environment shaped character, this provided a common way of postponing the slavery issue, said slavery corrupted its victims, destroyed natural virtue and crushes natural love of liberty, by this logic they were not ready for freedom

Montesquieu 1689 - 1755

born to noble family, inherited things, well-educated in the classics, had money and freedom to be a philosophe, less likely that he would get in trouble, didn't have to rely on patrons, a relatively cautious jurist, wrote "On the Spirit of Law" which was an influential and groundbreaking study in comparative historical sociology (Newtonian and empirical in approach), writing was very dry, admired the British system and separation of branches of government, said this preserved liberty by avoiding concentration of power, developed the separation of powers and checks and balance system, hoped an enlightened aristocracy would press reforms and defend liberty against a despotic king

18th Century Overview

changing nature of European politics and diplomacy, a lot of parts of the modern world come out of this time, the innovations and wars

Enlightened Absolutism Overview

closely related to natural laws was belief in natural rights: inalterable privileges that ought not to be withheld from a person, included equality before the law, freedom of religious worship, freedom of speech and press, right to assemble, hold property and seek happiness, most philosophes said people need the direction from an enlightened ruler, reforms should come from above rather that the people, were distrustful of the masses, believed in absolute rulers that were swayed by enlightened principles, new type of monarch: enlightened despotism or enlightened absolutism, three examples of rulers who were said to follow the rules: Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, Joseph II of Austria, they established path to modern nationhood

Positives to Laissez-Faire

competition provides better quality, better price, better wages, idea that if companies are competing for your money, have to put out better product for a better price, jobs that pay a lot because people don't want to do it, supply and demand works with people as well, works with wages and opportunity, variations to everything, quality within each price range, invisible hand will push supply and demand, not enough and the price is higher, too much and price lowers, same thing happens for labor, demand for jobs, said general prosperity could be obtained by allowing invisible hand of competition to guide economic activity, should pursue own interests in buying and selling goods and labor freely on open market without interference from monopolies or legal restraints

Seven Years War (1754/56 - 1763) Causes

considered first world war, French and Indian War in America, global conflict starts in 56, but it really all starts in 54 in America, largest of the conflicts, multiple causes, growing antagonism between France and Great Britain and desire to dominate global colonization and trade, officially hate each other, growing antagonism between Prussia and Austria and desire to dominate smaller German states, major shifts in diplomatic relations, primarily the alliance between France and Austria, from enemies to best friends, because Austria is mad at Britain, in Austrian Succession were a bad land ally, looking for friends, have a political marriage of Maria's daughter (Marie Antoinette) and French king, growing fear of Prussian militarism, except for Britain, they don't have direct confrontation because they don't have a navy, fierce military and effective, have an edge feeling that they will start conquering everyone, desire on the part of Spain, Portugal, and Sweden to be among the Great Powers once again

Popular discussions of the people

developed in coffeehouses and taverns, printed material read aloud so illiterate people could have access, middle class people became consumers of literature, Masonic Lodges had elaborate secret rituals whose members pledged to the society, these attracted many aristocrats and middle-class men, pledged to a common project of rational thought and benevolent action, coffeehouses multiplied with colonial trade of sugar coffee and tea, occupied a central spot in circulation of ideas, groups of merchants discussing trade could turn to politics, newspapers were around to expand conversations, widened circles of reading and discussion, expanding the public sphere, start to a change in politics, informal deliberations, debates on regeneration of the nation, civic virtue, led to development of public opinion

Rise of Parliamentary Power in Britain

different than anywhere else, largely because of Parliament, rise of power in Parliament, equal and surpass the King, House of Lords and House of Commons, bBoth wealthy land owners, House of Lords has nobles, House of Commons has gentry, all about business, and because the legislators that is their interests, decrease in royal power, Queen Anne died without an heir (sister of Mary), have to go find someone who can take over, go way through the family tree to find someone, Hanoverian Succession, from German state of Hanover, British House of Hanover, George I and George II, neither spoke English, a lot of parliamentary powers build because they both spoke little to no English, didn't understand British customs or ways of doing things, relied on ministers in Parliament for advice and governance, legislative focus on economic issues, always looking at their economic interests

Humanitarianism

dignity and worth of all individuals, religious toleration, liberty, inspired the issue of law and punishment, place of religious minorities, state relationship to society and economy

Popular culture

everyone participated in popular culture, literacy rates varied by gender, social class and region, highest in cities and towns, many in poorer neighborhoods could read and sign their names, lived in a culture of print, one page newspapers, fly sheets on the streets and tavern walls, visual materials like woodcuts, prints, drawings and satire, circles of reading and discussion were much larger than literacy rates especially in cities, England and France didn't require primary school, Central Europe states made efforts to develop state sponsored education, most Europeans were self-taught, texts spread attest to widespread and rapidly growing popular interest in books and reading, rested on networks of sociability, guild organizations offered discussions, street theater and singers mocking local politics offered to many classes, did not exist in isolation, market days and village festivals brought social classes together and reached wide social audiences, folktales and traditional songs resisted marking things with stereotypes, passed from one culture to another, passed through oral tradition, things are changed based on where they are told to fit the nation, guilds sponsor events, birth of street theater, taverns and public houses, oral and literate culture overlapped, people who didn't read could have "book knowledge", could argue seriously, belief that books conferred authority, countryside was more poor and isolated

Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of Wealth of Nations (1776) by Adam Smith

example of laissez-faire thought, disagreed with physiocrats on the value of agriculture and shared opposition to mercantilism, capitalism but not free market, central issue was productivity of labor and how labor used in different sectors of the economy, labor is what gains wealth, Britain on the verge of Industrial Revolution at this point, sees labor as chief supply of wealth, makes points on why specialization is a good thing, idea of why should we try to make wine when the French make it so much better? Let's make wool and do what we do really well, we trade and everybody wins, doesn't take into account the factory system, but it works well for the time, sets ideas up in realistic way: people will operate with their self-interest, need to know this, work to make money, even if they love it they do it to make money, said restrictions didn't encourage productive deployment of labor and didn't create real economic wealth, showed different staged of economic development, how invisible hand actually works, beneficial aspects of competition, would become the target of reformers and critics who had less faith in power of markets to generate wealth and prosperity

Cultural changes of the 1700s

expanding networks of sociability, flourishing book trade, new genres of literature, circulation of Enlightenment ideas

Opinions on growing empires

exploration and colonization, mixed reviews, saw some clear benefits in rise of industrialization and trade, others who wanted to return to nature didn't like it, saw treatment of natives as problematic, idea of the "noble savage", an attempt at trying to sound nice, enlightenment view of native people saw them as closer to nature so more noble yet still savage, competing images of noble savage and someone to exploit, shape how Europeans will treat natives, a lot of exploration in 1700s is mainly in Pacific (Australia, Hawaii, New Zealand)

"On Crimes and Punishment" by Beccaria

fueled most of Voltaire's arguments about the Calas case, criticized arbitrary power, attacked prevalent view that punishments should represent society's vengeance on the criminal, said only legit rationale for punishment was to maintain social order and prevent other crimes, argued for greatest possible leniency compatible with deterrence, respect for individual dignity dictated that humans should punish other humans no more than needed, basically opposed torture and the death penalty, argued that public execution was intended to dramatize power of the state and horrors of hell, dehumanize the victim judge and spectators, quickly translated into dozens of languages

Rousseau's argument about authority and government

goes against institutions and democracy, said sovereignty belonged to the people alone, should not be divided among different branches of government, can't be usurped by king, every person should have a voice, exercising sovereignty transformed the nation, when people form a body public the body is more than just the sum of its parts, regenerated and more powerful nation where citizens were bound by mutual obligation and united in equality, national community to be united by general will, understand common interest which rose above particular individual demands, general will favored equality, made it general, everybody who is a citizen must have a voice and it must be expressed, cannot be silent, have to vote, idea that general will cannot be wrong and will always be fair, majority overpowers the minority: Tyranny of the Majority, believed people were good and reasonable, at least equality guaranteed citizens' common interests represented in the whole

French Revolution Third Stage (1794 - 1799)

government drifted, France remained a republic, continued to fight in Europe, was undermined by corruption and division, so state fell to the ambitions of Napoleon Bonaparte, much more chill, mass executions have ceased

Popularity and production of novels

growing literacy of middle-class especially women accounts of the popularity, trains brought the boom of novels, instead of awkwardly sitting you bury your head in a book, single most popular new form of literature, romances like Knights of the Round Table, setting of popular novels was closet to home, more recognizable and non-aristocratic characters were relevant to common middle-class life, examining emotions and inner feelings linked novels with a larger concern with personhood and humanity

Enlightenment legacy of gender

had a mixed legacy similar to that of slavery, developed and popularized arguments on natural rights, elevated natural difference to higher plane in suggesting nature should dictate different and unequal social roles, another example of different directions of Enlightenment thinking logic

Variety of reading in 1700s

have magazines, journals, pamphlets, newspapers, books, varying length and sophistication of content, newspapers in smaller circulation and more local, many based on neighborhood, small readerships

Montesquieu's Ideas on Government

he suggested there were three forms of government: republic, monarchies and despotisms, republic was many individuals and the soul was virtue which allowed individuals to transcend interests and rule in accordance with common good, monarchy was one person who ruled in accordance with the law and the soul was honor which gave people the want to behave loyally, despotism was a rule by one person unchecked and the soul was fear since no person would feel secure

Denis Diderot

heavily involved in the Encyclopedia, was the editor of the book on humanities topics, in producing the book, had people offer statements, they were not dry or un-biased, supposed to make a statement, ends up broke in the Netherlands, goes to Russia where Catherine puts him up and funds the Encyclopedia

View of God, Religious Institutions and Religious Minorities

humanitarianism and reason went with religious toleration, need to end religious warfare and persecution of heretics and religious minorities, distinguished between religious belief (accepted this) and the church as an institution and dogma (didn't accept this), not against God or belief but against dogma, against those that drove people to hurt others, ban others faiths and institutions, opposed Church influence over society, many thinkers were deists, atheism also comes to light but it is less common and might get you in trouble, most of Europe is still very much Christian, may question but will remain in Christianity, support for toleration was sometimes limited, deplored persecution but still commonly viewed Judaism and Islam as backwards and superstition religions, Moses Mendelssohn attacked and pressured to convert but defended jewish communities against anti-Semitic police and Enlightenment criticism, thought that religious faith should be voluntary, states should promote tolerance, humanitarianism would bring progress to all

Seven Years War (1754/56 - 1763) Combat

in Europe: battles primarily fought in and around Prussia as its enemies attacked from all sides, because everyone was scared, Frederick The Great is the king, proves to be military genius, kings into military don't use it, those into arts and culture use it, after Russia withdrew Prussia went on the offensive against Austria, big surprise, Catherine's idiot husband who dressed up like a soldier, he pulls Russia out (his father gets into it), he idolized Frederick and pulled out, some battles in Portugal with Spanish and French, Great Britain limited land engagements in Europe, rather using its navy to blockade and bombard enemy ports and harass enemy natives, in North America: battles between British and French troops and colonial regiments as well as Native American allies, British won most of the battles and had greater numbers, in India: British captured all French ports and defeated its Indian allies, starts long slow colonization of India by the British, helps in the 1860's when they lose access to cotton

Three Estates and Social Lines

individual's estate marked standing or status and it determined legal rights, taxes and more, First Estate was the clergy, Second Estate was the nobility, Third Estate was everyone else, was the largest estate, included wealthy lawyers, businessmen, urban laborers, poor peasants, for the political and social elite the legal distinctions seemed artificial, social boundaries between nobles and wealthy commoners were not well defined, noble title available to those who could afford to buy an ennobling office, large number of people bought their way into the nobility, nobility depended on constant infusion of talent and economic power from wealthy social groups of the Third Estate, to preserve elite status, aristocrats spoke of distinction between nobility of the sword and of the robe, of the sword: more ancient and distinguished lineage derived from military service, of the robe: because they purchased administrative or judicial office, most noble wealth was tied to land, nobles did not disdain trade or commerce though, noblemen financed most industry, invested heavily in banking, ship owning, slave trade, mining, and metallurgy, wealthy members of Third Estate invested in secure, proprietary holdings, much middle-class wealth was transformed into noble wealth, number of rich bourgeois became noblemen, wealthy members of bourgeoisie didn't see themselves as a separate class, saw themselves as a different from and opposed to the common people who worked with their hands, identified with values of nobility

Failure and Reform before the Revolution

inefficient tax system weakened the financial position of the country, taxation was different according to social standings and varied from region to region, special exemptions made task of collectors harder, financial system was burdened by debts from Louis XIV, but then spent more of French participation in American revolution, problems with economy reflected weaknesses in administrative structure and the responsibility of the monarch Louis XVI, wanted to improve the lives of the poor, abolish torture and shift taxation to richer classes, but lacked ability to accomplish these tasks, appointed Anne Robert Jacques Turgot (physiocrat) and Jacques Necker (Swiss Protestant banker) as finance minsters, aroused opposition from traditionalists in the court, pressed for new taxes on the nobility but was defeated by provincial parliaments, allowed his wife Marie Antoinette (daughter of Maria Theresa) free hand to dispense patronage among her friends, constant intrigue and reshuffle of alliances at Versailles, 1788 a weak monarch with a chaotic financial situation and social tensions brought absolutist France to edge of political disaster

Philosophical and Political History of European Settlements and Trade in the Two Indies by Raynal

inspiration from Encyclopedia and gave total history of colonization, asked whether colonization made humanity happier, more peaceful or better, believed industry and trade brought improvement and progress, considered natural simplicity an antidote to corruptions of culture, idea that what Europeans considered savage life might be 100% preferable to societies corrupted with despotism, lamented loss of natural liberty, condemned tactics used in colonization, said in New World Europeans found themselves with unchecked power which encouraged arrogant and cruel despotic behavior, went further in drawing parallels with exploitation in colonies and inequality in Europe

Arguments against slavery by philosophes

issue is wrapped in exploration and colonization, in general see it as bad, will have many different approaches but Enlightenment thinkers universally think it is bad, see it as defying natural law, warned overextended empires sowed seeds of decadence and corruption, individual moral freedom lay at the heart of what Enlightenment thought was a just and stable and harmonious society, yet slavery defied natural law and natural freedom, radical thinkers hesitated to criticize the slave trade, condemned slavery in a metaphorical sense, mind should break free of chains, dealt gingerly with actual enslavement and slave labor of Africans, Smith condemned it as uneconomical, Voltaire wondered if Europeans would look away if Europeans were the ones enslaved, didn't question the belief that Africans were inferior people, thought it was hypocritical, same people who wanted liberty also kept slaves or continued the practice and benefitted from slavery, Montesquieu believed slavery debased master and slave alike, argued societies balanced systems of labor in accordance with different needs and slave labor was one system, defended property rights including those of slaveholders, makes both parties worse, reduces slave and owner to something less, both parties suffer, Encyclopedia article did condemn slave trade as a violation of self-government, but large step between deploring slavery and imagining freedom for slaves, very few were willing to do this

War of Spanish Succession (1701 - 1714) Combat

large, open-field battles with massive armies, really only have gunpowder weapons, fewer sieges of cities and towns than preceding wars, not as practical, far fewer civilian casualties, not the targets they used to be, most major battles outside of France, naval war in the Caribbean a mix of royal natives fighting and raids by privateers, golden age of privateering, few minor battles along the French Canadian and New England border

War of Austrian Succession (1740 - 1748) Combat

large, open-field battles, Prussian efforts focused on capturing Silesia (in modern day Poland) from Austria, a populated region with great resources, has a lot of people and iron and coal mines, in a period of industrialization, really want this, Austria under attack on multiple fronts, unprepared, but large army, really largely unprepared, France captured German and Dutch lands, do really well in this, Britain focused efforts on naval engagements, kind of shady, refused to commit to land conflicts in Europe, hang out at ports to be on the sea, remain on the outside, small battles in North America and India between France and Britain, no major victories for either

Causes and effects of censorship

larger expansion of printing and print culture, book publishing and selling flourished, national border didn't matter much, a lot of the trade was international, bought from stores, through subscriptions, mail order from abroad, cheaper printing and better distribution helped multiply number of journals, some specializing in literary or scientific topics and some general, helped development of daily newspapers, have a revolution in communication, government did little to check this with few restrictions, used stamp tax on printed goods to raise price, Louis XV in charge as of 1715, he is too lazy and couldn't uphold the absolutist regime, Russia Prussia and Austria had censored that tolerated less, but they still wanted to stimulate publishing and permitted some public discussion, small states in Germany and Italy with princes was easier to find progressive local patrons, English and French worked were circulated widely, governments were patrons and censors of new scholarship, showed complex relationship between age of absolutism and Enlightenment, censorship only made book expensive so out of the hands of the poor, literary underground echoed radical themes of the Enlightenment especially corruption or aristocracy and monarchy's degeneration into despotism

Social Tensions

lots of social tensions, less prosperous lawyers were jealous of privileged position of favored few, prices of offices rose and made it more difficult to buy your way into nobility, created tension between middling members of Third Estate and the rich in trade and commerce, they were the only group that really had the money to climb, less wealthy nobles resented success of rich, upstart commoners who could live in luxury, but were all able to come together to attack a government and economy that didn't serve their interests

Consumer Revolution

mass market for consumer goods emerged, development and spread of consumer goods, economies less local, people producing less of their own stuff and buying more from other people, not making own clothes, specialized fashion and tasks, houses became larger, stocked luxuries like sugar, tobacco, tea, coffee, chocolate, newspaper, books, pictures, clocks, toys, china, glassware, pewter, silver plates, soap, razors, beds with mattresses, shoes, cotton clothes, spare clothing, rise of consumer goods, demand outweighed supply, prices rose faster than price of food, demand continued, goods were indulgences, repositories of values that families could invest surplus money in, encouraged provision of services, service sector became the fastest growing part of the economy, even modest middle class families have a servant, product of population growth as well (rural people would work as a domestic servant), golden age of the shopkeeper, more prepared foods and ready-made clothes, advertising became important, helped create demand for new products and shape popular taste for fashion (newspaper, pamphlets, ads helped pay for printing, need people to know you are selling), political allegiances expressed through consumption, European economy was complex, specialized, integrated, commercialized, productive, lays the foundation for the Enlightenment, sense of living in a time marked by change

Reading revolution

massive changes because the material is cheaper, this starts with the printing press in Renaissance, much more widely available, chances are people will share with you, go to a coffeehouse, higher literacy (almost all middle class, lower class in cities have a boom, rural people connected slightly), people are read to, still able to know what it happening

What made a ruler enlightened?

must allow religious toleration, freedom of speech and press, right to hold private property, must foster the arts, sciences and education, rule must not be arbitrary, must obey laws and enforce them fairly for all subjects, need to overcome vested interested and effecting reforms society needs

Physiocrats

name given to Enlightenment economic thinkers, very real influence over affairs of state, promised to make nations stronger, more efficient and more prosperous, Beccaria proposed legal reforms to make laws more effective, addressed issues of liberty and rights but also went to administration, tax collection and economic policy, mercantilists said regulation of trade was needed to maximize government revenues, argued that real wealth came from land and agricultural production which prospered with less government interference, say true wealth comes from land that is what produces things, feeds people and gives them something to trade, not a coincidence because France has the most and best land for production, this idea will echo forward through the Industrial Revolution, advocated for a simple tax system and a policy of laissez-faire (letting wealth and goods circulate without government interference)

Julie 1762 by Rousseau

writes another novel with main character a woman who obeys her father and shows domestic perfection and maternal virtue, best selling book of the time, significant character development of a woman for its time, popular for development and emotion expressed, actions seen as somewhat heroic, more women reading git, Wollstonecraft will be instigated from this novel

Frederick II The Great

one of best and most cultured monarchs, well versed in Enlightenment thought, invited Voltaire to live with him for a while, firm believer in the king being the first servant of the state, became a conscientious ruler who made few innovations in administration, diligence in overseeing operation made his bureaucracy famous for efficacy and honesty, for a time seemed willing to follow recommended reforms, established single code of laws for all territories that eliminated use of torture except in treason and murder cases, granted limited religious toleration, but was too dependent on nobility to interfere with serfdom and hierarchical structure of society, reversed father's policy and didn't allow commoners to rise with civil service position, reserved higher positions for nobles, took great interest in military affairs and enlarged the army, didn't hesitate to take advantage of succession crisis in Habsburgs and seize Silesia, got involved in War of Austrian Succession and Seven Years' War, got more territory and brought greater united to scattered lands of Prussia

Proposed solution to slavery by Enlightenment thinkers

only a few advocated abolishing slavery and they insister it had to be gradual, question of how they would integrate into a free society? would they be prepared? idea that they need time to readjust and de educated, different currents of thought can lead to very different conclusions

Economic and Social Factors

physiocrats encouraged government to simplify tax system and free economy from mercantilist regulations, advocated end to price controls in grain trade, said this interfered with the market's ability to find an equilibrium between supply and demand, peasants were caught in web of obligations to landlords, church, and state, paid disproportionate share of direct and indirect taxes (salt tax), there was a requirement to maintain public roads and the hunting privileges of the nobles, social and economic conditions got worse right before the revolution, general price increase happened, this let the French economy to expand in giving capital investment, made hardship for peasants and urban tradesmen and laborers, series of poor harvests made bread prices go up, spent more than 50% of income on bread, this rose to 80%, reduced the demand for manufactured goods, this created unemployment, peasants left countryside for the city hoping to find work, between 1787 and 1789 unemployment rate as high as 50%

Other Factors for the Growth

plague stops being a major killer, degree of immunity began to emerge, better diet and improved sanitation reduced infection rates, Northwestern Europe increasingly urbanized, cities increasingly concentrated, experienced extraordinary growth especially those connected to the Atlantic trade, growth in administrative capitals of Europe, rising prosperity depended on developments in trade and manufacturing which were embraced in Britain, cities became manufacturing centers, scale of small shops growing to be more specialized, inventions changed pattern of works and nature of the product, artisans in guilds were anxious to protect rights and secrets of their trade, government sometimes blocked production if it could cause unemployment or unrest, pressure for economic innovation was fervent and insatiable appetite for goods

Influence of Enlightenment on the revolution

played critical role in articulating grievances, political theories of Locke, Voltaire and Montesquieu appealed to discontented nobles and members of middle class, Voltaire popular on his attacks on noble privileges, Locke and Montesquieu had followings on their defense of private property and limited sovereignty, Montesquieu's ideas particularly appealed to noble lawyers and officeholders who dominated the law courts, read his doctrine of checks and balances as support for their argument that the parlement could give a check to the despotism of the king, noble leaders presented themselves as defenders of the nation threatened by the king and his ministers

Enlightenment 1680s - 1780s

themes of reason, nature, happiness, progress, liberty, sets up the next two revolutions, set up the complete destruction of the medieval era, spread of literacy, new forms of social interaction, critical reflection about religion, law, power of the state, dignity of the individual, was an intellectual movement, cultural phenomenon, exposed broad part of population to new forms of consumption of goods and ideas, not an enlightened age though, still are vestiges of the medieval world, preach religious tolerance but remain primitive attitude of Islam and Judaism, views of women are outdated

Destruction of Poland

polish king was elected by nobles and forced to accept drastic restriction on his power, eliminated possibility of an absolute king, for neighbors it was an invitation to meddle, total destruction was a result of rivalries with its neighbors Austria, Russia and Prussia, to avoid a war they compensated by dividing Poland, to maintain balance of power agreed to roughly equal territories at Poland's expense, 1772 lost about 30% of land and 50% of population, Austria got Galicia (agriculture), Russia took largest piece in the eastern part, Prussia took western part which was smallest (but most valuable because it united two chief sections of Prussia), remaining state was supposedly independent but was actually dominated by stationed Russian troops, 1791 Poles attempted to establish a stronger state with hereditary monarchy, Russians got support of Austria and Prussia and intervened in 1792, 1793 Russia and Prussia took second partition of Poland, 1794-95 Polish rebellion under General Kosciuszko which was squashed, remaining polish state taken by all three in third partition of 1795, demise of Poland was example of why building a strong absolutists state was essential to survival at the time

Long term causes of the revolution

previous idea: was all in terms of class conflict, had a rising bourgeoisie (middle class) that was inspired by Enlightenment ideas and own self-interests, they over threw what was left of the aristocratic order, this interpretation drew on the writings of Karl Marx and a lot of 1900s sociology, definitely origins are in the society, but was not divided in two groups, was increasingly dominated be a new elite or social group that drew aristocrats, officeholders, professionals, merchants and businessmen

War of Austrian Succession (1740 - 1748) Causes

primary cause: Prussian and French challenges to the pragmatic sanction and Maria Theresa's legitimacy as head of the Habsburg empire, will be last in line for the Habsburgs, no more legitimate heirs, no tradition in law and customs for female monarch or head of family, Habsburgs don't want to give it up, so her father makes something up so everything goes to her, Prussia will challenge this, sees an opportunity, believes smaller German states will come to him seeing her as weaker and illegitimate, secondary causes: British and Dutch animosity to France, Spanish desire to win back Italian lands from Austria, includes Frederick The Great and Maria Theresa

War of Spanish Succession (1701 - 1714) Causes

primary cause: prevent the crowns of France and Spain from sitting on the same Bourbon head, secondary causes: Habsburg claims to Spanish throne, French aggression towards the Netherlands, trade with Spanish Empire in America limited to Spain and France, have the major powers of Prussia, France, England and Austria in play

Results of the Reading Revolution

produced learned societies (American Philosophical Society of Philadelphia, Select Society of Edinburgh), organized intellectual life outside of universities, provided libraries, meeting places for discussion, journals that published papers or organized debates, informal salons, Enlightenment was enriched in elite culture bust also able to spread well beyond elite society

Elite participation in discussion

produced networks of readers and new forms of sociability and discussion, more diverse groups of people, elite or high culture was small scale but cosmopolitan and very literate, took literary and scientific discussion seriously, wealthy and aristocracy participated, exclusive to these people but they would participate in popular culture if they wanted, inaccessible to people of lower standing, participated in public sphere, the public were the literate, educated, degree of sophistication, the reading pubic, go to university, belong to royal academies, philosophical societies, have informal salons, met in academies financed by government to advance knowledge, provincial academies in countryside provided a way of discussion to spread beyond major cities

Estates General

protectors of the estate system, social classes, goes back to the middle ages, basically medieval society lasting to now, those who prayed (saved soul), those who fought (service was combat), and those who worked, each given equal importance, even thought the bottom is like 98% of the population, now clergy is greedy, questioning from Reformation, nobility barely are in the military, a lot of land and wealth with no tax obligation, supposed to protect, define and redefine the privileges between the estates

Popular Revolts

public attention was high, political reform, economic crisis, price of bread went to astronomical heights,

Enlightenment view of colonies

saw them as an uncorrupted territory where humanity's natural simplicity expressed in loves of native people

Philosophe view of Popular Culture

saw with distrust and ignorance, saw common people the same as indigenous people of other continents, were humanitarians, critical thinkers and reformers but not democrats,

Desire for Organization of Knowledge

scientific method, empirical observation, offered pursuit of research in all areas, collected evidence to learn laws of governing the rise and fall of nations, compared government constitutions to find an ideal and universally applicable political system, took up many subjects in a systematic way (knowledge and the mind, natural history, economics, government, religious beliefs, customs of natives of New World, human nature, gender, racial differences)

Development of salons

served as alternative venue for discussion but informal, social gathering or party, huge social thing and allowed for social climbing, where artists and thinkers would find patrons, philosophes discussed ideas, read poems, played music, organized by well-connected and learned women who invited personalities to their homes to meet authors and discuss works, status markers if you could have a significant Enlightenment thinkers, prominent role of women distinguished salons from academies and universities, brought together men and women of letters with aristocracy for conversation debate drink and food, Rousseau saw this as superficial, one organized in Paris by Madame Necker was close to halls of power, served as a testing ground for new policy ideas, Madame Marie-Therese Geoffrin became important patron of Encyclopedia and exercised influence, salons promoted a sense of belonging to active and learned elite

Questioning, Science, and International Nature of the Movement

shared sense they were living in an exciting moment in history where human reason would prevail over superstitions and traditions of the past, defenders of a new ideal, party of humanity, confidence placed in power of human reason, came from accomplishments of scientific revolution, methods provided a model for scientific inquiry in other areas, embracing human reason confronted power of traditional monarchies and religious institutions, a lot came from Locke Bacon and Newton, drew from human knowledge in theories of how humans acquire knowledge gave education and environmental critical role in shaping human character, argued all knowledge originates from sense perception, education essential to creation of a good and moral individual, central point of goodness and perfectibility of humanity, built on this and made education central because it promised social progress achieved through individual moral improvement, optimism and belief in universal human progress made another defining feature,

Reflection of middle class in books

showed only part of interests of middle classes, lawyers, professionals, small merchants read different kinds of books, would buy and borrow books to read casually, discuss and pass along, literature was science history biography travel literature and fiction, meant it was fancier and books that survived the test of time, history is starting to take shape, a lot was aimed at middle-class women who were one of the fastest growing groups of readers, etiquette books sold very well, manuals for the home, manners, morals and education of daughters, popular versions of Enlightenment treatises on education and the mind, women were among prominent fiction writers (Jane Austen), didn't just stay in domestic or private sphere, took up themes of human nature, morality, citrus and reputation, explored themes in domestic and public spheres, newspapers had editorials and contests, ways to participate in the dialogue

Impact of Pacific travel on Enlightenment

stories of new peoples and cultures fascinated Enlightenment thinkers, 1772 Diderot published own reflections on cultural significance of accounts, Tahitians were original humans and virtually free of European influence, represented humanity in natural state, uninhibited about sexuality and free from religious dogma, simplicity exposed the hypocrisy and rigidity of over-civilized Europeans, saw indigenous peoples same as classical civilizations of Greeks and Romans, saw as primitive version of Europeans, now all people seemed to be part of a shared humanity with cultures, beliefs that reflected own experiences, religious understanding of Western identity gave way to more secular and historical explanations for human diversity, some fitted it into broad inquiry about civilization and human nature, sometimes encourage self-criticism and for others shored up their sense of superiority

French Revolution First Stage (1788 - 1792)

struggle was constitutional and relatively peaceful, increasingly bold elite articulated not happy stuff against the king, elites refused taxation without representation, attacked despotism (arbitrary authority), offered Enlightenment inspired program to revive the nation, reforms instituted, some were accepted and even offered by the king and others passed over his objections, did not stabilize around one constitution or set of political leaders for a number of reasons, reforms met resistance and a divide in the country, threat of dramatic change in one of the most powerful countries in Europe created international tension, seen as moderate, becomes a constitutional monarchy, king still remains, relatively orderly, moderate in its actions and dominated by leadership of liberal nobles and men of Third Estate, three major events: Popular Revolts, National Assembly and Rights of Man, and National Assembly and the Church

Emile 1762 by Rousseau

tells story of a man who learns virtue and moral autonomy, said first impulses of nature are always right, whatever you are meant to be, you will be if you are allowed to grow, children shouldn't be forced to reason early, books should teach us only to talk about things we don't know, read later after you have already formed who you are, influences and what we pile on children that makes them bad, should be allowed to form own ways as much as possible, let people develop how they should develop (Montessori schools), aim to make men good citizens

French Revolution Second Stage (1792 - 1974)

tensions erupted into war, crises of war, spelled the end of the Bourbon monarchy and beginning of a republic, stage of acute crisis, consolidation and repression, ruthlessly centralized government mobilized country's resources to fight foreign enemy and counterrevolutionaries at home, sought to destroy traitors and vestiges of the Old Regime, policy was called The Terror, it saved the republic, but split the country into factions and recriminations and collapsed in 1794, crazy pants part, terror, The Great Terror, guillotines, goes to war with everyone

Growing Literate and Education Population

this was the result of the Consumer Revolution, they participate in the Enlightenment, lots of readers, recognition that they are in an era, they called it the Enlightenment during the time, not egalitarian (wanting to help everybody), believed in educating the reading public but not the people (on the streets), dangerous when the bottom of the ladder get ideas, was international, a lot of writers were French, language of the educated was French, became the international language, applied the scientific method from the Scientific Revolution to anything, idea that universal laws applied to everything

Pacific travels

trying to make good maps, discover people and things, not just conquistadors, soldiers and merchants, now have scientists and artists going out, drawing what they see, collecting specimens, systematic maps of new sections of Pacific was crucial development, huge impact on public imagination, scientific missions which aimed to expand scientific knowledge, Bougainville 1767 sent by French to find new route to China, new lands to colonize and new spices, had travel accounts, lush descriptions of earthly paradise of Tahiti captured imaginations of Europeans, James Cook followed and made two trips to South Pacific, charted coasts of New Zealand and New Holland, explored New Hebrides and added Hawaii to European maps, explored outer limits of Antarctica, expanded boundaries of botany, zoology and geology, drawing and accounts of dangers appealed to a wide public, many people read the travel accounts, new form of reading, large audience in middle class, Alexander Von Humboldt was in South America for five years, wanted to assess the civilization and natural resources, attempted to demonstrate that climate and physical environment determined which life forms would survive, inspired discussion of evolutionary change in Darwin

Audience for the Enlightenment

urban readers and consumers receptive to new cultural forms, essays, political tract, satirical engraving, novels, newspapers, theatrical spectacles, musical performance, could happen in an area where many people achieved a level of wealth to enjoy the pleasures

Voltaire 1694 - 1778

virtually personified the Enlightenment, connected a large range of subjects in different literary forms, educated by Jesuits but wasn't a fan of Church institution, placed in Bastille and temporary exile in Britain, wrote into styles: a formal and straightforward style and the other was satirical, was funny so it reached more people (Candide, was censored and banned which was best way to get people to read it, you were someone if philosophes criticized you), persuaded by ideas of Newton, Bacon and Locke, published Philosophical Letter with themes of religious and political liberty, opposed religious bigotry the most, denounced religious fraud, faith in miracles and superstition, didn't oppose religious but sought to rescue morality from dogma, argued for common sense and simplicity, was regularly exiled, his books burned and banned, had an attentive international pubic like Frederick I and Catherine, looked at enlightened monarchy for leadership

Rousseau Overview

was considered an outsider, shared search for intellectual and political freedom, idea that no one person should be rich enough to buy someone or poor enough to sell themselves, so wealthy to have power over others and so poor to have no power over his or herself, attacked inherited privilege and introduced other strains like sensibility or the cult feeling, interest in emotion made him develop more complicated portrait of human psychology more than other thinkers who emphasized reason as most important attribute, this is why he is seen as a turning point in using emotions, one of the first to talk about popular sovereignty and democracy, some consider him authoritarian, coercive or moralistic, other interpret it as expression of utopianism

Effects of Economic (Manufacturing) and Demographic Growth

was possible by cheaper food and declines in mortality from infectious disease, population growth from the agricultural revolution, new intensive systems produced more food per acre, improved transportation and new farming methods results in fewer famines and a better nourished population, new crops (maize and potatoes) increased supply of food, requires less people doing the work, population boom and loss of employment, this pushes the manufacturing growth, cottage industry (day laborers, could only rent a cottage, putting out system), hopefully someone would hire them to work on their farm, more food, less jobs, many rural laborers with no work, growing demand for more products, want to expand a base of labor, pay for what you can do, improvements in transportation led to entrepreneurs produce textiles in countryside (cottage industry), sold finished cloth in market that extended from local towns to international exporters, called Protoindustrialization, supplied employment in slack seasons, allowed to avoid expensive guild restrictions and reduced production costs, increased employment and higher levels of industrial production

The Encyclopedia

was the most ambitious and remarkable project, was collaborative, claimed to summarize all most advanced contemporary philosophical scientific and technical knowledge, guiding spirit was Denis Diderot, co-editor was L'Alembert who edited on math and science topics, have a mix of straight forward math and science with non-stop criticism and biases, at first there were censors, it is eventually banned but Diderot publishes it anyways, was more of a personal opinion and less of the Encyclopedia we see today, before there were specific compilations for medicine and history and others, but this was supposed to cover everything, Voltaire and Montesquieu contributed, was published in installments between 1751 and 1772, Diderot commissioned articles on science and technology showing how machines worked and new industrial processes, censorship made it difficult to write openly anti religious articles, at one point French government revoked the publishing permit, books sold very well despite bans and large price, purchasers were the elite, aristocrats, government officials, merchants, members of higher clergy, you were someone if you were mentioned or criticized in the Encyclopedia