Everything for AP Government

Unfunded Mandate Reform Act

A 1995 act passed by Congress requiring federal agencies to consult with state and local governments before imposing a mandate.

Federalist No. 10

A Federalist Paper written by James Madison that discusses factions (or single interest groups) that seek to dominate the political process.

executive agreement

A binding international agreement between chiefs of state. Unlike treaties, these do not require the consent of the Senate.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

A case in which the Court upheld the power of the national government to establish a bank and denied the state of Maryland the power to tax a branch of that bank.

laboratories of democracy

A concept that advocates allowing states the freedom to approach and try to solve problems in whatever way seems right to them. Each state then acts as one of 50 "experiments," and all the rest of the states, as well as the federal government, are able to learn from the resulting mistakes and good ideas.

limited government

A form of government in which the people grant the government the right to rule. The government's powers are clearly limited, usually in a written document, like the Constitution, or in some other publicly understood form. Limited governments have checks and balances to prevent the government and those who govern from putting their own interests ahead of the public interest.

legislature

A government body responsible for making laws. In the U.S.A., the legislature includes both houses of Congress, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The legislative branch is one of three branches of the U.S. government, the other two being the executive branch and the judicial branch. Ideally, the legislative branch makes laws, the executive branch enforces laws, and the judicial branch interprets laws.

faction

A group in a legislature or party acting in pursuit of some special interest or position.

Federalist Papers

A group of 85 essays published in several New York newspapers in 1787 to persuade people in New York to adopt the Constitution, which had recently been drafted in Philadelphia. Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay wrote the Federalist Papers under the name Publius.

anti-federalist

A person opposed to the adoption of the Constitution because of its centralist tendencies and who attacked the Constitution's framers for failing to include a Bill of Rights.

federalist

A person who supported the adoption of the new Constitution and the creation of the federal union. As a group, federalists formed the first American political party, which was led by Alexander Hamilton and John Adams.

new federalism

A plan designed to limit the federal government's regulatory power by returning power to state governments. It gives states greater ability to decide for themselves how government revenues should be spent.

elite theory

A political view that society is ruled by a small number of people who exercise power in their self-interest.

majority rule

A principle of democracy asserting that a simple majority, defined as 50 percent plus one in most cases, should select public officials and determine the policies and actions of their government. In certain cases special majorities are needed, such as the two-thirds majority within the Senate that the Constitution requires to approve a treaty. See Also: super majorities

popular sovereignty

A principle originating in natural rights philosophy that claims political authority rests with the people and not the government. People have the right to create, change, or revolt against their government. In practice, people usually choose representatives to exercise their political authority.

confederal system of government

A system of government consisting of a league of independent states, each having sovereign powers. The central government created by such a league has only limited and delegated powers over the states.

direct democracy

A system of government in which the people, rather than elected representatives, directly make political decisions. This system is probably possible only in small political communities.

dual federalism

A system of government in which the states and the national government have coequal sovereign powers. Under dual federalism acts of states within their reserved powers could be legitimate limitations on the powers of the national government.

democracy

A system of government placing the ultimate political authority in the people. Derived from the Greek words demos (the people) and kratos (authority).

federal system of government

A system of government that divides power between a central government and divisional or regional governments. Each level must have some domain in which its policies are dominant and some genuine political or constitutional guarantee of its authority.

pluralist theory (model)

A theory holding that policy is the product of group conflict and that the public interest tends to emerge out of the welter of competing individual and group claims as these groups bargain and compromise to make decisions.

power

Ability to make other people change their behavior and do what the person exercising power wants them to do. People can exert power through many means friendship, persuasion, propaganda, threats, and more. Power can be divided into political, social, economic, and military categories.

interstate compact

Agreement between two or more states. The Constitution requires that these agreements receive Congressional consent, but in actuality only those that increase the power of the contracting states relative to other states or the national government are considered for Congressional consent. Agreements on minor matters go without Congressional consent. Today's interstate compacts mainly aid in solving regional problems.

matching fund

An agreement between two levels of government in which each level agrees to contribute funds to a specific project. These agreements can be between federal and state governments, federal and local governments, or state and local governments. The "match" usually isn't dollar for dollar. In some cases the smaller government contributes as little as 10 percent.

Shays' Rebellion

An armed revolt by farmers in Massachusetts in 1786-1787, seeking relief from debts and possible foreclosure of mortgages. It's credited with being a major factor in the demand for revision of the Articles of Confederation.

institution

An established organization that performs a role within society, especially one related to education, public service, or culture. Also, customs, relations, and behaviors that play a significant role in a community.

concurrent powers

Authority held jointly by the national and state governments.

implied powers

Authority possessed by the national government by inference from those powers delegated to it in the Constitution.

nullification

Declaring something null or void. Before the Civil War, states' rights advocates in the South claimed a state had the right to nullify a national law. They argued that ultimate power rested with the state governments.

hyperpluralism

Extremely pluralistic government that's very decentralized. Its authority is so fragmented and pressures from competing interest groups are so diverse that it gets very little done.

data

Factual information about political behavior and political decision making, organized to provide a basis for testing hypotheses.

categorical grant-in-aid

Federal funding for states or local governments that is for very specific programs or projects.

block grant

Federal funding to state and local governments for general functional areas, such as criminal justice or mental-health programs, rather than for specific programs.

federal mandate

Federal rules requiring compliance by states and municipalities in order to obtain federal grant money, or rules requiring states to pay the costs of specific nationally-defined programs.

Madison, James (1751-1836)

Fourth President of the US (1809-1817). A member of the Continental Congress and the Constitutional Convention, he wrote many of the Federalist Papers, including Federalist No. 10 and Federalist No. 51.

direct regulation

Government regulation targeted at a specific firm or industry, as opposed to a regulation that's not targeted at a specific firm or industry but affects them anyway, as is the case with some environmental regulations.

division of power (horizontal and vertical)

Granting some powers to one government and some to another. A horizontal division of power separates power between executive, legislative, and judicial branches. A vertical division of power separates power between national and state governments (federalism).

divided government

In American government, a system in which presidential administrations of one party are opposed by Congressional majorities of the opposing party. The term is used to describe the persistence of such election results over time, with either party controlling the presidency.

mischiefs of faction

Madison's reference, in Federalist No. 10, to his concern about the dangers posed by "factions," or groups, who might attempt to dominate the political process. He warned such dangers could take place if political parties misused their freedom and created conflict by pitting their interests against one another. While factions will always exist, Madison argued, a republican (or representative) system could control them.

rage for paper money

Madison's reference, in Federalist No. 10, to the decision by some state governments to print currency that was not backed by gold. This meant the money was essentially worthless, yet it would allow farmers and other debtors to pay off their debts. This action was perceived as a threat by creditors and other members of the propertied class, of which Madison was one.

Progressive Period

Movement that began after the Civil War and peaked during the early 20th century. Most progressives wanted to remove corruption and partisanship from politics. The progressives can be seen as a reaction against the Jacksonian model.

advice and consent

Power the Constitution (Article II, Section 2) grants the U.S. Senate to give its advice and consent to treaties and presidential appointment of federal judges, ambassadors, and cabinet members.

enumerated powers

Powers specifically granted to the national government by the Constitution. The first seventeen clauses of Article 1, Section 8, specify most of Congress' enumerated powers.

expressed powers

Presidential powers expressly written into the Constitution or congressional statute.

indirect regulation

Regulation that's not written to target a specific firm or industry but affects them anyway.

horizontal federalism

Relationships among states that are either constitutionally mandated or voluntary. The phrase distinguishes state-state relations from state-federal relations. The Constitution imposes the following requirements on states: to give "full faith and credit" to other states' public acts, records, and judicial activities; to allow the citizens of other states to enjoy the same privileges and immunities that citizens of their own state enjoy; and to return fugitives from justice.

delegate to ratifying convention

Representatives from each of the 13 original states who attended their state conventions to ratify the Constitution. These delegates were chosen by special elections. Nine of the 13 states had to vote to ratify for the Constitution to become the law of the land.

privileges and immunities

Rights and exceptions provided by law. The Constitution provides privileges and immunities in two places: Article IV, Section 2 and the 14th Amendment. According to Article IV, Section 2, states can't discriminate against the citizens of other states and must grant visitors from other states the same privileges and immunities that their citizens enjoy (legal protection, access to courts, travel and property rights, and so on). The 14th Amendment was intended to preserve civil liberties, but its meaning is ambiguous. The courts have defined it narrowly, and it has not had the great influence its writers intended for it.

legitimacy

The acceptance of a government's right to rule by the people the government rules. It rises from a shared belief that the government is operating as it should, that is, making decisions by following correct decision-making policies and using power appropriately within a justly defined Constitutional role. By granting legitimacy to a government, people regard the government as valuable, its decisions and actions as valid and binding, and worthy of a certain level of obedience and compliance.

Sherman Anti-Trust Act (1890)

The basic federal antimonopoly law that prohibits monopolies in trade, or commerce.

interstate commerce

The buying and selling of commodities, transportation, and other commercial dealings across state lines. It also includes radio, television, telephone, and telegraphic transmissions.

intrastate commerce

The buying and selling of commodities, transportation, and other commercial dealings entirely within a single state.

NLRB v. Jones and Laughlin Steel Corp.

The case that upheld the National Labor Relations Act of 1935, which guarantees labor the right to organize and bargain collectively and established the NLRB to regulate labor-management relations.

Great Compromise

The compromise reached during the Constitutional Convention of 1787 between the New Jersey and Virginia plans, creating a bicameral government with states represented equally in the senate and by population in the House of Representatives. Also called the Connecticut Compromise, the Great Compromise gave disproportionate influence to states with small populations by granting them equal representation in the Senate.

natural rights

The doctrine that humans have certain inalienable rights in a "state of nature" and that government's role is to protect these rights. American political culture claims that all people hold these rights and a government can't infringe on them. John Locke claimed natural law was superior to human law and specified the rights of "life, liberty, and property." The writers of the Declaration of Independence changed these to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness."

necessary and proper clause

The final paragraph of Article I, section 8 of the Constitution, which delegates legislative powers to the Congress. Also known as the elastic clause.

10th Amendment

The final part of the Bill of Rights that declares "the powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people."

Hamilton, Alexander (1755-1804)

The first U.S. Secretary of the Treasury. He established the National Bank and pubic credit system.

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution. They contain a listing of the freedoms that a person enjoys and that cannot be infringed on by the government, such as the freedoms of speech, press, and religion.

ratification

The formal approval, as of a law or Constitutional amendment.

political science

The formal, scientific study of the processes, principles, and structure of government and political institutions. Political science differs from descriptive studies of politics in that it relies on data to test theoretically derived hypotheses.

electoral college

The group of electors selected by the voters in each state and Washington, D.C. This group officially elects the president and vice president of the United States.

consent of the governed

The idea that governments and laws derive their legitimacy from the approval and acceptance (consent) of the people (the governed).

government

The institution, composed of decision makers, that develops, enforces, and interprets the laws of a nation. There are several types of governments, including ones in which decisions are made by the majority (democracy), a small elite (oligarchy), or an individual (dictatorship). Governments usually operate under the terms of a constitution.

amendment process

The means spelled out in Artivle V by which formal changes in, or additions to, the Constitution are made.

politics

The method in which decisions are made, either by or for a society, to allocate resources, distribute benefits, and impose costs. Politics is a difficult term to define and has been summed up in many ways, including: "the art of the possible," the "authoritative allocation of values," "who gets what, when, and how" in a society, and "the competition among individuals and groups over the allocation of values or rewards."

Publius

The name used by the three authors-Hamilton, Madison, and Jay-of the Federalist Papers.

Democratic-Republican

The political party founded by Thomas Jefferson in 1792. It was dissolved in 1828.

Madisonian model

The political philosophy proposed by James Madison that espoused a system of checks and balances and harmony among differing interests. Madison's assumptions were that the primary dangers of a republican government were factions and the possibility of tyranny if power became too concentrated. To counter these dangers, he argued for a powerful, three-branched national government that could hold state governments in check and prevent the national government, or its branches, from exercising too much power. The Constitution produced during the Philadelphia Convention of 1787 owes much to this model.

police power

The power and authority to promote and safeguard the people's health, morals, safety, and welfare. In the American government, the federal government does not have police power. This is reserved for the states. Police power is the most vital power granted to the states by the Constitution, and broadly increases their power over individuals.

authority

The power to enforce laws, command, or judge, usually because of ascribed legitimacy. For most societies, government is the ultimate authority.

New Deal

The programs and policies introduced during the 1930 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, designed to promote economic recovery and social reform.

commerce clause

The section of the Constitution giving Congress the power to regulate trade among the states, with foreign countries, and with the Native American tribes.

cooperative federalism

The theory that the states and the national government cooperate in solving problems.

Civil War

The war between the southern and northern states, the Union and the Confederacy, from 1861 to 1865.

power elite

Theoretical group of corporate, political, and military leaders who together form an interlocking, highly centralized, decision-making structure.

Alien and Sedition Acts (1798)

These acts authorized the president to deport "undesirable aliens" and made it a crime to criticize the government or its officials.

Judiciary Act of 1791

This act ended the "circuit riding" by Supreme Court justices and established the courts of appeal.

Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)

This case determined that Congressional control over interstate commerce includes navigation. The result was to broaden the definition of interstate commerce to include all commercial exchanges.

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

This case that struck down for the first time in US history an act of Congress as unconstitutional. It declared the Constitution to be the supreme law of the USA, and that it is "the duty of the justice department to say what the law is."

limited government

a form of government in which the people grant the government the right to rule; the government's powers are clearly limited, usually in a written document

bicameral legislature

a legislature made up of two parts; the U.S. Congress, composed of the House of Representatives and the Senate, is a bicameral legislature.

checks and balances

a major principle of the U.S. governmental system whereby each branch of government exercises a limiting power on the actions of the others and in which powers are distributed among the three branches in a manner designed to prevent tyranny

confederation

a political system in which states or regional governments have ultimate authority except for those powers expressly delegated to a central government. Member governments voluntarily agree to limited restraints on their actions.

full faith and credit clause

a section of the Constitution (Article IV, Section 1) requiring states to recognize the laws and court decisions of other states; due to this clause, deeds, wills, contracts, and other civil matters in one state must be honored by all states

federalism

a system of government in which power is shared between a central government and regional governments; in the United States, the federal (national) government is in Washington, D.C., and each state has its own government

direct democracy

a system of government in which the people, rather than elected representatives, directly make political decisions

indirect democracy

democracy in which people do not directly govern or directly vote for their representatives; for example, citizens vote for the electoral college, which elects the president.

oversight

ensure laws passed by congress and maintain checks and balances

impose taxes

enumerated

regulate interstate commerce

enumerated

right to spend money

enumerated

expand the power of the federal government

implied

case work

mediate between constituents and bureaucracy

checks and power

power is equally distributed through the branches so not one is too powerful

enumerated powers

powers specifically granted to the national government by the Constitution; the first 17 clauses of Article I, Section 8, specify most of Congress's enumerated powers

framers

the authors of the Constitution

Articles of Confederation

the compact made among the 13 original states to form the basis of their government; officially adopted in 1781.

elastic clause

the final paragraph (clause 18) of Article I, section 8 of the Constitution, which grants Congress the power to choose whatever means are necessary to execute its specifically delegated powers; officially known as the "necessary and proper" clause

compound direct object

two or more direct objects following the same verb