Exam 1, Exam 2, Exam 3, Exam 4

Inner planets type

Terrestrial planets

How did the Universe Start?

The Big Bang Theory

The coal deposit in the Union Chapel Mine, Walker County, Alabama was formed during ________________________

The Carboniferous Period

Carrying Capacity

The Earth's ability to carrying its population at a basic, healthy, moderately comfortable standard of living •How do we tell that the carrying capacity has been reached? Birth rate = Death rate A stationary population

Accretion

The above equation explains why a large mass object can attract smaller masses and grow steadily in size.

Evidence supporting the Big Bang

The abundance of the "light elements" Hydrogen and Helium (most abundant element in the observable universe) support the Big Bang model of origins. - FUSION.

Is Water a Renewable Resource?

The answer depends on scales and localities.

Is water a renewable resource?

The answer depends on scales and localities.

What describes Eutrophication correctly? - Excess oxygen production resulting in algal blooms - Slow degradation of organic matter because of low temperatures - The aerobic breakdown of eutrophites

The depletion of oxygen in a body of water due to excessive algal growth.

Composition

The difference in the appearance of the different fossil fuels is because: 1. The starting material for formation was different. 2.The conditions for formation in each individual case were different. - The ultimate energy source stored in molecules of fossil fuels is solar energy.

Principle sources of US air pollutants.

The importance of contributing sources varies with pollutants; e.g.. transportation is the largest contributor for CO and electricity utility is the largest contributor to SO2Collectively, the single largest source of atmospheric pollutant is Transportation

Economic geothermal gradient is 40˚C/km. Which area is appropriate for developing geothermal energy? What is the geothermal gradient for each area?

The larger the temp gradient, the more likely to be geothermal energy. Problem--- transport the heat to the populated areas less populated areas 30 degrees= 85 F

Where will you find abundant geothermal energy?

The major plates. Some regions are not accessible a theory in geology: the lithosphere of the earth is divided into a small number of plates which float on and travel independently over the mantle and much of the earth's seismic activity occurs at the boundaries of these plates

Niger and Canada

The median age of Canada is higher than Niger. Both Countries will shift to a more balanced age structure over time. Developing countries are facing enormous challenges from rapidly growing population and increasingly depleted resources.Niger has the world's fastest growing population.

Flood and loss of land- example: southern Louisiana

The region highlighted in red is only 8 meters or less above the sea level With the current rising rate of 3mm/year, it takes ~267 years or less for the region to be underwater Note this also applies to some areas in Mobile, AL

Which best describes "Hubbert's Oil Peak"

The time at which the maximum oil production is reached

Big Bang Theory Simplified

The universe started from being small and very, very hot, and it expanded and cooled to the size and temperature of our current universe.

Temperature anomaly in the past 2k yr

This figure shows temperature data collected using three different methods: 1) Instrumental record (smallest error); 2) Paleotemperature reconstruction; and 3) Numerical model simulationsThis figure also shows: 1) uncertainties are large in reconstructed temperature records; 2) temperature rises at a unprecedently high rate since after ~1950

U.S. primary energy consumption by energy source, 2019

This is a more up-to-date dataset (2019) The energy source compositions has not changed significantly Fossil fuels: ~80% Non-renewable energy: ~89%

Ethanol production step 2: Microbial Fermentation

This is the step where microbes break down sugars from hydrolysis into ethanol Bioreactors are built to provide optimal conditions for microbial fermentation Fermentation is the process of extracting energy from the oxidation of organic compounds, such as carbohydrates, using an endogenous electron acceptor, which is usually an organic compound.[1] In contrast, respiration is where electrons are donated to an exogenous electron acceptor, such as oxygen, via an electron transport chain.

Global Climate Network Temperature Stations

This map shows that we have started accumulating long-term instrumental temperature data However, most of the records are less than 150 years; many are <100 years Also, the spatial distribution is uneven; the highest density in the US

Volume loss from Antarctic ice shelves is accelerating

This paper shows that Antarctic ice shelf volume loss is accelerating The data are collected using satellite altimetry Unlike gravity satellite that measures the mass of glaciers, satellite radar altimeter measures the thickness of glaciers See notes below on how satellite altimetry works Altimetry satellites basically determine the distance from the satellite to a target surface by measuring the satellite-to-surface round-trip time of a radar pulse. However, this is not the only measurement made in the process, and a lot of other information can be extracted from altimetry. The principle is that the altimeter emits a radar wave and analyses the return signal that bounces off the surface. Surface height is the difference between the satellite's position on orbit with respect to an arbitrary reference surface (the Earth's centre or a rough approximation of the Earth's surface: the reference ellipsoid) and the satellite-to-surface range (calculated by measuring the time taken for the signal to make the round trip). Besides surface height, by looking at the return signal's amplitude and waveform, we can also measure wave height and wind speed over the oceans, and more generally, backscatter coefficient and surface roughness for most surfaces off which the signal is reflected.If the altimeter emits in two frequencies, the comparison between the signals, with respect to the frequencies used, can also generate interesting results (rain rate over the oceans, detection of crevasses over ice shelves, etc).

Porous volcanic rock with separate pores.

This rock is porous so it has higher porosity The pores, however, are not connected, and hence water cannot flow or be replenished readily. Low permeability

Three-Mile Island

Three-mile island, PA, 1979 •Partial core meltdown •The largest nuclear accident in U.S. •Inconclusive health consequences

Unconventional Fossil Fuels

Tight Oil (Tar Sand)Tight Gas (Coal and Shale gas, Methane Hydrate)

Solar Energy Utilization

To make organic matter primary producers need: • solar energy • CO2 • water • nutrients photosynthesis: where solar energy is converted in biomass energy *The ultimate energy source stored in molecules of fossil fuels is solar energy!

A person only needs 1 gallon of drinking water per day for survival.

True

Agriculture and electricity together account for nearly 80% of freshwater use.

True

Grains are molded in such ways that they fit tightly together Low permeability and low porosity

True

Groundwater Surface water interaction is an important component of hydrological cycles. It also provides important ecological functions particularly in arid regions. One example is Desert oases.

True

Igneous rocks are crystalline solids which form directly from the cooling of magma or larva.

True

T/F Alabama has over 77,000 miles of rivers and streams with more freshwater biodiversity than any other US State.

True

T/F Coal mining alters earth's landscape?

True

T/F Coal waste dumps containing reduced sulfur (S) can react with oxygen and water and create sulfuric acid, a phenomenon known as "Acid Mine Drainage"

True

T/F Open pit mining results in landslides.

True

The water level of a well drilled into the confined aquifer will rise to the level of line A (potentiometric surface for one of the two aquifers in the figure)

True

Waste dumps create steep slopes that can induce landslides.

True

•Now, think about the water distribution in reservoirs •Fresh water is limited on the earth •Mostly polar and alpine ice and thus nearly inaccessible

True

Biofuel

Two types: •Bioethanol, as a fuel, is produced from grains, such as corn -Often mixed with gasoline -Qualifies as a renewable resource -Almost 50% of Brazilian cars are able to use 100% ethanol •Biodiesel is produced from the fats of plants and animals - 4% of households use wood as a primary heat source.

Particulate air pollutants

Typically have short residence times in the atmosphere.

The largest coal reserve

USA

Ozone in the upper atmosphere can protect our skin because it efficiently absorbs______________ -UVA - UVB - Visible light - Infrared light

UVB

What is the Earth's Carrying Capacity?

Unfortunately, we cannot agree with what the Earth's carrying capacity The estimate varies from 7 to 100 billion persons: a wide range Think: Why is there a large range for carrying capacity?

Coal Mines in Alabama

Union Chapel Mine, Walker County, Alabama (~310mya)

For nuclear fission reactors, which element or derived forms are used for fuel?

Uranium

When was coal formed?

Vascular plant evolution •Higher plants (vascular plants) do not exist until 400 million years ago (mya) •Devonian (419-360 mya): Evolution of advanced vascular systems/wood •Increased height and more extensive roots •Forests expanded rapidly during the Late Devonian

Water movement and processes

Water can exist as liquid, solid, or vapor.

"marine snow"

When plankton die they "rain" down on sea bed and accumulate in the sediments 2. If there is little or no oxygen in the water, organic matter would be better preserved (less benthic consumers and slower anaerobic decomposition) and it accumulates 3. Where sediment contains more than high amount of organic matter (usually >5%), it eventually forms a rock known as Black Shale 4. Black shale is source rock for oil and natural)

Biggest coal deposit in US:

Wyoming and Montana

The Population of Africa is 840 million in 2002. At a growth rate of 4%, what is the population of African in year 2014?

Y = 840 x 10 ^6 e^(.04 *12)

Exponential Growth

Y(t) = Y(0) e^(G *t)

Can we still use them to understand ancient biota and life evolution?

Yes, we can by extracting molecular fossils , i.e. biomarkers.

Can eutrophication be a natural process?

Yes; Nutrients can be exported to water bodies from soils rocks and accumulate slowly in water bodies. However, human activities can significantly accelerate this process.

Georges Lemaitre

a Belgian Roman Catholic priest, professor of physics and astronomer at the Catholic University of Louvain. He proposed the Big Bang Theory in 1927.

In current US commercial nuclear reactors ....

a controlled chain reaction is sustained

Hydrology

a discipline of studying groundwater.

Nuclear Fission

a nuclear reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits into smaller parts (lighter nuclei), often producing free neutrons and photons, and releasing a tremendous amount of energy.

DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)

a pesticide commonly used in the mid-1900s to control insect outbreaks. Breakdown elements from DDT and other pesticides called chlorinated hydrocarbons accumulated in the upper levels of the food chain. The results of this accumulation proved particularly hazardous for birds of prey and other bird species that eat primarily fish, because high quantities of these chemicals caused an abnormality in calcium production. ** Environmental and Health Effects: Drop in bird (including Bald Eagle) population Cancer, Asthma

What is reservoir?

a place to store a substance, e.g., the atmosphere.

What is source?

a process that adds a substance to a reservoir e.g., construction sites that add particulate pollutants to the atmosphere.

What is sink?

a process that removes a substance from a reservoir, e.g. precipitation that removes particulate pollutants.

Capillary Fringe

a small volume of water rises above the water table due to the attraction between water molecules and soils/minerals.

Karst

a type of land form associated with sinkholes and soluble rocks

Gravity or gravitation

a universal force of attraction acting among all matters.

Rachel Carson

alerted the world about the herbicides and pesticides.

In current US commercial nuclear reactors.

all of the above

Potentiometric surface

an imaginary line where a given reservoir of fluid will equilize out to if allowed to flow.

Alternative Energy

any energy intended to replace fossil fuels.

Molecular fossils

are formed during millions of years of sedimentary burial by degradation of biological substances. The preservation of specific steroid skeletons allows to correlate fossil aromatic steroids with biological sterols.

Star - Why is it luminous?

astronomical objects consisting of a luminous spheroid of plasma held together by their own gravity. A star has much higher mass than a planet. - The mass of a start is enough to produce gravitation forces that have initiated a fusion reaction at the nuclear level, radiating the energy.

Definition of carrying capacity

basic, healthy, moderately comfortable standard of living

Why Venus is so much hotter than Mercury?

because of the greenhouse effect.

Dumping lawn clipping into a stream will increase ______.

biochemical oxygen demand

Among the following media, which one usually has the highest porosity

clay is the most porous.

Nebulae

clouds of dust and gas within galaxies, from which stars form.

Why did researchers hypothesize that comet is the extraterrestrial water source?

comet contains abundant water ice

You have been pumping water fast and extensively from a well in Tuscaloosa, which likely result in __________

cone of depression

Granite

continental crust

The compositions of the eight planets in the solar system____________________

depends on the size and distance from the sun.

Urbanization (e.g., constructing impervious surfaces) will likely_____ the aquifer because it may decrease the ______.

deplete, recharge.

Dumping lawn clippings into a stream will reduce _____.

dissolved oxygen

Dumping organic wastes into a stream will most likely reduce_____of the stream.

dissolved oxygen

The presence of abundant calcite in soils indicates that soils are formed under ______ conditions.

dry

The soil profile below is formed under a _____________ climate with a ______________degree of leaching. Note that the white nodules are calcium carbonate nodules.

dry; low

Renewable Energy

energy sources that are replenished by natural processes at rates higher or comparable to human consumption rates.

*note this question is not exactly the same with a similar question on the slide. True or False: TrueThe ozone layer in the Stratosphere is considered pollutant.

false

Alabama does not have any nuclear power plants

false

An oxygen sag curve describes how much oxygen in a body of water is released by phytoplankton photosynthesis.

false

Brown haze we observe in large cities such as Los Angeles and Beijing is due to the presence of sulfur compounds from coal combustion.

false

In general, organchlorine pesticides can be readily broken down by natural bacteria into CO2.

false

Organchlorine pesticides are environmental concerning because they can be rapidly broken down into CO2 by bacteria (i.e., biodegraded) in natural environments.

false

Oxygen makes up the largest part of the air.

false

Physical isolation (e.g. placing impermeable liners to cover contaminated sediments) is particularly useful in remediating pollution in large-scale and dynamic aquatic systems such as marine sediments influenced by strong waves.

false

Porosity measures the ease with which water can pass through a rock.

false

The Mars has the highest average temperature among the eight planets because it is closest to the sun.

false

True or False: Usually, surface subsidence created by excessive withdrawal of groundwater can be effectively remediated by injecting water into the aquifer to raise the surface to the original level.

false

True or False: Ethanols added to gasoline are referred to as "biodiesel"

false

True or False: When a chlorine atom destroys an ozone molecule, that chlorine atom is taken out of circulation and locked in the product molecule (ClO) so that it can do no more harm.

false

UVC is the most hazardous UV to humans and has longer wavelength than UVA and UVB.

false

Isotope indicates nucleus with different number of protons.

false should be neutrons.

The water level of a Fed into the unconfined aquifer will rise to the level of line B (ground surface). A = Potentiometric surface B = ground surface C = water table of the unconfined aquifer. D = water table of the confined aquifer.

false; correct choice is C.

Runoff

flow of water on the ground surface.

Groundwater flows

flows of water at subsurface.

Lakes

fresh or salty; most are freshwater lakes, but saline or brackish (between fresh and saline) in dry climates.

Evaporation

from liquid to vapor. Evaporation from ocean accounts for ~80% of precipitation on land.

Condensation

from vapor to liquid

nuclear energy principle

fusion and fission

For the Milankovitch Cycle, higher eccentricity means_________________________ - greater deviation from a perfect round shape for the orbital of the Earth rotating about the sun. - lower deviation from a perfect round shape for the orbital of the Earth rotating about the sun. - a greater tilt of the Earth's axis. - a lower tilt of the Earth's axis.

greater deviation from a perfect round shape for the orbital of the Earth rotating about the sun.

Pump-and-treat method is commonly used to remediate _____________________

groundwater contamination

Large obliquity will lead to ______. mild winter and cool summer harsh winter and hot summer Mild winter and hot summer Harsh winter and cool summer

harsh winter and hot summer.

High organic matter content in a water sample generally corresponds to a ______________BOD of the sample.

high

In 2010, the median age of Canada is ______________ the median age of Niger.

higher

In 2013, the median age of US is ______ the median age of Ethiopian.

higher

In sedimentary rocks, rocks with well-sorted grains are often associated with ___________ porosity and permeability than those with poorly-sorted grains.

higher

In sedimentary rocks, well-rounded grained rocks are often associated with ___________ porosity and permeability than those with angular-grained porosity

higher

On average, the replacement rate of developing countries is ___________________that of he developed countries to account for higher potential of immature deaths in developing countries.

higher

On average, total fertility rate of developing countries is _______________________ that of developed countries.

higher

The Carbon:Oxygen Ratio of anthracite is ____ than the ratio of lignite

higher

Planet compositions

how near they were to the hot sun.

Organochlorine Pesticides are a group of compounds made by hydrocarbon in which _____________________

hydrogen replaced by Cl (chlorine)

Starch

hydroxyl group above carbon rings.

Cellulose

hydroxyl group below carbon rings.

Rivers

important for sources of water, transportation.

A uniform structure

in developed world (uniform distribution across age groups)

Groundwater

includes only water in the Phreatic zone.

Most likely, acid rain will _______ leaching in soils.

increase

Nuclear fusion reactors would

involve far fewer radiation hazards than fission reactors.

Galaxy

is a gravity bound system containing huge rotating aggregation of stars, dust, gas and other debris.

Ecological footprint

is an estimate of the area of land needed to supply human demands for resources. Primary component of Ecological footprint is fossil fuels in wealthy countries and cropland in poor countries.

Pollutant

is any substance that, in excess, is known to be harmful to desirable living organisms.

The most toxic form(s) of mercury to humans _________________

is methylmercury

Discharge

is the amount of water flowing past a point over a period of time; Measured in units of m3/second

The Big Bang Theory?

is the dominant scientific theory about the origin of the universe. and is widely accepted.

weather

is the ever-changing combination of winds, clouds, temperature, and pressure at a particular location and time.

Gravity

is the force that lead to the accretion and growth of planetary body.

climate

is the long-term average of weather (usually 30 years or longer for Earth climate); likely in very large area.

Nuclear fusion

is the process by which two or more atomic nuclei join together, or "fuse", to form a single heavier nucleus.

Countries are referred to as Ecological Debtors when their ecological footprint is _____________________biocapacity.

larger than

Outer core

liquid

Learn how to read a ternary diagram: 20% of clay; 30% of sand; 40% of silt; what type of soil is this?

loam and clay loam.

Transpiration

loss of water from parts of plants, especially in leaves.

In general, ________ receive more abundant solar energyHint:Tuscaloosa: 33 ° 12' N Michigan: Latitude: 41° 41' NCalifornia: Longitude: 36°10' 12" N

low latitude regions

_________ and _______ are required to convert the fallen trees and dead leaves into coal.

low oxygen; heat and pressure

Farther away from Sun composition?

low temperature minerals, water, gas.

In the northern hemisphere, regions of ________ receive more abundant solar energy.

lower latitudes

Jupiter and Saturn composed?

mainly hydrogen (H) and helium (He)

Uranus and Neptune composed?

mainly of ices of water, ammonium, methane.

In oceans, when the plankton die they fall down on sea bed and accumulate in the sediments. This process is termed as__________________

marine snow

Galaxy Earth is in?

milky way

Time it takes to form fossil fuels

millions of years.

What are biomarkers?

molecular fossils.

Infiltration/percolation

movement and filtering of fluids through a porous media.

Is nuclear energy renewable energy?

no

Is nuclear fission energy reneawable energy?

no

Urban and Agricultural Runoff is what?

non point source

Salt runoff from roads is ______________________

non-point source

Urban runoff is what?

non-point source

Fossil Fuels are .....

non-renewable energy sources

eutrophication____________ - Cannot be a natural process and must involves human activities - Can lead to significant changes in total amount of phytoplankton biomass - None of the above

none of the above

Fertilizers from croplands

nonpoint source

Salt runoff from roads

nonpoint source

Isotopes

number of neutrons for an element may not be the same; variable numbers of neutrons possible.

What causes dead zones in coastal oceans?

nutrients and organic matter exported from agricultural lands to streams and rivers care dead zone in coastal oceans.

Indirect evidence of climate change

observations indicating a rising temperature. - glacier meltdown - sea level rise.

Basalt

oceanic crust

2 main hypothesis of origins of oceans:

outgassing and extraterrestrial source.

Banded iron formation is considered as direct evidence of________________

oxygen revolution

The ingredients necessary for the formation of photochemical smog include all of the following EXCEPT__________ - sunlight - volatile organic compounds - nitrogen oxides (NOx) - Ozone

ozone

ozone hole" over Antarctica September,2006

ozone hole: ozone is depleted.

PH

pH reflects the hydrogen ion concentrations in a solution High hydrogen ion concentration=low pH=acidic Low hydrogen ion concentration=high pH=alkaline pH=-log[H+] Observe the figure on the left: Neutral pH=7 Normal precipitation: pH ~5.3 to 6 Acid rain: pH<5.3 Normal range of stream of pH: 6-8 Seawater pH: ~8.1 Think: 1) why is normal precipitation slightly acidic? 2) Why is the pH of stream water higher than the pH of normal precipitation?

Grades of Coal

peat, lignite, bituminous coal, anthracite

What are the forces contributing to soil formation.

physical weathering

Where is the oldest rock?

plants and animals(insects and vertebrates) first move on to land about the same period ---Devonia before then, living on land is too dangerous cause of a lot of UVL harmful light for skin, animals could not survive once the atmosphere got the O3 layer, they could survive on land.

The long-term (100s millions of years) climate change is linked to __________________________

plate tectonics

Pipe discharge is what?

point source

Storm sewer discharge is _____________________

point source

The first stage of demographic transition curve is referred to as __________________________________

pretransition

Aquitard

rock and mineral units that have low permeability and hence restrict the flow of groundwater.

A sinkhole just formed in your backyard. Among the following rocks, which type of rock would you most likely find there?

rock salt

In a stream influenced by acid mine drainage, the RED color in stream bed is due to the presence of

rust oxidation

Rounded particles of equal size provide maximum porosity. This sentence best describes the grain fitting pattern of__________________________

sandstone

Artesian aquifer

self-pumped aquifer, where high pressure causes groundwater to rise in wells; potentiometric surface is higher than groundsurface.

Water table

separates unsaturated and saturated zone.

Based on the plot below, a soil composed of 10% sand, 70% silt and 20% clay should be termed as ______.

silt loam.

Ocean acts as a net ____________________for atmospheric CO2.

sink

What is the primary factor that determines planet composition?

size and distance from sun.

The source of geothermal power is____________

slow decay of radioactive elements in rocks.

In Africa, replacement rate is ______ fertility rate.

smaller than. In Africa, replacement rate is ~2.3 and total fertility rate is ~5.

Among the following processes, which one acts as a source for the atmospheric CO2?

soil microorganism respiration

Inner core

solid

obliquity

strength of season

The evidence for the earliest life is_________________________

strommalite

Element

substance composed of atoms with the same number for protons.

Air Pollution

sulfur and nitrogen gases and CFCs.

Interpret this figure: 0= the mean of the temperature record of AD 1000-1980 Note that the 1998 instrument value (black dashed line) shows an anomaly of +0.7 oC Also note the quick rise of temperature since 1900

t

Carbon emission

taking 130,000 cars off the road and providing 340,000 homes clean energy. - Would involve a large scale land and material for large scale use in all in california.

To develop economic geothermal facility, the geothermal gradient has to be ≥ (larger or equal to) 60 ˚C/km. Read the following figure and choose the locations that are appropriate for economic geothermal development.

temp had to be greater than 1800 which would be only D.

direct evidence of climate change?

temperature increase.

Total Fertility Rate

the average number of children a woman has during her lifetime. - World average ~2.5; large geographic variability. Higher in developed countries.

Replacement Rate

the average number of children each women needs to have to maintain the current population. - Theoretically 2; ~2.1 in developed countries and ~2.3 in developing coutries (higher than 2 to account for the potential of early death due to health and safety issues)

In figure A, which rock has undergone more intensive weathering?

the lower one; weathering removes angles of rocks.

Birth Rate

the number of babies born every year expressed as a percent of total population. - average global birth rate is ~1.92%

Mortality/Death Rate

the number of people die every year expressed as a percent of total population. - Average global death rate is ~0.9%. - Birth rate > Death rate.

Which of the following best describes the water table? 1.the top of the unsaturated (vadose) zone 2.the bottom of an aquifer; 3.the zone of subsurface water; 4.the top of the saturated (phreatic) zone

the top of the saturated (phreatic zone)

Emerging chemicals/contaminants

they are being actively used, and their tendency to accumulate in the environment and their negative effects on organisms and ecosystems are being discovered and evaluated

How many stages of origin of atmosphere?

three stages

precession

timing of season.

conduction

transfer of heat through direct contact.

radiation

transfer of heat through emission

convection

transfer of heat through movement of liquid or gas

The main source of coalformation is?

trees and land plants

1: When a neuron 2: strikes a non -fissile atom of uranium-238. 3: Two beta particles are given off. 4: And the result is a fissile plutonium atom.

true

Acid rain was a severe issue in the eastern part of the U.S. in 1980s It has been significantly improved due to the reduction of SO2 emission and NOx emission

true

As for solar energy distribution, solar energy is overall more abundant in the southwestern United States than in the northeastern United States.

true

Based on the demographic transition curve, population of all nations will eventually reach to the stability transition stage, where death rate is equal to birth rate and the population remains stationary.

true

Billions of tons of carbon Unit 1015 tons This figures shows : (1) gas hydrate is a large energy reserve; (2) methane release from gas hydrates can lead to significant environmental changes (global warming and associated consequences)

true

Both are made from six-sided glucose molecules, but the orientation of the bonds between them are slightly different. This is enough of a difference for one to be food (starch) and the other to be "fiber" (cellulose). Starch is easily converted to ethanol, cellulose is not.

true

CO pollution is below the national standard.

true

Chemical composition of PM 2.5 at several urban and rural locations. Figure is adapted from McMurry et al. (2004). The figure shows that particulate pollutants have various chemical compositions that vary due to contributing sources, which in turn depend on local climate, soil, and human activities

true

Chlordane, or chlordan, is an organochlorine compound that was used as a pesticide. This white solid was sold in the U.S. until 1983 as an insecticide for crops like corn and citrus and on lawns and domestic gardens Dieldrin is a chlorinated hydrocarbon originally produced in 1948 by J. Hyman & Co, Denver, as an insecticide.

true

Complete solution of calcite (CaCO3) leaves no solid mineral residue in soils.

true

Coral reef ecosystems cannot survive in sediment-laden water because they require good light penetration for photosynthesis.

true

DDT leads to eggshell thinning and egg breakage

true

Different counties are making different decisions on nuclear energy; these decisions are based on resource France prioritizes developing nuclear energy and dig deep for nuclear wastes disposal

true

Farmland per capita has been decreasing worldwide.

true

Greenhouse gases act like glass in a gardener's greenhouse. Light enters the greenhouse, changes to heat, and is trapped inside by the glass. Likewise, sunlight enters the atmosphere, is changed to heat, and is trapped by greenhouse gases.

true

Gulf of Mexico Dead Zones and Massive Fish Kill

true

Heat transfer mechanisms within the Earth, along with the % amount of heat flow in each layer.

true

Hydrologist use dye to trace surface water and measure flow rate.

true

In Alabama, there are total 2 plants 5 reactors 3 in Athens 2 in Houston County Supply ~30% of electricity in AL Nuclear power supplies ~20% of electricity in the U.S.

true

Limestone is also a common type of aquifer.

true

Medium-term climate change (1 million year): Milankovitch Cycles There are three types of orbital changes: eccentricity, obliquity, and precession The three orbital parameters co-regulate climate changes The climatic records reflect accumulative effects of the three cycles

true

Oil demand keeps increasing

true

Parent rock fragments the beginning step of soil formation. texture and composition are similar to "C horizon".

true

Particulate matter pollution is below the national standard.

true

Pore connection and permeability. Although basalt is generally non-porous igneous rock, its connected network of columnar joints makes this basaltic lava flow highly permeable. In contrast, the fractures in the granitic bedrock may be poorly interconnected; thus this granitic outcrop is relatively impermeable

true

Retention pond to settle sediments and reduce sediment runoffs.

true

Salton sea is a lake with salinity higher than ocean.

true

Sea Level Rise threatens coastal regions

true

Soil is a resource. healthy soil, healthy food.

true

Sources of geothermal energy: Heat is generated by decay of radioactive elements; also leftover from its early history Below is a table showing heat releases from some of the radioactive isotopes in rocks; note the half-life (the time that it takes to reduce to the half of the current amount) is on billion years' scale, which is why these isotopes can be also used for dating rocks and minerals

true

Temperature profile of the Earth's layers. Temperature increases with depth

true

The ecological footprint made to sustain a typical U.S. lifestyle is using more than three times of world average biocapacity.

true

The ruined nuclear reactor at Chernobyl is finally sealed within a 20,000-tonne steel shield designed to prevent any further radiation from escaping for 100 years. The entire project cost > 2 billion euros

true

The starting materials determine the efficiency of biofuels (energy output relative to energy input) Because of differences in cellulose and starch, more energy need to put in switchgrass, relative to corn and sugar cane, to produce the same amount of energy

true

This figures shows long-term climate changes (100s million years) During the last 2 billion years the Earth's climate has alternated between a "Ice House", like today's world, and a "Hot House", like the world of the dinosaurs. Long-term changes have been attributed to plate tectonics

true

True or False The amount of carbon in gas hydrate exceeds the amount of carbon in fossil fuels.

true

Uranium ore ---> Yellowcake for fuel

true

Water tower works to simulate an artesian aquifer.

true

We are still in the process of evaluating and understanding the environmental impacts of hydrofracking A lot of these impacts are occurring subsurface and remaining "invisible" until they become widespread and costly to repair Here is an example of a visible effect in Colorado Storms and floods destruct hydrofracking wells, releasing chemicals to the environment

true

We cannot prevent these chemicals entering and accumulating in the environmentWe must find ways to reverse, or more realistically, mitigate, their environmental damagesWe are now discussing several commonly used remediation methods. Each has pros and cons

true

barren fields buried under windblown soil.

true

nuclear energy is neither renewable (it requires uranium-enriched rocks formed during the geological past) nor sustainable (energy that does not harm future energy use or environment from this sense, any non-renewable energy is not sustainable because it will decrease future energy reserves; furthermore, we do not have a good solution for storing nuclear wastes.

true

•Based on this figure, which layer has the highest geothermal gradient and which layer has the lowest geothermal gradient? •Answer: Highest: lithosphere Lowest: inner core

true

•SO2 emission has been effectively reduced to below the level of the National standard

true

•Superfund is the federal government's program to clean up the nation's uncontrolled hazardous waste sites •Created in the 1980s to fund toxic site clean up •Offenders often cannot be identified •Fund comes from chemical users and industries •Widely distributed around the US (see the map above); 73 million people live within 4 miles of a superfund site •Average cleanup cost per site = $30 million (total clean-up costs >$1 trillion)

true

•Surface subsidence due to groundwater withdrawal makes coastal areas more susceptible to a rising seal level rises and storm-related flood •See below for Venice Italy as an example

true

Note that the EPA Clean Air Act did not effectively reduce the NOx emissionNitrogen-gas emissions - hard to reduce as they are an inevitable by-product of combustion: reduce temperature?

true •Although NO2 emission is below the level of National standard, one of the products O3 is still above the national standard

Could we prevent the pollution from man-made chemicals?

unlikely

Comet heavy water is_____ different from the normal (light) water on the Earth.

very

Biological water

water in cells and structures of plants.

subsurface

water includes water in Vadose and Phreatic zones.

Glaciers

water is also in permafrost and ground ice in these areas.

Movement of water

water is driven by energy and gravity.

Swamps and wetlands

water is on surface - what situations allow water to be at the surface?

Unconfined aquifer

water level in the well equal to the water level of the aquifer.

Confined aquifer

water level in the well rises above the water level of the aquifer.

Hydrological cycle

water moving across reservoirs via different processes.

Groundwater recharge

water moving into the aquifer.

Groundwater discharge

water moving out of the aquifer.

Infiltration

water seeps into ground.

Regional water table =

water table, separating vadose (unsaturated) and phreatic (saturated) zones.

The process of breaking down large rock pieces into smaller fragments is termed as ______.

weathering

Soil formation starts with....

weathering, which is defined as breaking down parent materials into smaller pieces.

In the Troposphere, is ozone considered a pollutant?

yes

How much time it took us to burn a large amount of the fossil fuel?

~ 150 years

Solar systems forms

~ 5 bya

Age of the universe

~14 billion years ago by a = 1 *10^9 years.

Origin of Oceans

~4.6 bya - 2 primary hypothesis have been proposed to explain the origin of the Ocean.

Where are the world's oil deposits?

• During mid-Mesozoic times around 150 million years ago, conditions were just right to build up huge thicknesses of Black Shale source rocks. •Right conditions: warm, shallow, deoxygenated seas - The world's main oil deposits all formed in warm shallow seas where plankton bloomed but bottom waters were depleted in oxygen.

Several important notes on chemical weathering

•1) Water is an important chemical weathering agent; as such, soils in humid regions are usually more strongly weathered than those in dry regions •2) Acidity generally enhances chemical weathering; the more acidic the water (higher concentrations of hydrogen ions), the faster chemical weathering is •3) We can evaluate the formation environment based on chemical compositions of soils (e.g., minerals, organic matter)

Pb poisoning: Flint water crisis

•2014-present •Flint River the major drinking water since 2014 •The state switched Flint's water supply from Lake Huron (paying Detroit) to the Flint River to save $$$ •Insufficient water treatment- high lead (Pb) levels potentially impacting >100,000 residents

Future Prediction:

•2030: the largest generation of adolescents in the history will then be entering their childbearing years •Population will coast upward under its momentum for another 25 yrs •Will people then be able to live humanely and in a way that does not destroy environment?

Chernobyl

•26 April, 1986 -Reactor core overheated -Core meltdown and explosion -Explosion probably resulted burning graphite moderator -Radioactive material escaped, traveling west over Europe -31 direct deaths within 3 months -4,000 cases of thyroid cancer reported in children and adolescents -Projected cancer cases 5,000-10,000 -No evidence of a major public health impact attributable to radiation exposure 20 years after the accident

Topaz Solar Farm

•550 MW, 160,000 homes •Solar panels •Requires no water; little noise •Capturing free, clean solar energy •Although wastes can be produced from solar panel fabrication, environmental damages can be managed and avoided Using solar power to produce large-scale electricity is possible! Also check out the video to compare energy output relative to fossil fuel power plants Construction of the plant (shown) was due for completion in 2015 but finished early. Unlike some plants, it requires no water to generate electricity, and it makes very minimal noise. Each of the solar panels stands just five and a half feet (1.7 metres) off the ground, reducing visible impact from the expansive farm

Air Composition

•78% Nitrogen gas; 21% Oxygen gas: <1% Argon •Variable water vapor - up to 4%--can be the 3rd most abundant component •Lots of other things - but together make up less than 1% •350 ppm CO2

Sandstone

•A rock made of sand-sized mineral particles or rock fragments or organics (rounded, well-sorted) •Rounded particles of equal size provide maximum porosity •The pores are usually well connected, if not much cementation •Sandstone has high porosity and permeability Common aquifer rocks

Solar Energy

•Abundant solar energy reaches the earth's surface -Solar energy is free, clean, and a renewable resource -Limitations are latitude and climate •Solar energy accounts for only 1% of energy derived from renewable sources in U.S - Limitations are latitude and climate because of precipitation and elevation. - Solar energy? California, arizona, new mexico, nevada.

Biofuel

•Advantage: Renewable energy Less CO2 emissions? •Disadvantage: -Land conversions/ land uses -Increases in food price in world market -U.S. agriculture could only produce enough ethanol to cover 4% of U.S. energy needs -Ethanol contains less energy per unit volume than gasoline - equates to a 34% decrease in miles/gallon -Pollutions from fertilizers

Chemical Treatment

•Advantages: chemicals are inexpensive, the operation is simple, and efficient in treating polluted water in a centralized facility (wastewater and sludge treatment plants) •Disadvantages: not suitable for in situ application; storage and processing toxic wastes create challenges

Aeration

•Aeration is also a step commonly used in wastewater and sludge treatment plants •Advantages: simple, inexpensive; efficiently mitigating the dead zone issue •Disadvantages: promoting bioremediation of breaking down organics; relying on microbes and chemical conditions to make this happen; inefficient on pollutants that are resistant to aerobic decomposition (e.g., DDT)

Remediation Methods: (5) Aeration

•Aeration: Bubbling air into water •It is a simple, inexpensive method to promote bioremediation (aerobic degradation of organic matter and organic pollutants) •It can be used in situ, and it is particularly efficient in remediating anoxic, dead ponds and lakes -For examples, fountains are more than decorative; air blowers in catfish ponds -Bubbling air rather than oxygen can result in nitrogen poisoning for some fish

Cost of air pollution

•Air pollution is costly •$40 billion - Worldwide annual expense of forest-product harvest reduction due to air pollution •$16 billion annual U.S. expense (direct costs) •Medical costs are enormous: -Illness -Medical treatment -Absenteeism Loss of production

Traditional Geothermal Power

•Applications of traditional Geothermal Energy -Circulating geothermal water (50-90C) through buildings to heat them - Iceland, Russia (hot water) -Geothermal water (steam, much hotter) can be used to run electric generators - The Geysers, CA since 1960s (dry steam) -In Iceland 26.5% of electricity and 87% of home heating and hot water came from geothermal energy---why Iceland has such a high percentage of geothermal power? Geyesers CA - largest geothermal facility 40 sites being used in total.

Microplastics? Everywhere

•Arctic Ice •Water fleas •Groundwater •Remote oceans •Rain •Food Human body!

Calculating Residence Time

•Assuming that the world population's is maintained at a stable level of 6 billion now, then if 80 million people are born each year, what is the residence time of people on earth? • Residence time =6*109/80*106 = 75 years (average life span) •The residence time of a pollutant in a lake is 500 days. If a pollutant is dumped into a lake at the rate of 2 kg / day, and a lake volume is 4*107 m3. What is the steady-state concentration that the pollutant will reach? (2kg/day *500 days)/ (4*107 m3)=2.5*10-5kg/m3

Arsenic (As)

•Atomic number: 33; unlike Cd, Hg, and Cd, As is a metalloid •Metalloid: properties between metals and nonmetals •Natural sources: rocks •Anthropogenic sources concentrate As: mining and ore processing, metallurgy, chemical industry, glass, pulp and paper mills, textiles, fertilizers, petroleum refining •Unlike other three metals, As mass poisoning is due to natural sources (see the next page)

Metal: Cadmium (Cd)

•Atomic number: 48; silver white metal; chemically similar to Zinc (Zn) and mercury (Hg) •Natural sources: rocks and soils •Anthropogenic sources: mining and ore processing; metallurgy, alloy; chemical industry; textile; fertilizer; petroleum refining •Anthropogenic sources are responsible for concentrated Cd in the environment and negative consequences

Air Pollution Control

•Automobile Emissions - -Goal to reduce automobile emissions -Catalytic converters (platinum group) •Enhances combustion or oxidation of hydrocarbons and CO to produce CO2 and water, which is good for reducing hydrocarbon and CO pollution •Meanwhile it enhances production of sulfuric acid and nitrogen oxide, which is not so good •Control Methods -Air filters - very efficient (99.9%), but typically combustible - not good for hot gases -Scrubbers - high voltage charges particulates - caught on charged plates - 98-99.5% efficient •Costly •Used at coal fired power stations -Wet scrubber - passed through mist or stream of water •Dissolves gases, removes particulates -Wet chemical scrubber - passed through slurry of lime (CaO) or limestone (CaCO3) •Reacts with sulfur gases -Lower combustion temperatures, which can reduce the emission of nitrogen oxides -Afterburners to complete combustion process Converts carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide

Reprocess Spent Fuel

•Because fuel is limited, we need to maximize the use efficiency •Note that the blue arrows add the component of reprocessing spent fuel & federal-regulated deposition •Spent fuel: fuel that has been used at least once •Spent fuel can be reprocessed to extract plutonium as well as to re-enrich/concentrate the remaining uranium

•Why is the pH of stream water higher than the pH of normal precipitation?

•Because stream water comes mostly from surface runoff and groundwater; precipitation can be neutralized to some extent via reacting with minerals For example: CaCO3+ 2H+= Ca2+ + H2O+CO2

Why do we say water is a resource?

•Because we need water to survive •Access to clean water should not be take granted •WHO (2019): 2.2 billion people around the world do not have safely managed drinking water services.

Alternative Geothermal Sources

•Binary geothermal power •Underground temperatures 50-60 ˚F (10-15 ˚C) •> 1000,000 systems in US •Save 30-70% on heating and 20-50% on cooling Geothermal graident is the rate of increase of temperature with increasing depth in the earth Ordinary crust: 30de/km (85F /km) For places > 40 de/km, can be regarded potential site Pretty expensive 0.066km---66m Idaho, oregeon, nevada

Biocapacity

•Biocapacity: a measure of the area and quality of land available to supply a population with resource •Countries with Ecological Footprint>Biocapacity: Ecological Debtors •Nearly all countries are ecological debtors, including the U.S. •U.S. : using more than three times of world average biocapacity •With the current lifestyle, ecological footprints has exceeded biocapacity by 40% •What will happen if the world lives the lifestyle of U.S.?

Remediation Methods: (4) Bioremediation

•Bioremediation: Use of microorganisms to break down toxic organic compounds •Used for in situ, field applications and wastewater treatment plants •Advantages: clean; let the nature do her work! •Disadvantages: usually slow if relying on natural microbes; oxygen and nutrient availability is critical •Microbes take up pollutants as food or energy sources and transform them into biomass or wastes that are not harmful to the environment A complete breakdown of organic pollutants result in CO2 - Membrane bioreactors for wastewater treatment - Spraying nutrients to stimulate bioremediation of natural microbes of spilled oil in Alaska

Soil Classification

•Broad Chemical-based Classification •Pedalfer : iron-rich soils; soil of a humid climate -More extensive leaching due to abundant precipitation -Less soluble material remains after leaching -Think about the chemical weathering we learned, what are these insoluble minerals? -These are iron hydroxides and clay minerals - •Pedocal: soil of a dry climate -Less leaching due to low precipitation -Calcium carbonates that are soluble in acidic water are present in this soil

Carbon Gases: CO

•CO - carbon monoxide -2C + O2 = 2CO or C+H2O (high T)=CO+H2 -Produced when C-bearing fuel is incompletely burned - when less O is available (efficient engine!) -Principle anthropogenic carbon gases: Inefficient engines - waste energy; Often happen in crowded urban areas -Largest anthropogenic source: traffic -Natural sources---volcanic gases -far less volumetrically than CO2 -Odorless, tasteless, invisible, toxic, immediately deadly •Replaces O in the blood •Tokyo "oxygen breaks" for police officers to inhale low-CO air -Short residence time (1-2 mo.) -CO can react further with O to produce more CO2

Carbon Gases: CO2

•CO2 - carbon dioxide -C + O2 = CO2 -Essential for life of plants (photosynthesis removes CO2 from the atmosphere) -Respiration, combustion, and volcanic eruptions add CO2 to the atmosphere -Man adds ~ 30 billion tons of CO2 to the atmosphere each year (1% of total CO2 in the atmosphere) -Frequent exchanges between oceans and atmosphere (ocean both adds and removes atmospheric CO2) -Short residence time (~4 yr.) in the atmosphere Photosynthesis: CO2 + H2O ---> CH2O + O2.

How do we know this is anthropogenic CO2?

•CO2 rises agree with fossil fuel burning data •Geochemical evidences: Global alteration in carbon isotopes---"Suess" effect (14C (radiogenic carbon) is produced continuously in the upper atmosphere 1n + 14N --> 14C + 1H The half life of 14Carbon is 5730 years 14C becomes undetectable 10 half livers- dead carbon Large quantities of "dead" carbon have been added to the atmosphere--- dilute the 14C pool) •Climate modeling evidences

Reaction 1: Solution of Calcite

•Calcite is highly soluble in acidic water (rainwater is naturally acidic because atmospheric CO2 dissolves into water) •No solid residue is produced in this reaction (meaning no solid phase minerals are left in soils) •Calcium ions will be dissolved into water and moved to a deeper horizon or exported to surrounding water bodies (e.g., streams) from soils •As such, calcite nodules are observed only in dry regions

Arsenic Toxiciy

•Can be toxic in natural concentrations-- exceed the recommended "safe" levels •Acute poisoning with 100mg, chronic poisoning, maybe carcinogenic •AsO3--- weed killers until 1960s, non-biodegradable, kg/acre •Bangladesh —the largest mass poisoning of a human population •1987 numerous cases of As-poison; 270,000 people die from induced cancer •Past two decades, over 18 millions are drinking As poisoned water daily •Deep wells are being developed now and new sources of water are being located •See the video of As mass poisoning in Bangladesh

What is the difference between hydrogen containing (H)CFCs and halogen saturated CFCs?

•Change in CFC formula: current substitute---- Hydrohaloalkanes (containing at least one hydrogen atoms) •Hydrogen containing CFCs only last a relatively short time and probably never make it to the Stratosphere. CH3CCl3 and CHClF2 only last 6-7 years. Short lifetime: lower O3 destruction ability •Method of destruction in Troposphere. CHClF2 + OH• àH2O + CClF2• The hydroxyl radical is the natural air cleanser of the Troposphere and can work on (H)CFCs (not CFCs).

Banned pollutants have legacy environmental consequences

•Chemicals that enter and accumulate in the environment can have legacy effects even after they are discontinued • •The figure in the right showing that organochlorine insecticides accumulate in sediments • •Their concentrations are high in sediments deposited in years when these chemicals were widely used in agricultural and urban activities • •Note these chemicals can be disturbed by storms and dredging and released to the water column

Unconventional Natural Gas Sources: (1) coal bed methane

•Coal bed methane -CH4 associated with coal beds -Hydrofracking often used - what is this? -CH4 viewed as a risk in coal mining and usually released to the air and wasted -Accounts for one third of gas produced in Alabama -Alabama is a world leader in CBM technology

Limitations on Coal Use

•Coal cannot be used as fuel for transportation (cars, planes etc.) purposes. •Mining coal underground is dangerous: mines collapse, gas explosions, and groundwater inrush can end tragically. •Miners have health problems from breathing the coal dust.

Coal Formation

•Coal is formed from remains of land plants, not from marine organisms! • •Swamp/peat/wetland settings are ideal with abundant trees and leaves. •Requires anaerobic conditions (low oxygen) and heat & pressure to convert the fallen trees and dead leaves into coal

Soil Properties

•Color: -Dark, black soils: organic matter rich soils -Yellow to red soils: strongly oxidized soils, iron-rich -These characters are often reflecting •Texture: size of fragments -Sand-sized (2-0.05 mm) > Silt-sized (0.05-0.002 mm)> Clay-sized (less than 0.002 mm) -Particle size influences soil's hydrological property -High permeability in sandy soils and low permeability in clayey soils

Antibiotics

•Commonly used pharmaceuticals •Chemicals that kill or inhibit bacteria •Used in human and veterinary medicine •Over 100 antibiotics •The following are just some examples - sulfonamides - fluroquinolones - diaminopyrimidine •Sources of pollution: animal pasture, animal feeding facility, hospital effluents, urban and agricultural runoffs, landfill, wastewater treatment plants •They can be degraded by microbes and light oxidation •Usually degrade fast: from hours to days •But they were detected in surface water, soils, and groundwater, suggesting their ability to accumulate •Their environmental impacts are not yet well understood •But it is known that they change natural microbes and the associated chemical fluxes of key elements and nutrients •And it is shown that they have negative impacts on fish and wildlife •They and their degradation intermediate products are a complex group of compounds, which are difficult to detect and analyze and require expensive instruments

Future: Extending the Water Supply

•Conservation - a must do strategy in U.S. -Alone will not resolve the problem •Desalination? -Improve and purify waters not now used and make them usable - tow icebergs form Antartica to arid Middle East. ---> Unlikely in the foreseeable future because of economic and environmental costs.

Cyanobacteria

•Cyanobacteria about 3.5 bya •Producing oxygen to react with early iron and sulfur •Atmospheric O2 started to rise about 2.4 bya

Darcy's Law

•Darcy's Law describes the flow of water through an aquifer Q = K∙A(ΔH/ΔD) -Q = discharge -K = hydraulic conductivity: related to permeability of rocks and viscosity and density of fluid -A = cross-sectional area -∆H = difference in groundwater potential between two wells -∆ D= distance between two wells

climate change

•Direct evidence, Temperature: the global temperature has been rapidly increasing since 1900s •Indirect evidence, glacier melting and sea-level rising: agreeing with the temperature change and supporting global warming over the last century

U.S. energy production by energy source

•Dominated by fossil fuels: oil, natural gas, coal (NGPL=natural gas plant liquid) •The unit is measured by BTU. A BTU (British Thermal Unit) is the amount of heat necessary to raise one pound of water by 1 degreeFarenheit (F). 1 BTU = 252 cal =1.055 kJ

Remediation Methods: (1) Dredging

•Dredging: excavating solid materials (sediments, mud, weeds, trash) from an aquatic environment •Dredging physically removes contaminated sediments •Often used in the U.S. for emergency clean up: 220-240 of 250 gallons of PCBs spilled in 1974 were recovered •Advantages: (1) permanently remove the sediments that are contaminated by toxic compounds; (2) quick efficient removal for emergency spills •Disadvantages: (1) disturbing polluted sediments and increasing the risk of secondary pollution;(2) costly operation; (3) storage of those dredged toxic sediments is an issue- inappropriate storage will lead to polluting soils and water adjacent to the storage site; (4) only appropriate for contaminants that are not highly soluable

Water Distribution in US

•East - generally humid -More dependence is on surface water •West - more arid -More dependence on ground water and reservoirs •Water distribution -People often concentrated in areas with limited water resources -Best soils often in semi-arid areas - irrigation •Pollution -Higher population - more pollution -Water supply becomes unusable

Soil Erosion

•Erosion is the physical removal of the material that has been weathered •Water and Wind are the two major mechanisms of soil erosion •What is the difference of weathering, erosion and leaching? Weathering: breakdown of rocks/parent materials into smaller fragments and particles Leaching: soluble compounds and minerals are mobilized and transported out of the soil column

Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant-2011 nuclear disaster

•Established in 1971 •One of the 15 largest nuclear power plants •9.0 earthquake and subsequent tsunami disabled the reactor cooling systems (March, 2011) •Nuclear radiation leaked and triggered a 30 km evacuation zone surrounding the plant. •On April 20, 2011, the Japanese authorities declared the 20 km evacuation zone a no-go area which may only be entered under government supervision. •6 reactors in total, 3 was shut down before the earthquake and 3 was suspected to have partial meltdown It was a profoundly man-made disaster — that could and should have been foreseen and prevented," said Kiyoshi Kurokawa, the commission's chairman, in the report's introduction. "And its effects could have been mitigated by a more effective human response."

Surface Subsidence

•Excessive groundwater withdrawal lead to surface subsidence • •However, pumping back water is not a solution because aquifer rocks may compact and lose porosity after ground water is withdrawn • •See the figure for an example: decrease of 9m (~30ft) from 1925 and 1977 in San Joaquin Valley, CA •Here is another example in CA •Many fissures are created due to surface subsidence

Tar sand

•Expensive operation •Environmental effects -For every barrel of synthetic oil produced in Alberta, more than 80 kg of greenhouse gases are released (3 to 4 times more than conventional oil) -Commonly strip-mined -Changes landscape and soil/ Vegetation -Uses a LOT of water/Waste issues

Target compounds to extract algal biofuels

•Fats: Three fatty acid molecules are attached to the glycerol through an ester bond between the carboxyl group of the fatty acids and the three alcohol groups of a glycerol molecule.

Shale

•Fine-grained rocks •Compaction of silt and clay-sized materials, commonly referred to as "mud" •Distinguished from other mudstones because of its lamination (many fine layers) •They are usually compact and have low to intermediate porosity and permeability

Aral Sea

•Fourth world's largest lake in 1973 •Lying between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan •Area shrunk by over 60%, salinity increased by 10% to over 23% •Water draining into the sea diverted for irrigation •Fishing industry failed Salt and pesticides fromlake bedare blowing onto fields

Nuclear Power in France

•France derives over 75% of its electricity from nuclear energy. This is due to a long-standing policy based on energy security. •France is the world's largest net exporter of electricity due to its very low cost of generation, and gains over EUR 3 billion per year from this. •France has been very active in developing nuclear technology. Reactors and fuel products and services are a major export. •About 17% of France's electricity is from recycled nuclear fuel. •

A New Era

•From "Limit your carbon footprint" •To also "Limit your pharmaceutical footprint" •And "Limit your plastic footprint" •Are we repeating the history of DDT and PCB?

Nuclear Fission Reactor

•Fuel rods: pellets of uranium or uranium oxide stacked end to end in a tube •Control rods: pellets of cadmium or hafnium stacked end to end in a tube - absorb neutrons •Inserting or removing fuel rod can control the rate of reaction •Water will not be contaminated because energy transfer is achieved by heat transfer Nuclear reactor core meltdown: core damage from overheating

Gas Hydrates vs. Mass Extinction

•Gas Hydrate destabilization is hypothesized to be the cause for the Great Permian extinction •Carbon in methane has more negative stable carbon isotopic values than carbon in CO2; as such, we can estimate the release of methane to the atmosphere via measuring stable carbon isotopic values of geological carbon

Global Oil Production

•Global oil production curve does not show a sharp peak (yet) but it has remained relatively stable over the past three decades •This may suggest that oil production is gradually approaching to production saturation

Sinkhole/ Karst

•Ground water may dissolve large volumes of rock (soluble rock)

Ecological Footprint

"It is too late to keep the new middle class of 2030 from being born. But it is not too late to change the ways we all consume." --- National Geography "population 7 billion

Consequences of Erosion

"There is growing consensus that the concept of soil quality should not be limited to soil productivity, but should be extended to include the attributes of environmental quality, human and animal health, and food safety and quality."

What is eutrophication?

(1) Increases in nutrients (2) Overgrowth of algae (3) Dead algae sink down to the bottom of water column (4) Bacteria uses oxygen to break down dead algae/organic matter- aerobic decomposition (4) Layers of water become depleted in oxygen and will kill oxygen dependent animals - dead zones

2nd Stage of origin of the atmosphere?

(4.4 - 2.5 bya) - •The 'second' atmosphere was outgassed from inside the Earth by volcanoes •The second atmosphere contains: N2(Nitrogen), CO2 (carbon dioxide), NH3 (ammonia), CH4 (methane), and H2O (water) (note that outgassing of water forms ocean). --- How do we know this? We can reconstruct from today's Volcanic Outgassing We collect data on what gases are being released from today's volcanoes Using today's information, we can reconstruct the history and evolution of Earth

Hydrolic gradient

(H1 - H2) / D

Origin of the earth

(before 4.6 by.a)

Lithosphere

(crust and upper rigid mantle): 0-200km, made of strong, rigid rocks than can break when they move (the cause of earthquakes).

Mesosphere

(lower mantle, 700km to 2900km): stiff plastic.

Phanerozoic Eon

(phan, to appear) 0.54 bya to the present ~12% of Earth's history Abundant plant and animal life

First stage of origin of the atmosphere?

(prior to ~4.4 bya) - The earth was just formed, not yet fully cooled down. The first atmosphere, if existed, did not leave much footprint on today's Earth. As such, we do not know the composition of the first atmosphere. We, however, can make an educated guess. - Hydrogen and Helium

Asthenosphere

(~200km to 700km): mostly solid but pliable and flow under pressure; soft plastic.

Water movement and processes - hydrological cycle.

- Air currents - Condensation - Runoff - Evaporation (oceans, lakes, rivers) - Transpiration from plants - Groundwater flows onto surface - Groundwater flows - Infiltration - Precipitation (rain,snow, hail)

What are fossil fuels?

- Crude oil - Natural gas - Coal - Oil shale - Tar sands

What is the future like? Hubbert's Peak

- Dr. M. King Hubbert, geophysicist - Proposed by Hubbert in 1956: For any given geographical area, from an individual oil-producing region to the planet as a whole, the rate of petroleum production tends to follow a bell-shaped curve. Global oil production would reach maximum. Thereafter oil would become increasing scarce. This would trigger an Energy Crisis with power blackouts and rising costs of energy and fuel. Although he predicted the peak yare would occur around 2000, the peak year could vary, depending on the reserve, production, and consumption. The shape of the curve, however, is more important as it shows that oil supplies will become saturated eventually

Forming Earth

- Earth was formed, gaining its mass from heavy cosmic bombardments. - This is the process of accretion: The Earth accrued most of its mass in the first billion year. - The process stopped until ~3.8 b.y.a.

Evidence supporting the Big Bang

- Galaxies appear to be moving away from us. --still expanding. - Remnant heat was detected in the universe. ----2.7 Kelvin Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMB) through the universe. comparison: temp of the sun 5778k

Groundwater Contamination

- Groundwater can be cleaned up through natural processes - Can be filtered and cleaned if flows slowly, like in sandstone - Not filtered and cleaned if flows rapidly, like in karst aquifer •Contamination largely moves with groundwater down the slope of the water table •Can be naturally filtered out with enough time: flows slowly and in contact with material like sand •Not filtered if flows rapidly through a rock, such as a limestone with open cavities •Importance for considering the direction of groundwater flow when sighting the relative positions of a water well and contamination sources, such as a septic tank •In general, put the well uphill of a septic tank, but be aware of what is farther up the hill

Metal: Mercury (Hg)

- Hg: atomic number 80, liquid silver white metal. - The only metal that is liquid at standard temperature and pressure conditions (0 Celsius and 1 atmospheric pressure) - Natural sources: rocks and soils, volcanoes, erosion of mercury deposit. - Anthropogenic sources: burning of coal, incinerations of waste, ore processing, battery processing, scientific laboratories.

Fuel Fossils Deposits-source rocks

- Hot oil and gas are less dense than the source rock in which it occurs. - Oil and gas migrate upwards through the rock in much the same way that the air bubbles of an underwater diver rise to the surface. Source rock ----> rising oil and gas bubbles

What is a younger Earth like?

- Larger in size than today's Earth. - Lots of volcanic activity. - No continents or oceans. - No life

Metal pollution

- Mercury - Cadmium - Lead - Arsenic

What types of rocks/minerals will be dissolved in sinkhole/karst?

- Mineral: Halite Rock: Rock Salt Chemical formula for the mineral: NaCl, sodium chloride - Mineral: Calcite Rock: Limestone Chemical formula for the mineral: CaCO3, calcium carbonate - Mineral: Gypsum Rock: Gypsum evaporite rocks Chemical formula for the mineral: CaSO4. 2H2O; calcium sulfate hydrate

Human activity is significantly accelerating soil erosion

- Road and Parking Lot Erosion - Vehicles driving off roads: damaging vegetations and cause erosion.

Physical property (solid or liquid, weak or strong)

- Scientists determine the physical property based on changes in the velocity of seismic wave.

Tracking and Remediation

- Spreads out due to diffusion and mixing, forming contamination plume. - contour water contamination - drill wells to intercept plume, pump and treat water. •Contamination spreads out due to diffusion and mixing, forming a contamination plume •Contour water table and concentration of contaminant to track plume •Drill wells to intercept plume, pump out and treat water •Dispose of contaminated water or treat it with activated charcoal or certain geologic materials - hydrologist analyze water samples from well and construct a potential contamination of the groundwater. Closer you are to source of contamination the higher contaminants are.

Effects of Eutrophication in Lake Erie: Phosphorus accumulation in lake sediments

- Start of eutrophication recovery - Peak eutrophication - Start of accelerated cultural eutrophication.

Milky Way

- The solar system is at the edge of the Milky Way, which one of the billions of galaxies in the observable universe. - Sun is one of 200-400 billions of stars in the observable universe.

Current Earth

- Third planet from the Sun. ----Mean temperature 15 degrees celsius, not too hot or cold. - Oxygen supports life - 2/3 of the area is covered by ocean. - Life diversity - Moderate tectonic activities.

Oil consumption

- USA uses 24% of global supply but China shows the biggest year-to-year increase in usage. - Oil consumption per person, darker red color indicates higher usage.

What do we use water for?

- bathing - cooking and washing - growing and processing food -manufactured goods - power production

Formation of the Solar System: Nebular Hypothesis

- cloud of gas and space dust began to contract about 5 billion years ago. - Most of the material was gravitationally swept toward the center, producing the Sun Star. - Planets began to accrete from the material that was orbiting. - The formation of our solar system: one star and 8 planets.

Two large solar power plants in California:

- desert sunlight - topaz solar farm

Remediation methods

- dredging - physical removal - chemical treatment - bioremediation - aeration

Eutrophic lake

- high nutrient levels - poor light penetration - low dissolved oxygen - shallow waters - high algae growth - carp, bullhead, catfish.

World Energy Production by Sources

- hydropower: 8% - Geothermal and wind: 0.6% - Petroleum: 39.8% - Natural gas: 22.8% - Coal: 22.2% - Nuclear power: 6.6%

How do we use freshwater use in the U.S.?

- irrigation - thermoelectric - public and domestic use - Industrial use - Aquaculture - Mining - Livestock.

H20

- it can cause excessive sweating and vomiting. - it is a mojor component in acid rain. - It contributes to greenhouse effect. - it can cause severe burns in its gaseous state accidental inhalation can kill you. - it contributes to erosion. - it decreases the effectiveness of automobile brakes. - it has been found in cancerous tumor in humans

2 categories of man made chemicals

- legacy chemicals/contaminants - emerging chemicals/ contaminants.

Consequences of Eutrophication

- low aesthetic quality. - taste and odor problems. - hypoxic/anoxic bottom waters. - high biomass - harmful agal blooms-neurotoxins - low biological diversity - simple food chain

Oligotrophic lake

- low nutrient levels - good light penetration - high dissolved oxygen - deep waters - low algae growth - small mouth bass, lake trout, pike, sturgeon, whitefish.

8 reservoirs

- oceans - rivers - lakes:fresh or salty - Swamps and wetlands. - Groundwater - Atomosphere - Glaciers - Biological water

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

-BOD is also an important water quality indicator -Measure of amount of oxygen required to break down organic matter aerobically (when oxygen is present) -BOD of the treated water from wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) needs to be lower than a certain criterion before the treated water is discharged back to the environment Think about the following questions -More organic matter = higher or lower BOD? -What would happen if BOD exceeds the amount of dissolved oxygen in the system? More organic matter = higher or lower BOD? -C6H12O6 + 6O2à6CO2 +6 H2O -Higher BOD - What would happen if BOD exceeds the amount of dissolved oxygen in the system? -DO is completely consumed -Anoxic -Surface water bodies/zones with anoxic or hypoxic conditions= Dead Zones (coastal oceans) or Dead Lakes •

Particulate Pollutants

-Different loosely-defined terms are used to refer to particulate pollutants of different origins and features Some of the common terms are: -Soot: a general term that refers to impure carbon particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon -Smoke: collection of airborne solid and liquid particulates and gases -Ash/fly ash: residues generated from burning coal Dust: solid particles with diameter < 500µm •Particulate pollutants can be also classified by sizes •Particulate matter (PM) refers to inhalable particles •PM2.5 PM10 are commonly used terms •PM2.5 can penetrate lungs, leading to cardiovascular, cerebrovascular and respiratory impacts. •PM2.5 and PM10 are important air quality indices •PM2.5 is reported regularly in heavily-polluted regions.

Radioactive waste

-Difficult to treat -Long-term, permanent storage or disposal is an issue

Colorado River Basin

-Drains portions of seven western states and many of these states have extremely dry climates - -Not enough water to supply treaty allocation in US alone - -CA forced to reduce use of Colorado water - -Quality of water so low on reaching Mexico that US had to build a desalination plant on the border

Population Growth Issues

-Education -Epidemic (e.g., AIDS) and Pandemic (Coronavirus) -Impacts dictated by economic, social, or religious values -War -Natural disasters -Life expectancy -Sanitation -Health care -Exploitation of new sources of natural resources -Invasion to wildlife habitats 1)AIDS: 1% of population in developed countries, 36.5% of population in Botswana 3) Life expectancy in Botswana is 68 years (40 years with AIDS)

Residence Time

-Example 1 •100 room hotel: all are occupied; some people stay for 1 night, others for weeks •10 people on average check out each day (also assume 10 people check in) •What is the residence time? 100 people/(10 people/day)= 10 days -Example 2 •100 room hotel: some people stay for 1 night, others for weeks •Only 50 rooms are occupied •10 people on average check out each day (also assume 10 people check in) •What is the residence time? - 50 people/(10 people/day) = 5 days

Common features of particulate pollutants.

-Features of particulate pollution: typical shorter residence time (days or weeks), largely removed by precipitation. -Mostly local problems due to a shorter residence time -Unhealthy to be inhaled; can be chemically toxic -The primary source of particulate pollutants is Roads and construction sites -Other sources: wind erosion and sources listed in the pie chart on the right

The Ozone Layer and Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

-How do humans change this natural ozone equilibrium? -A thick ozone layer is beneficial to life on earth -Periodically, an ozone hole forms over either pole. -CFCs attack ozone and can destroy, or thin, the ozone layer -Cl •+ O3 -> ClO •+ O2 Eq-1 ClO• + O -> Cl •+ O2 Eq-2 Life of Cl atom in atmosphere is 1-2 years. In 1-2 years, one Cl atom will repeat Eq-1 100,000times. One Cl atom destroys ~ 100,000 the # of O3 atoms. It is a very efficient reaction mechanism! -CFCs build up their concentration in the upper atmosphere, have a residence time of about 100 years

Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

-Important water quality indicator because oxygen is important for aquatic life -Can be measured by a DO probe, unit: mg/L or ppm (mg/L=ppm) -Classification: Anoxia/Anoxic: 0 mg/L; Hypoxia/Hypoxic(Suboxic): >0-2mg/L; Oxic: >2mg/L -We can use oxygen sag curve to assess spatial changes in DO and detect waste discharge sources/location -Oxygen sag curve: Dissolved oxygen content as a function of distance from a waste source •

How does O3 interacts with UV radiation?

-O3 is being consistently produced and destructed via interacting with UV radiation, which achieves an equilibrium for O3 concentration -UVC absorbed by O2: UVC splits O2 into two oxygen atoms - these combine with another O2 to form O3 (O3production) O2-> O + O O + O2-> O3 -UVB absorbed by O3 ( O3 destruction) UVB splits O3 into O2 plus a free oxygen atom (which combines with another to form O2) O3-> O2 +O O+O->O2

Remediation Methods: (2) Physical Isolation

-Physical isolate: Barriers can be constructed to isolate polluted sediments in portion of a stream, and impermeable liners can be placed on sediment and weighed down with sand to stabilize the barriers -Advantages: simple, inexpensive operation -Disadvantages: applicable to small-scale, quiet, simple systems (e.g., unrealistic to apply liners in estuaries with high-energy waves and diverse, productive ecosystems); it does not remove or degrade pollutants

Residence time calculation

-Rate of Influx - measure of the rate of sources contributing into the reservoir -Rate of outflux: measure of the rate of sinks removing from the reservoir -Steady state: Rate of influx = Rate of outflux -Residence Time = Amount in the reservoir /Rate of Influx or outflux

Do we have extra oil stored? Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR)

-The United States has four SPRs in TX and LS -The largest one is Bryan Mound, TX -Oils were stored in space created by dissolved subsurface salt deposits (think about sinkhole we have learned) -Oil from SPRs are only for emergency supplies -The amount of oil in the Strategic Petroleum Reserve: about 34 days' supplies - Bryan Mound storage, Texas - Strategic Petroleum Reserve

Atmosphere

0.001% of Earth's water is atmosphere as clouds, rain, snow etc.

The solar system has what?

1 star (sun) and 8 planets and other bodies, such as protoplanets, moon, asteroid.

Outcrop in Kentucky?

1) Black shales around 370 million years old - Late Devonian time. 2) Outcrop = exposed 1)rocks, usually from roadcut. As a geologist, we like to keep track the new roadcut to go check on rocks being exposed. Rocks are archives of the Earth's history. 2)We cannot find traditional fossils here because the acidic environment for the deposition of black shales, which dissolved most traditional fossils 3)This particularly outcrop seems to have a homogenous composition in appearance, but it has different chemical composition across the depositional layers (see the red lines). We sample the entire outcrop by layer and analyze biomarkers. We reconstruct the changes in life and environment about 370 million years ago.

Main requirements for formation

1)Large initial accumulation of organic matter (OM), rich in carbon and hydrogen. 2)Quick burial under the sediment to prevent contact with oxygen which will "burn" the hydrocarbons to CO2. 3)High pressure and temperature to convert the organic matter to oil and gas.

Five layers based on the Physical model

1. Lithosphere 2. Asthenosphere 3. Mesosphere 4. Outer core 5. Inner core

What is density stratification?

1. Started as a molten & hot body 2. As cooling progressed, denser materials, would sink toward the middle of the earth. 3.Lighter, low-density minerals floated out toward the surface.

Causes of global climate changes

1. changes in solar output 2. Changes in Earth's orbit (via Milankovitch Cycles) 3. Plate tectonics and continent configuration. 4. Changes in the concentration of "Greenhouse Gases" in the atmosphere. - note the mechanisms operate over different timescales.

Distribution of Water in Reservoirs

1.Saline oceanic water: 96.5% of total water 2.Freshwater: 3.5% 3.Among Freshwater, Ice caps and glaciers that are difficult to access account for 68.7% 4.Groundwater, which is the focus of this topic, accounts for 30.1% of Freshwater 5.Note that surface water, which is the easiest to access, only accounts for 0.3% of Freshwater 6.Lakes is the most abundant among fresh surface water

Africa drinking water

176 gallons/person/day

U.S. drinking water

1800 gallons/ person/day

The Dust Bowl

1930's dustbowl - Texas, Oklahoma, Colorado, New Mexico, Kansas Severe dust storms during a dry period Death of people and livestock Significant losses of crops and soils

Stage three of atmosphere

2.5 bya - present oxygen and life evolution. - This stage is featured by the rise of oxygen (O2) in the atmosphere - This stage is tightly connected to Life Evolution. •N2 is most abundant for its stability (78% of air) •CO2 transferred to geosphere •How about O2? a. How did we know O2 was rising. -- Record of Oxygen Evolution. •Banded Iron Formation (BIF) 2.4-1.8 billon years ago •The Great Oxygenation Event ~2.4 b.y.a. ---Formed in seawater Fe Oxide: Fe2O3 and Fe3O4 Alternating layers: oxic (with oxygen) and suboxic/anoxic (low or no oxygen) b. Where did O2 come from? --Where did oxygen come from: Photosynthesis Releases Oxygen to the Atmosphere

The amount of organic matter in a pond is 2000 grams. How many grams of oxygen are needed to completely decompose this pool of organic matter? Use C6H12O6 to represent organic matter and the equation of aerobic decomposition.

2140

Groundwater

30 % of Earth's freshwater.

Precambrian Eon

4.5 bya to 0.54 bya ~88% of Earth's history No complex life

Ogallala Aquifer (aka. High Plains Aquifer)

450 km2, underlying 8 states (see the map) Most important aquifer in the U.S., 25% US feed grain exports and 40% wheat, flour and cotton exports Unconfined aquifer; water levels dropping in south; some parts may run dry Major recharge: Ancient water from Pleistocene ice sheet (~11000 years ago) Modern recharge is negligible

Precambrian Period

4567.17 - 541 million years ago.

World drinking water

477 gallons/person/day

The residence time of a pollutant in a lake is 100 days. If a pollutant is dumped into a lake at the rate of 1 kg / day, and a lake volume is 2*107 m3. What is the steady-state concentration that the pollutant will reach?

5 x 10^-6 kg/m3

Rainwater that has a PH less than ( ) is considered acid rain.

5.3

Given that a region has a surface rock temperature of 15˚C, what would the subsurface temperature be at a depth of 2.5 km assuming the geothermal gradient is 25˚C/km?

77.5

Oceans

96.5% of near-surface water; salty.

Based on the following BOD (biochemical oxygen demand) curve, the discharge point are

A and C

Planet

A planet orbits a star in a regular manner. A planet has a lower mass than a star and thus does not have fusion.

Chain Reaction

A sequence of reactions where a reactive product or by-product causes additional reaction to take place. In a chain reaction, positive feedback leads to a self-amplifying chain of events.

Soil horizons and Soil development

A weakly developed soil profile is generally characterized by an A horizon directly over a C horizon (with no B horizon or one that is very weakly developed). The C horizon may be oxidized. Such soils tend to be only a few hundred years old in most areas, but they may be several thousand years old in others. A moderately developed soil profile may consist of an A horizon overlying a Bt horizon that overlies the C horizon. These soils have a B horizon with translocated changes, a better-developed texture, and redder colors than those that are weakly developed. Moderately developed soils often date from at least the Pleistocene (i.e., are more than 10,000 years old). A well-developed soil profile is characterized by redder colors in the B horizon, more translocation of clay to the B horizon, and stronger structure. Well-developed soils vary widely in age, with typical ranges between 40,000 and several hundred thousand years and older.

The best describes the "O" soil horizon?

A zone containing abundant decayed/decomposed plant materials.

Legacy chemicals/contaminants

A.those chemicals that were historically used but were largely banned today due to their toxicity that was recognized later; they still have legacy effects on today's environment and ecosystem

Which of the following is a correct statement of the Suess Effect? Adding large quantities of fossil fuel carbon to the atmosphere will decrease the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere Adding large quantities of fossil fuel carbon to the atmosphere will not change the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere Adding large quantities of fossil fuel carbon to the atmosphere will increase the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere None of the above

Adding large quantities of fossil fuel carbon to the atmosphere will decrease the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere

Geothermal Power

Advantages: -Economic and largely pollution free -No ash, radio-active waste, no CO2 Disadvantages: -Restricted by locations -Limited lifespans -Aquifer depletion and associated surface subsidence if too much water is pulled out too quickly Wairakei , New Zealand 0.4 m/ year - 26% of Big Island electric Wairakei, NZ 0.4 m per year of subsidence

Nuclear Power

Advantages? - Less operational cost compared to fossil fuels - less CO2 Disadvantages? - Radioactive waste disposal - Radioactive safety

Solar Energy

Advantages? - clean, cheap energy. Disadvantages? - limited by geographic loacations (but can be used as a backup energy source in most areas) Building cost is high (but the operation cost is low) Clean, cheap Limited by areas, but can serve as backup energy in most areas.

The escape of DDT from sediments can be reduced or eliminated by any of the following strategies except

Aeration

Which continent has the highest population growth rate?

Africa

Main Producers - OPEC

Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Gabon, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Venezuela Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is a group of 13 countries that produce more than 40% of the world's oil The biggest producer is Saudi Arabia, but Iran, United Arab Emirates, Kuwait and Venezuela are also major suppliers

Nuclear energy can be classified as _______.

Alternative energy

What is the dead zone in the Gulf of Mexico?

An annually recurring area of low oxygen in the Gulf of Mexico has grown to an area of 8,776 square miles, or about the size of New Jersey.

Among the following, which one has the highest mean carbon to oxygen ratio?

Anthracite

Possible causes of modern period climate change

Anthropogenic: chemical fertilizers, deforestation, increase vehicles, emissions of GHG, Industries, Emission of Co2. Natural: Sunspot and solar cycle, Ocean Currents, Forest Fire, Volcanic Eruptions, Meteorites, Methane emissions form animals.

Fossil fuels

Are energy rich carbon (C) compounds that were formed in the geological past from buried remains of living organisms. Ex: Oil and natural gas, coal, fuels derived from shale and tar sands.

Among all the following states, which one is the most appropriate to develop solar energy?

Arizona

In which state would you be most likely to find pedal soil?

Arizona

FORMATION: "Cooking"

As Black Shale is buried, it is heated. Organic matter is first changed by the increase in temperature into kerogen/bitumen, which is a solid form of hydrocarbon. Around 90°C, it is changed into a liquid state, which we call oil. Around 150°C, it is changed into gas. A rock that has produced oil and gas in this way is known as a Source Rock.

Density Statification

As Earth started cooling down, density stratification started. - Creates a Layered Earth.

The oceans act as a sink --- but not as good as we had hoped: Ocean acidification.

As more CO2 accumulates in the ocean, the pH of the ocean decreases.

Which continent is the most populated continent?

Asia

How big is the Topaz solar farm?

At 9.5 square miles, Topaz falls somewhere a between a small city to multiple parks. It is... - 1/3 the size of Manhattan -7.3 Central Parks - 90 Magic Kingdoms - 4,598 football fields

Which curve likely best describes the changes in total phosphorous concentrations in the Lake Erie (1950-1970: rapid eutrophication; 1970-present: remediation from eutrophication). X axis: value increases from left to right

B

To develop economic geothermal facility, the geothermal gradient has to be ≥ (larger or equal to) 40˚C/km. Read the following figure and choose the locations that are appropriate for economic geothermal development.

B,C,D

Why do we need to study molecular fossils?

Because many rocks do not contain fossils, like the one below (a black shale) and the one on the left (a black shale outcrop in KY where we collected our samples)

Please observe the figure below and think why the pH of precipitation is overall lower in the east than in the west?

Because pedofer soil has lower neutralizing capacity than pedocal soil (review the soil topic as needed)

Sandstorms in Cities

Beijing, the capital of China has been surrounded in orange dust as a strong sandstorm blew hundreds of miles from loess plateau.

Effects of Eutrophication in Lake Erie

Benthic community: - Oligochaeta: "Where only very little oxygen remains in the water, or the river bed is completely covered over with organic solids or sewage fungus". - Tendipedidae: commonly plentiful in polluted areas, especially in areas with low dissolved oxygen. - Sphaeriidae: listed as tolerant of some organic pollution - Gastropoda: a few species have to been reported to survive to at least some degree in polluted habitats. - Hexagenia: Oxygen sensitive

Step : Transesterfication

Biodiesel The same process for extracting biodiesel from oil and grease

Physical weathering

Breakdown of rocks into smaller fragments and particles via mechanical forces 1. Freezing water expansion/frost wedging (the density of ice is smaller than the density of water) 2. Plant growth penetrating rocks mechanically 3. Wind and water slowly break down large particles Frost expand 9% Freezing water expansion Frost wedging Break up of rocks and minerals without changing the rock's composition Salt crystallization can wedge cracks Solution, oxidation, hydrolysis Calcium Carbonate dissolves in water Some silicates dissolve - clays and oxides tend to form Organic acids breakdown minerals in rocks from the infiltrating water Biological activity or roots or burrowers aid chemical weathering Airborne chemicals such as acids or sulfate wash into soil

Volume and weight base percentages for soil components?

By volume on average: - minerals 45% - air - 25% - water 25% - organics 5% By mass on average: - minerals 80% - water 15% - organics 5% or less - air less than 1%

In Tokyo, police offices need to take oxygen breaks because of __________ pollution

CO

Massive coal was deposited/formed during the_____________, when atmospheric CO2 concentration was _______________ than today's level.

Carboniferous period; higher

2 classification systems talking about earth.

Chemical composition Physical property

Chemical model by composition

Chemical model by composition and density (heavy or light): Crust, mantle, core. - More discontinuity between the crust and mantle.

The largest coal producer

China

Who has the shale gas?

China USA Argentina Exploring this resource poses a significant challenge in water resources: it needs Water; it releases chemicals and wastes to aquifers

Comet

Comet is a loose collection of ice (water ice and gas ice), dust and rock particles. They are referred to as dirty snowballs by some.

Geothermal power plants worldwide

Concentrated in California! US ( California, Canada, Mexico Asia: russia, Japan, Philipin, Taiwan, New zealand, ice land

Ozone

Concentrations below even 1 ppm can be hazardous Lung irritant- "It can cause headaches, eye, nose and throat irritations. It may cause the lung function impaired, coughing." Inhibits photosynthesis- "It can damage plants, leading to the loss of crops and damage plants" It can cause rubbers and fabrics to deteriorate.

Cultural Eutrophication of Lake Erie?

Culprit: phosphate from detergent. History: 1825 - 1950: Slow Eutrophication Development. 1950 - 1972: Eutrophication Peak 1972 - Present: Eutrophication Recovery

Who is the earliest photosynthetic organism?

Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) Photosynthetic bacteria; small and unicellular (early forms) They are still around and abundant Living in water and moist soils Earliest life evidence/fossils: Stromatolite= blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) + sediment What is it? 1)layered accretionary structures 2)formed in shallow water by binding and cementation of sedimentary grains by biofilms of microorganisms

DDT Biomagnification: DDT in human body fat levels

DDT in human body fat was high when DDT was widely used DDT in human body decreased as the use of DDT was reduced

Effects of Eutrophication in Lake Erie Fish

Decreases: - The valuable lake herring, lake whitefish, blue pike, and sauger have virtually disappeared by 1970. The walleye population has collapsed. Increases: - The waters remain favorable for small mouth bass and white bass. The waters become more favorable for freshwater drum, spot tail shiners, carp and smelt. - Dissolved Oxygen is not significantly improved.

Chemical weathering

Definition: Breakdown of rocks into smaller fragments and particles via chemical reactions, and chemical compositions are altered during the weathering process We will learn four main types of chemical weathering reactions Note that hundreds of possible reactions could be written for chemical weathering processes, the reactions here are just a few typical reactions

Why are the possible society and economic challenges for each structure?

Developed: shortage of labor, medical and financial securities for seniors Developing: competition for resources (education, health, job security, war, etc.)

What is water?

Dihydrogen mino-oxide aka H20

Red tide off the west coast of Florida, USA

Dinoflagellate bloom (Red tide) due to excessive nutrients from human activities.

Effects of Eutrophication in Lake Erie

Dissolved Oxygen. Oxygen depletion rates (mg/liter/month) in central Lake Erie; cove the critical depletion rate, the lake is becoming virtually anoxic. - Rapid growth in phytoplankton - Zooplankton

eccentricity

Earth's distance to Sun; seasonal changes.

Milankovitch Cycles : eccentricity

Eccentricity: describing the changes in the shape of the Earth's orbit (eccentricity) as the Earth rotates about the Sun. Eccentricity influences the distance between the earth and the sun The cycle is ~100,000 years High eccentricity = the more elliptical (less round) the orbital shape Eccentric influences seasonality High eccentricity= wilder fluctuations between perihelion and aphelion= more changes among seasons Presently, we are in a period of low eccentricity (~3%) and this gives us a seasonal change in solar energy of ~7%. When the eccentricity is at its peak (~9%), the "seasonality" reaches ~20%.

EPA clean air act

Emissions of sulfur dioxide: effectively reduced by the EPA clean air act

Biofuel

Energy derived from biomass - Biomass refers to the total mass of all the organisms living on earth 4% of households use wood as a primary heat source wood (20-25% of U.S. households burn some wood, 4% use it as the primary source of heat), paper, crop waste, and other combustible waste

Sustainable Energy

Energy that meets the needs of the present without compromising the future.

Geological ages

Eon- Era-Period-Epoch Eon: Precambrian (4.5 bya-0.54 bya) and Phanerozoic (0.54 bya to present) Era: Paleozoic (542 mya-251 mya): paleo= old; zoic= related to animals "a time for old animals" Mesozoic (251 mya-65.5mya): Mezo=middle Cenozoic (65.5 mya-present) Ceno= new Note the life evolution from Age of invertebrates->Fishes->Amphibians->Reptiles->Mammals

Bioethanol

Ethanol: produced from crops such as corn and sugar cane through fermentation. Ethanol can be used for car fuel. This process always leaves about 15 percent to 30 percent of the input biomass mass as unconverted lignin, a complex polymer found in most plant material. Lignin poses either a potential disposal liability or a byproduct opportunity.

Which population has the lowest growth rate?

Europe

Gravity formula:

F=Gm1m2/r^2

An oxygen sag curve describes how oxygen in a body of water is consumed by fish.

False

Antibiotics usually takes over centuries to be degraded by microbes and thus tend to accumulate in sediments.

False

Most freshwater is used for drinking water in the U.S?

False

The U.S. population is now in the mortality transition stage (stage II) of the demographic transition curve.

False

The oil stored in the Strategic Petroleum Reserve can provide oil supplies for the United States for five years.

False

The radioactive wastes produced by nuclear reactors are easy to treat. They can be made nonradioactive by adding some chemicals.

False

True or False: Groundwater in the Ogallalla Aquifer (High Plains Aquifer) is a renewable resource.

False

Reaction 3: Breakdown of Feldspar

Feldspar is the most common mineral group in the Earth's crust(~50% of crust) (KAlSi3O8 - NaAlSi3O8 - CaAl2Si2O8) This reaction is thus very common, leaving behind clay minerals (Aluminum rich silicates) in the soil column Clay minerals are a very common weathering product; they are widely found in soils and sediments Dissolved silica and Na+ are mobilized and exported out the soil column

Sinkholes: collapse of surface rocks

Figure A:Sinkhole at Winter Park, Florida. Collapse on May 8-9, 1981 was caused in part by drought. The sinkhole was over 100 meters across and 30 meters deep; estimated damage, over $2 million. Note cars for scale. Figure B: Satellite image of karst topography in eastern Florida, showing many round lakes formed in sinkholes. (Red is false color, and corresponds to green vegetation)

Why are nitrogen oxide (NOx) gases air pollutants?

First, NOx also contributes to acid rain •2NO2 + H2O + ½ O2 = 2HNO3 (nitric acid, acid rain)

Is water a renewable resource?

First, how "renewable" is defined? (i)Replenished by human resources (ii)Replenishment rate is comparable to human consumption rate Now let us apply to water: Based on hydrological cycles: Water is replenished by natural processes Global precipitation rate = Global evaporation rate Total water mass remains constant on Earth However, freshwater and clean water is limited on earth Water is not evenly distributed and particularly scarce in arid, polluted, populated regions In those regions, replenishment rate << human consumption rate One example- aquifer is depleted in some regions As such, the answer is scale-dependent and locality-dependent. Water resources may be renewable on a global scale, but they are often non-renewable at the local to regional scales.

A research project I worked on for Algal Biofuel

Flow way to circulate water from the estuary Harvest algal mats from the flow way Evaluate the fat contents of the algae Siphon water to analyze water chemistry to understand if nutrients increase or decrease the fat contents of algae

Stable isotopic evidences

Fossil Fuel has lower δ13C values compared to many other CO2sources (e.g. oceans, weathering) However, this same principle applies to 13C vs. 12C: plants preferentially take up 12C over 13C; lighter isotopic ratios are typical of photosynthesis-filtered carbon populations. So when isotopically light fossil fuels are burned, once again, the overall isotopic ratio of the atmosphere becomes "seasoned" with lightweight CO2. The measure of the ratio of 13C to 12C is usually expressed as a value called δ13C. Higher δ13C = more 13C than 12C. Lower δ13C = more 12C than 13C. Here's data from Mauna Loa (Hawaii) and the South Pole (Antarctica), showing variations in atmospheric δ13C over the past ~30 years:

World Energy Production by Sources

Fossil Fuels (Coal, Natural Gas, Petroleum) ~85% •We must look for more sustainable sources of energy Alternative energy ~15%

Granite with many fractures

Fractures create many paths for water to flow through- high permeability Does not have much pore space to store water so it is low in porosity

slide 14

From this figure: 1) the rate of ice shelve loss is spatially uneven in Antarctica; 2) the loss rate is high in the west; 3) ice shelve in the north show slight gain; 4) The total mass of ice shelves showed net loss in 18 years

Outer planets type

Gaseous planets (gas/ice giants)

Longitude and Latitude

Geographic coordination system: A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system that enables every location on the Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols - Low latitude receives stronger solar radiation because solar rays spread over a smaller area in low latitudes than in high latitudes. The "latitude" (abbreviation: Lat., φ, or phi) of a point on the Earth's surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through (or close to) the center of the Earth.[n 3] Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of the Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator and to each other. The north pole is 90° N; the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the fundamental plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres. The "longitude" (abbreviation: Long., λ, or lambda) of a point on the Earth's surface is the angle east or west from a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses (often improperly called great circles), which converge at the north and south poles. The meridian of the British Royal Observatory in Greenwich, in south-east London, England, is the international Prime Meridian The Prime Meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres,

Aquifer Geometry and Groundwater Flow.

Geometry of rocks and sediments will control the behavior of ground water. - Unconfined aquifer: an aquifer without an aquitard above; water in this zone is in equilibrium with the atmospheric pressure. - Confined aquifer: an aquifer with an aquitard above and below; water is not in equilibrium with the atmospheric pressure.

Geothermal Gradient

Given that a region has a surface rock temperature of 13 degrees celsius, what would the subsurface temperature be at a depth of 2km assuring the geothermal gradient is 30 degrees celsius.km? Answer: 13 degrees celsius + 2km x 30 c/km = 73 degrees celsius.

Current Oil perspectives

Global oil and gas occurrences are now well understood (provinces shown in green).

Good versus Bad Ozone (O3)

Good Ozone in Stratosphere, which is beneficial and crucial for life- Stratospheric ozone Bad Ozone in Troposphere related to photochemical smog- Tropospheric ozone

Porosity

Grain shape: roundness - Well rounded grains = high porosity. Grain size distribution sorting: - well sorted grains = high porosity. Grain packing: cementation - low/no cement = high porosity.

Here is an example that acid rain accelerates chemical weathering

Granite obelisk - in Egypt (left): 1600BC, well defined for 3500yrs; but became elusive after 75yrs in central park in NY (right)

Among the following rocks, which one has highest permeability

Gravel has the highest

Antarctic Mass Variation

Gravity data collected from space using NASA's Grace satellite show that Antarctica has been losing more than a hundred cubic kilometers of ice each year since 2002

As the space expands, local high concentrations of masses are formed due to _______ and these local masses are _________.

Gravity/galaxies

What is the major freshwater reservoir for human to use?

Groundwater

Karst Aquifers

Groundwater flow rates will increase in karst areas •Groundwater flows faster without sediments and rock in the flow path •Pollutants move faster through groundwater systems in karst areas •Karst aquifers are more vulnerable to pollution Potential sources of contamination of groundwater and drinking water supplies due to rural and urban activities (from karstcentral.org). Margane and Steinel 2001

Storm Surge

Hurricane season July -November, peak between August-October 90% death in Hurricane is due to storm surge A storm surge is an abrupt bulge of water driven ashore by hurricanes or storms Offshore rise of water > 15ft High winds pushing on ocean's surface

For Nuclear fusion reactors, which element or derived forms are used for fuel?

Hydrogen

Hypothesis 2 of origin of oceans

Hypothesis II: the ocean has extraterrestrial sources............. •Early hypothesis stated that water was delivered by comets •However, the water (ice) molecules analyzed from comets (Halley and Hyakutake) is isotopically different than ocean water. •Specifically, earth water is normal water (H2O), and comets have heavy water (HDO, D2O) In normal water,1H accounts for ~99.98% of Hydrogen, 2H (deuterium) accounts for 0.02%, and 3H (tritium) is at the trace level In heavy water from comets, 2H (deuterium) is much more abundant. •As such, comets cannot have delivered ALL the water in the Earth's oceans •The ET source hypothesis is still alive •Because scientists found another possible water source in space •Isotopic evidence, however, supports that water may come from protoplanets formed in the outer asteroid belt that plunged towards the Earth

ITER: Internationally collaborated research effort to transit the nuclear fusion technology to being used in full-scale power plants

ITER (originally the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor) is the international research and engineering project which is currently building the world's largest and most advanced experimental tokamak nuclear fusion reactor and will be constructed in Europe, at Cadarache in the south of France. The ITER tokamak aims to make the long awaited transition from today's studies of plasma physics to full scale electricity-producing fusion power plants. The project's members are the European Union, Japan, China, the United States, South Korea, India and Russia. The fusion reactor itself has been designed to produce 500 MW of output power for 50 MW of input power, or ten times the amount of energy put in.

Earth as a single year

If the Earth's history is considered as a single calendar year, the first modern humans appeared in the last 30 minutes of the last day

Loss of Recharge

In addition to excessive withdrawal of groundwater, human development also reduce the recharge of groundwater See the figure above, which illustrates that natural recharge sites (impermeable soils and rocks) are replaced by impermeable concerts and buildings

Saltwater Intrusion in Coastal Areas

In coastal areas, there is an interface between fresh groundwater and seawater When freshwater is abundant, this interface is deeper and farther from the land However, excessive pumping of fresh groundwater allows saltwater penetrate into freshwater aquifer- saltwater intrusion Saltwater intrusion can lead to permanent loss of freshwater aquifers

Coupling of physical weathering and chemical weathering

In nature, physical and chemical weathering are rarely independent; they are often coupled Physical weathering directly enhances chemical weathering-why ? Because physical weathering increases surface area to volume ratios, which provides more surfaces for chemical reactions to occur.

How humans worsen the problem?

Increase nutrient inputs through Detergents (P in phosphate), fertilizers (N in nitrate), and accelerated erosion of soils that contain P and N.

What is cultural eutrophication?

Increases in aquatic productivity due to nutrient release by human activities.

Biomagnification refers to ___________

Increasing concentration of certain substances with increasing levels of food chain.

Ocean acidification is caused by_____________________________

Increasing concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere.

Metals

Inorganic Pollutants - manufacturing, mining, and mineral processing.

What are the two most abundant minerals/ elements in the core?

Iron, Nickel

Superfund program _____________.

Is a program to clean up the nation's hazardous waste sites

Did trees kill marine organisms?

It is a work in progress that may have been caused by the Devonian Period which was 412.2 -358.9 million years ago. In this period forests began to populate the earth. This contributed to "marine anoxia" a rapid drop of oxygen levels in the seas, stemming from erosion of soil and their nutrients created by deep rooted trees." which may have caused the mass extinction of marine organisms

Outer planets

Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune

An unusual irrigation case

Kesterson National Wildlife Refuge •Farmland in San Joaquin Valley requires irrigation. •Bedrock is pyritic shale (source of selenium, Se). •Irrigation water (pH = 4) leaches selenium from soil. •Drainage went to ponds in the Kesterson National Wildlife Refuge, Sonoma Valley •Selenium concentrated by evaporation •As little as 2.3 ppb Se is enough to make plants and invertebrates deadly to waterfowl. •Se concentrations of 2,100-3,500 ppb found in one stream. •Big kills of fish and wildlife alerted officials of the problem. •Humans ingesting > 5 mg/day can have serious health effects

Lake Erie Today still suffers from consequences of Eutrophication

Lake Erie turns toxic every summer and officials aren't cracking down on the source.

Sulfur Gases

Less than 50 million tons of sulfur dioxide (SO2) are emitted worldwide. - ~2/3 from coal combustion. - Remainder from refining and burning of petroleum. •SO2 sulfur dioxide forms acid rain -very short residence time (days or hours) -Reacts with rain (SO2 + H2O + ½ O2 = H2SO4) to produce •Lowers pH of rain - acid rain (pH < 5.3) •Can cause lung and eye irritation •Increase soil leaching (think about the chemical weathering in the topic of soil), harm vegetation, kill aquatic organisms (think about the acid mine drainage)

Based on texture, we can classify soil roughly into

Loam (%sand ≈ %silt ≈ %clay) Sandy Loam (%sand > %silt ≈ %clay) Silty Loam (%silt > %sand ≈ %clay) Clay Loam (%clay > %sand ≈ %silt)

Why are some cities developing photochemical smog more often than others?

Local topography - mountains, basins, valleys, and local wind patterns amplify the pollution The two figures below show that pollutants can be trapped locally due to temperature inversion (cool air below warm air, as opposed to the normal condition where cool air is above warm air)

Loss of ecological habitats-example: the Chesapeake Bay

Loss of biological habitats of ecological importance Also the loss of protection from wetlands & islands from the storms

Population <<carrying capacity:

Low Stress for Earth and Life

Organic matter preservation in marine sediment is favored by __________.

Low oxygen

Why is there an Ozone hole over Antarctic and Arctic?

Low temperature- formation of polar stratospheric clouds (PSC), which provides a surface for reaction ClO + NO2à ClONO2 ; ClONO2 + HCl à Cl2 + HNO3; Cl2 +hvà 2Cl•

So, what do we find using biomarkers? ex:

Many organisms do not leave fossils but molecules.

What is residence time?

Measure of the average duration of a substance in a reservoir. Ex: the average time that particulate pollutants stay in the atmosphere before they are removed.

Hg toxicity: Minamata disease (hatters shakes)

Mercuric nitrate was commonly used in the production of felt for hast in the 19thcentury. Hatters develop this condition without being properly protected.

Inner planets

Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars

Nuclear Power Plants

Mid-2009 nuclear fission power plants: ~440 U.S.: ~60;

Alabama Soil

Most commonly Ultisols (red clay soils) •Moderately leached soils of temperate humid climates •Humid climates •Naturally suitable for forestry •No calcareous material due to leaching •Red to yellow color due to the presence of oxidized iron(Fe2O3) •How is it for agriculture??? -It is Acidic: Need to add lime (CaCO3) to neutralize soils -need fertilizers for agriculture

Plankton

Most oil and gas starts life as microscopic plants and animals that live in the ocean!

Inner planets composed?

Mostly of rock and metal.

Should we ban Dihydrogen Mono-oxide?

NO, it is H2O.

This soil profile below is formed under a __________________climate with a _______________degree of leaching.

NOT THE ANSWER: Arid; low

Soil erosion is a major contributor to _______.

NOT THE ANSWER: Nutrient enrichment in soils

Farmers add limes to soils to ____________________________

Neutralize soils

The excessive release of _______ to the lake can cause eutrophication.

Nitrogen

What are the common nutrients that lead to eutrophication in water bodies?

Nitrogen (N): Nitrate (NO3-), nitrite (NO2-), ammonium (NH4+) Phosphorous (P): phosphate (PO43-, HPO42-)

Eluviation horizon

Note that in this profile, there is also an E horizon from eluviation This horizon is a result of eluviation or leaching (the process of removing soluble minerals) under a humid climate Due to the removal of minerals, the horizon has a pale color Some minerals will redeposit in B horizon (a darker color) Note that not all soil profiles have to have all these horizons; and well-developed soils tend to have more, better-separated horizons

Spodosol: usually found under forest in humid regions

Note: 1) Well-developed O layer due to a productive forest 2) The presence of E layer due to extensive leaching 3) Iron oxides or hydroxide accumulation due to leaching

Aridsol: Desert soils

Note: 1) Poorly-developed O horizon due to sparse vegetation and low productivity at the surface 2) The presence of white calcite nodules, reflecting the low degree of weathering and leaching in a dry region

Mollisol: Prairie/Grassland soils in semiarid and subhumid regions

Note: 1) well-developed O and A horizons due to organic inputs from grasses 2)The presence of white calcite nodules- moderate degrees of leaching

Histosol: Wetland soils, peat

Note: abundant organic matter that gives soils a dark color Organic matter accumulation due to: 1) abundant biomass at the surface; 2) water-saturated soils with low oxygen, which slows down organic matter decomposition and facilitates organic matter accumulation

Examples of water pollutants?

Nutrients in rivers of the world: inorganic nitrogen, phosphorus. Heavy metals in water systems: Mercury, lead, zinc, copper, cadmium, nickel, chromium. Global production of other chemicals affecting water qualities: Fertilizer, Synthetic organic chemicals Oil spills.

A typical soil profile

O horizon: organic-rich layer, accumulation of decayed plants; also as "zone of maximum activity" A horizon: a mixture of organic matter with inorganic rock and mineral fragments B horizon: this is the horizon that minerals accumulate; soluble minerals and elements can be leached out from the upper horizons and re-deposit/accumulate here; also as "zone of accumulation" C horizon: weathered parent rocks, fragments of bedrocks; also as "zone of minimum activity"

Among the following, which one is not greenhouse gas? - CO2 - CH4 - CFC-12 - O2

O2

Milankovitch Cycles

Obliquity Cycle: 41,000 years Describes changes in the tilt of the Earth's axis The current tilt is 23.5º, the range of tilt over one cycle is from 22 to 24.5º Smaller obliquity= smaller tilt=less seasonal variation between summer and winter (mild winter and cool summer= glaciation) Precession Cycle: 23,000 years Describes the "wobble" of the spin axis Presently the Earth is closest to the Sun in winter and farther away in summer (mild winter and cool summer in N Hemisphere) After ~11,000 years, the opposite would be true (server, harsh winter and hot summer in N Hemisphere)

Geographic Distribution

Observe the figure below, which demonstrates the importance of precipitation in controlling soil chemistry. East: high precipitation, pedalfer West: low precipitation, pedocal

Loam Soil

Observe the figure on the left- can you think of a quick test to estimate to test soil texture? 1)Put soils into a jar with water 2) Shake vigorously 3) Let us it settle down slowly 4) Sandy particles will settle down most rapidly at the bottom 5) Silty particles will settle down more slowly than sandy particles (middle layer) 6) Clay particles will settle down most slowly as the top layer 7) Estimate the volume of each layer 8) Why do farmers need to know the texture of soils (see the next slide) •Soil fertility: determined by soil texture and composition •Loam: a mixture of all three particle sizes in similar proportions •clay, sand silt nearly equal •Loam is usually fertile and suitable for growing crops

Non-permeable, non-porous granites are most likely to be__________

Oil and gas trap rocks

Oil Sands Fever

Oil sand mining has radically transformed the boreal forest landscape It also creates enormous environmental impacts

In this figure, Salt dome is

Oil trap

Legacy Chemicals

Organochlorine Chemicals: Hydrogen replaced with chlorine (Cl), polychlorinated hydrocarbons or polychlorinated aromatics •Herbicide and Pesticide (e.g., DDT, Kepone) •Industrial chemicals (e.g., PCB)

All of the following cause rainwater to be acidic except?

Ozone

PCBs: polychlorinated biphenyls

PCBs - insulating fluid in electrical equipment and plasticizer •209 different PCB compounds •banned since 1976 •GE dumped PCBs into Hudson River - 200 miles of river now a designated superfund site (see next slide)

Historical changes in U.S. particulate emissions.

Particulate pollutants decline sharply after clean air acts and establishment of EAP to monitor the compliance The Clean Air Act is the law that defines EPA's responsibilities for protecting and improving the nation's air quality and the stratospheric ozone layer

The grades of coal, from low to high, are:

Peat, lignite, bituminous coal, anthracite.

Temperate climate

Pedalfer Humus and leached soil (quartz and clay minerals present) Some iron and aluminum oxides precipitated; all soluble materials, such as carbonates, leached away

Dry climate

Pedocal: - Humus and leached soil - Calcium carbonate pellets and modules precipitated. - Sandstone, shale, and limestone bedrock.

Permeability

Permeability Overall porous rocks have higher permeability So those factors influencing porosity (roundness, sorting, cementation) also influence permeability Additionally, permeability is also influenced by the degree of interconnected pore space

Another solution for loss of discharge?

Permeable/pervious concrete could be another solution See the Youtube video http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ScsQYHMfabU Cons: More costly than regular concrete They undergo stresses from ice expansion in cold regions , which leads to increased cost in repair and replacement Urban pollutants will be rapidly transported to aquifer and deteriorate groundwater quality Treating and cleaning up groundwater is costly

smog

Photochemical Smog is the interaction of electromagnetic radiation from the Sun and Primary Pollutants to form photochemical smog. Photochemical smog is a mixture of pollutants which includes particulates, nitrogen oxides, ozone, aldehydes, peroxyethanoyl nitrate (PAN), unreacted hydrocarbons, etc. Photochemical smog appears as Brown haze due to the presence of nitrogen dioxide—Los Angeles and Denver--- vehicles It is different from Grey smog (traditional) --- ashes, soot, and sulfur compounds --- London and NYC---coal and fuel oil

Dredging

Physically removes pollutants out of polluted system

Wastewater discharges form paper mills

Point source

Nonpoint source

Pollution enters a system from multiple and more diffuse sources. No specific outlet or discharge point. Examples: agricultural runoff, salt runoff from roads (also see the Blue box in the figure) Volumetrically, largest nonpoint source: cropland.

Point source

Pollution enters a system from one, identifiable spot - examples? Usually easy to identify and monitor. Examples: Industrial and sewage treatment plants, pipes, etc. (also see the RED box in the figure)

Age-Sex pyramids

Population distribution relative to Age and Gender.

What are the predictors of TFR for each country?

Predictor 1: Wealth. Wealth is negatively proportional to TFR. Wealthy naitons have low TFR. Poor nations have high TFR. Higher GDP per capita, lower TFR. Predictor 2: Women's education level. A woman's educational level negatively predicts TFR. More years of schooling = lower TFR. Predictor 3: Mortality rate. Child mortality rate positivity predicts TFR. People choose to bear more children to account for immature deaths. * Predictor 1,2,3 are related. Predictor 2 and 3 are mostly determined by predictor 1.

What is this standard of living?

Presently, it is not possible for average global citizen to enjoy the standard of living accepted as the norm in the USA Growing demand by developing countries wanting to increase the standard of living

Emission of carbon monoxide in the US

Primary source: transportation, on road.

What are the two most abundant minerals/ elements in the Crust?

Quartz and Feldspar

The author of the book "Silent Spring" is

Rachel Carson

Population > carrying capacity:

Rapid rise in death rate.

What is one additional benefit for harvesting algae in the Chesapeake Bay as biofuel?

Reduce eutrophication. Explanation: 1.Eutrophication is an issue in the Chesapeake Bay 2.The reason is the fertilizer application which adds N into water 3.Algae can take into excessive N and remove N from water 4.As such, harvest algae as biofuel also has an additional benefit of removing N in water and relieving eutrophication

Reaction 4: Solution of pyrite

Reduced iron in pyrite (FeS2) is oxidized to ferric hydroxide (red color) Meanwhile, reduced sulfur in pyrite is oxidized to sulfuric acid, which is a strong acid (acid mine drainage) This is the reaction for acid mine drainage because pyrite co-deposit with coal When coal is taken out from subsurface, so is pyrite, which goes through this reaction A stream draining into Lake Harris in Tuscaloosa is impacted by acid coal mine drainage. We can see reddish iron deposits in the stream bed.

In this figure, Sandstone is

Reservoir Rocks

Exploration and Production: Reservoir and Trap

Reservoir rocks: The rising oil and gas can get trapped in pockets in the rock called reservoirs. Some rocks are permeable and allow oil and gas to freely pass through them (e.g., sandstone we have learned from groundwater topic) Oil trap rocks: Other rocks are impermeable and block the upward passage of oil and gas. Where oil and gas rises up into a dome capped by impermeable rocks they cannot escape. This is one type of an Oil Trap (think about impermeable rocks we learned from groundwater topic).

The Earth's Water Reservoir

Reservoir: a place where water is stored.

What molecules do organisms leave behind?

Retene, methyl isopropyl phenanthrene or 1 methyl-7-isopropyl phenanthrene (C18H18). It is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon present in the rocks that can indicate the presence of trees.

Closer to the sun composition

Rocky and Metallic, very high temperature minerals.

Lake Peigneur Drilling Accident

Salt mining mine collapsed

Salton Sea

Salton Sea: South California, USA; salinity > ocean Salinity increase is due to irrigation (human factor) and evaporation (climate factor) Salinity continues to increase annually; destroying habitats, dead fish, sick birds There are other issues: for example, fertilizer causes eutrophication The lack of replenishment water will cause environmental, ecological, and public health crisis

Long-term Sea Level Rise

Satellite Altimetry has not been used until recently Sea level rise over a longer term can be also reconstructed using paleoclimate proxies and numerical modeling The data show a steady rise in the sea level after 1920

Sea Level Rise

Satellite Altimetry shows that the sea level increases at ~3mm per year since 1994.

What is the evidence for the Big Bang Theory?

Scientific evidence

Why are nitrogen oxide gases air pollutants?

Second, NOx contributes to the production of photochemical smog and the formation of bad ozone (troposphere ozone) NOx + VOC (volatile organic compound) + Sunlight -> Ozone Three Key ingredients of photochemical smog: UV light, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxide What does bad ozone do? (see the next slide) More details about photochemical smog? (see the slide after the next slide)

Consequences of Erosion

Sediment Pollution 1) Rapid infilling of reservoirs/ clogging of streams: kills aquatic life: e.g. coral reefs 2) Chemical residues flushed into water with sediments (pesticides, fertilizers, herbicides) -toxic to aquatic life •Nutrients are added to soils for crops (reactive N and P) •Soil erosion is an important pathway through which nutrients are exported to water •This leads to dead zones in the coastal area and eutrophication in lakes (please review the topic of eutrophication)

Compacted Shale

Shales have parallel layers (laminations), between which there may exist space for water to flow through. The permeability of shales depends on compaction: Compacted- low permeability Loose- some degree of permeability

Gas Hydrates Distribution

Shallow ocean floors, abundant in Arctic Exploration can lead to significant environmental impacts on shallow marine environment and ecosystems

Organic matter preservation in marine sediment is favored by________

Shallow water depth and quick sedimentation/burial rate

The formation of calcium carbonate shells by marine microorganisms acts as a ________ for atmospheric CO2.

Sink

Sinkholes in Alabama

Sinkhole in Hale County, 1990 Oil and gas drill rig lost drilling fluid in the hole at ~750 ft 2 hours, unconsolidated sediments moved downward Carrying down the drill rig

Sinkholes

Sinkholes may form after changes in ground water (withdrawal of groundwater, drought, flood) They are created by subsurface water dissolving soluble rocks

The ultimate source of energy in fossil fuels is?

Solar energy

Reaction 2: Breakdown of Ferromagnesian

Solid minerals are produced, including iron minerals Fe(OH)x and clay minerals Oxidized F- minerals give soils a reddish color Dissolved ions including Mg2+, K+, and dissolved silica, are moved to a deeper soil layer or out of the soil column to adjacent water bodies (e.g., streams, groundwater) Because the breakdown of ferromagnesian occur slowly and takes extensive leaching, we usually find oxidized iron minerals under a humid climate.

Soil respiration acts as a ________ for atmospheric CO2.

Source

Population ≈ carrying capacity:

Stress is increasing

All of the following cause rainwater be acidic

Sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, carbon dioxide( this does not lead to acid rain but does make rainwater acidic ref. CO2)

Oil and gas formation starts with high production of organic carbon , which is usually found in ___________

Surface oceans with upwelling

Minamata disease

Symptoms: ataxia, numbness in the hands and feet, general muscle weakness, narrowing of the field of vision and damage to hearing and speech, insanity, paralysis, coma, and death.

Think of gravity as a vacuum cleaner mopping up small planetary objects and debris.

T

Total Fertility Rate (TFR) by country

TFR shows high geographic variability. The number ranges from >6 children per woman in developing countries to ~1 in developed countries. Currently Africa has the highest TFR.

The current population growth rate of the world is around 1.05%. How long does it take to double the current population at this growth rate?

Take around 66 years .69/G. g is the rate.

Glacier Meltdown

•How do we estimate glacier mass? •One way is to use satellite •Grace Twin Satellite (Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment): Tom and Jerry, launched in 2002 •They measure changes in glacier mass by measuring the gravity exerted by the ice sheet •The principle is that mass and gravity are positively correlated- an increase in mass corresponds to an increase in the gravitation force exerted •Loss of glacier mass is thus reflected in the loss of gravity of a scoped region Check the note below on how the twin satellites measure gravity field fluctuations GRACE, twin satellites launched in March 2002, are making detailed measurements of Earth's gravity field which will lead to discoveries about gravity and Earth's natural systems GRACE will obtain a gravity field map by looking at how the Earth's mass varies from place to place on the surface as the twin satellites pass over. Mass and gravity are positively correlated - that is to say an increase in mass relates to an increase in the gravitational force exerted. Mass is also related to the density and amount of materials located in any one place. For example rock is more dense (i.e., more mass per unit of volume) than water, and water in its liquid form is generally more dense than in its solid form. Also, a very large amount of rock, such as would be found in a large mountain, has more mass than a small amount of rock, such as might be found in a coastal area . Since the Earth has varied topographic features such as mountains, valleys, and underground caverns, the mass is not evenly distributed around the globe and different physical features can be distinguished. The lumps observed in the Earth's gravity field result from this uneven distribution of mass on the Earth's surface and GRACE will map these perturbations with unprecedented accuracy. As the GRACE-twins fly in formation over the Earth the precise speed of each satellite and the distance between them is constantly communicated via a microwave K-band ranging instrument. As the gravitational field changes beneath the satellites - correlating to changes in mass (topography) of the surface beneath - the orbital motion of each satellite is changed. This change in orbital motion causes the distance between the satellites to expand or contract and can be measured using the K-band instrument. From this, the fluctuations in the Earth's gravitational field can be determined. Here's an example of how it works. The two GRACE satellites are traveling in space, both 500 kilometers above the earth. As the front satellite approaches an area of higher gravity, it will be pulled toward the area of higher gravity and speed up. This increases the distance between the two satellites. As the satellites straddle the area of higher gravity, the front satellite will slow down and the trailing satellite will speed up. As the trailing satellite passes the area of higher gravity, it will slow down and the lead satellite will not be affected. As the satellites move around the Earth, the speeding up and slowing down of the satellites will allow scientists to measure the distance between the two satellites, and, therefore, map the earth's gravity field. . The GRACE satellites house microwave ranging systems that measure the change in the distance between the satellites over time, enabling them to essentially "weigh" the changes in Gulf of Alaska glaciers. Credit: NASA

SUPPLY AND DEMAND FOR OIL AND NATURAL GAS

•How do we estimate supply? -this is the amount proved reserve that can be produced economically with existing technology. • •Therefore the estimated reserves depend on the technological advances.

U.S Crude Oil Production versus Hubbert Curve

•Hubbert's peak is a prediction •Compare U.S. crude oil production vs. Hubbert peak cure, and think if Hubber's curve/peak represents a reasonable prediction •The shape of the production curve is similar to the shape of Hubbert Curve. •A recent rapid rise after 2010 deviates from Hubbert Curve. •This rise responds to oil price increases and the development of drilling technology •However, keep in mind that oil is a non-renewable resource and the reserve is limited. The production saturation will eventually arrive, and other energy resources need to be developed to avoid energy crisis.

Industrial Pollution Control of chemicals

•Hundreds of new chemicals are created by industrial scientists each year • •~66000 drugs, pesticides, and other industrial chemicals •70% have no toxicity •Complete health hazard evaluation for only 2% of these chemical • •By 1990, ten million new chemicals had been created or identified since 1957 •Toxicity of dispersant: "Given that this is a billion-dollar industry, why were those data gaps not filled?" Mitchelmore asks. "The whole issue regarding limited toxicity data—that's not just common to dispersants, that's common to tens of thousands of chemicals we're putting out into the environment daily."

Ethanol production step 1: hydrolysis

•Hydrolysis/ saccharification to break down starch or cellulose into sugar •The hydrolysis of polysaccharides to soluble sugars is called "saccharification". •Cellulose, however, is more difficult and requires additional energy to undergo saccharification than starch •The reason is that molecular structures of cellulose and starch differ (see the next slide for detais) Starch and glycogen are made from alpha-glucose. This is an isomer of glucose in which the hydroxyl (-OH) group attached to carbon number 1 is below the plane of the ring. Cellulose is an unbranched polymer composed of beta glucose molecules. Beta glucose is an isomer of glucose in which the hydroxyl group attached to carbon 1 is above the plane of the ring. Hydrolysis usually means the cleavage of chemical bonds by the addition of water.

Hypothesis 1 of origin of oceans

•Hypothesis 1: outgassing hypothesis •This hypothesis states that water vapor and other gases separated out from the rocks that make up the bulk of the Earth and were outgassed on the surface, forming the atmosphere and the oceans (see the figure on the right) •Note the outgassing process follows the same principle of density stratification

High population ≠ Great environmental impacts

•I= P *A *T I= Environmental Impact P= Population A=Affluence T=Technology High Environmental Impact = Large population * Great Wealth/abundance * More technologically-developed

Chattanooga Shale

•In our research group, we study black shales. •The photos show a specimen and an outcrop of the Chattanooga Shale, which is a formation contain mostly grey or black shales distributed in Alabama and Tennessee. •It represents organic matter-rich deposits due to high algal productivity and/or better preservation of organic matter under deoxygenated conditions.

Extreme Climatic Events: Hurricane and tropical storms

•Increase the frequency and intensity of Hurricane and tropical storms •The first step of Hurricane formation is warm ocean surface temperature (>80F) that provides energy and evaporation •Increases in the global temperature and sea surface temperature lead to increases in tropic storms •Catastrophic damages are seen around the world •Category 4 hurricanes have increases from 0.26 per year from 1851-1900 to 1.4 per year from 2001-2020 •Some examples: Hurricane Katrina (2005): category 5; Hurricane Delta and Eta (2020): category 4

Irrigation Problem

•Irrigation alters chemistry of soils and water •One direct and visible consequence is salination of soils •Irrigation water dissolves soluble compounds in soils; after water is evaporated (note that irrigation is commonly used in dry regions), it leaves salt on land and in water •Salty solutions kill crops

why is normal precipitation slightly acidic?

•It is due to the presence of CO2. CO2 reacts with water and produces hydrogen ions •CO2+H2O= H+ + HCO3-

Nuclear Power in Japan

•Japan needs to import about 84% of its energy requirements. •Its first commercial nuclear power reactor began operating in mid 1966, and nuclear energy has been a national strategic priority since 1973. This is now under review following the 2011 Fukushima accident. •The country's 50 main reactors have provided some 30% of the country's electricity and this was expected to increase to at least 40% by 2017. The prospect now is for about half of this. •Japan has a full fuel cycle set-up, including enrichment and reprocessing of used fuel for recycle. •Japan is re-evaluating the nuclear energy strategy after Fukushima accident

Kepone Environmental Disasters: Chlorinated Pesticide Sterilization of the James River

•Kepone, aka. chlordecone •Mid-70s, Hopewell Virginia, pesticides manufacture •53,000kg of Kepone in the sewage system •Frequent penetration of the Kepone caused the wastewater plant inoperative •People exposed Kepone suffered from health problems •Sterilization of the James River •Several billion dollars and the removal of 135 million cubic meters of river sediments

Oil supply and demand are not evenly distributed around the world

•Libya produces 50-100 times more than it consumes •Japan does not have any oil and gas at all but it is the third largest consumer. •USA consumes 25% of the world-used oil. This is equal to oAll the oil used by Europe o2x China and Japan together

What is organic matter?

•Living or dead organisms and their byproducts -Algae in a pond -Human or animal waste -Runoff from animal feedlots -Discharge from food processing plants •All can end up back in a body of surface water (i.e. Lake Tuscaloosa) •Is organic matter a water pollutant? Not always, organic matter is important for aquatic life as it provides food and energy for aquatic food webs However, when organic matter is in excess, it is a pollutant and causes dead zones.

Summary of Fluid Storage and Mobility

•Loose sediments (sand, silt, clay, gravel) and soils are usually porous and permeable •Rock type will impact porosity and permeability -rocks that have crystals that are tightly interlocked have low permeability and porosity: e.g. igneous rocks (granite and basalt) -Dissolution and fracturing will generally increase porosity and permeability in rocks -Sedimentary rocks: porosity determined by grain rounding, sorting and cementation: Sandstones are generally very porous and common aquifer rocks mud rich rocks are not porous or permeable: shale

Loose sediments and soils

•Loose sediments and soils usually have high permeability and porosity •They are at the surface and shallow subsurfaces •They can be classified by grain sizes •From small to large: Clay <Silt <Sand < Gravel

Consequences of Erosion

•Loss of Topsoil: reduces crop quality, lowers crop production and farming income. •6" loss of topsoil in TX reduced crop yield 42%

Cone of Depression

•Lowering the water table -Pumping ground water faster than it can be replaced - cone of depression -This will first lower water table locally (see A) -Many cone of depression will lower regional groundwater table (see B) -This may impact local and regional ground water availability

A Traditional Geothermal Power

•Magma rising into the crust bring abundant heat up into the crust as geothermal energy •Heat escaping from the magma heats water and the water convectively circulates •"Hot water" or "Dry steam" type Thermal features in yellowstone hot spring Magma is a complex high-temperature fluid substance. Temperatures of most magmas are in the range 700 °C to 1300 °C (or 1300 °F to 2400 °F) Earth is a big heat engin Either hot water or steam

Alternative Geothermal Sources

•Many areas away from plate boundaries have high geothermal gradients •Geothermal gradient is the rate of increase of temperature with increasing depth in the earth •These areas contain hot-dry-rock type geothermal resources •Deep drilling into such rocks may produce appreciable amounts of geothermal energy - SW England •Introduce circulation of cold/hot water Geothermal graident is the rate of increase of temperature with increasing depth in the earth Ordinary crust: 30de/km (85F /km) For places > 40 de/km, can be regarded potential site Pretty expensive

Unconventional Natural Gas Sources: gas/methane hydrate

•Methane in gas hydrate exists as crystalline solids of gas and water molecules •Abundant in marine sediments Exploration is a challenge because: (1) it contains a large amount of CH4 (see the next slide), which is a powerful greenhouse gas, and loss of control in exploration will lead to disastrous consequences; (2) CH4 is flammable and explosive; (3) the impacts on marine ecosystem (see the map of their distribution in a later slide)

Biomagnification? What is it?

•Methylmercury can be biomagnified •Biomagnification: increases in concentrations of substances with an increasing level of food chains •Organisms at lower trophic levels accumulate small amounts relative biomass (smaller concentration). •Organisms at the next higher level eat many of these lower-level organisms and hence accumulate larger amounts relative to their biomass (higher concentration). •At the highest trophic level the increased concentrations in tissues may become toxic •Example: limited fish intake for pregnant women due to Hg concern

Concerns Related to Fuel Handling

•Mining and processing of uranium ore is a radioactive hazard -Miners are exposed to higher levels of radioactivity than the general population—higher cancer rate -Tailings piles are exposed to erosion -Uranium moves around in environment (soluble in water under oxidizing environments) • •Plutonium is both radioactive and chemically toxic -Easy to convert into nuclear weapons material

Mercury

•Natural sources: volcanoes, erosion of mercury deposits •Mercy in water primarily from atmospheric deposition (Hg2+) •Transferred from the atmosphere into water, microbes covert Hg to methylmercury (CH3Hg) •Methylation: Hg converted to CH3Hg The mostly toxic to humans is in the form of methylmercury

Nitrogen Gases

•Nitrogen gases have complex geochemistry -oxygen and nitrogen are very abundant in the atmosphere (O2: 21%, N2: 78%) -However, N2 and O2 require high temperatures tocause nitrogen and oxygen to form nitrogen oxide compounds (engine) (NOx) -Nitrogen oxides (NOx) include: NO, NO2, etc. -Anthropogenic sources are related to combustion; the pollution is concentrated in urban areas, mostly from transportation

Hypoxia zones (Dead zones) in the world

•Note that the number of hypoxic system has an overall positive correlation with human footprint •In the U.S., hypoxia is a severe issue along the Gulf of Mexico and East coasts

Pressure

•Now we have learned that pressure is unevenly distributed in aquifer •Groundwater potential (H) combines pressure and gravity •Direction: Groundwater moves from areas of high potential to low potential •Flow rate: partially controlled by hydraulic conductivity, which is the difference in groundwater potential of two points divided by the difference in lateral distance of those points •Hydrologists drill wells to determine groundwater potential (H) and hydraulic gradient •Hydrologists use Darcy's Law to calculate the rate of groundwater

Should we develop nuclear energy?

•Nuclear energy, for the time being, is the •Risk assessment for energy sources -All kinds of miners face health risks -People living downstream from a dam are at risk -~0.2 deaths per million people per year associated with nuclear power generation -~2.6-4 deaths per million people per year associated with coal fired power generation -Average ~15 deaths per million people per year by motor vehicle accidents in US •Nuclear plants have lower fueling and operating costs than coal-fired plants •Different people weigh the pros and cons of nuclear fission power in different ways

Concerns with Nuclear Power Plants

•Nuclear power plants are expensive to build ~10 billion dollars •Nuclear power plants are expensive to decommission -In US, average age of a fission-type of nuclear reactor is 40 years -Expensive to decommission >100 million per reactor -Lots of radioactive contaminated material that need to be stored and treated

Nuclear Reactor Safety

•Nuclear reactor safety is a serious undertaking -Major concerns are with accidents and sabotage -Loss of control of reactions in the core could produce a core meltdown -This event could allow the fuel and core materials to melt into an unmanageable mass and then migrate out of the containment structure -Could result in a catastrophic release of radiation into the environment -Reactors must be located away from active faults & large populations

Unfortunate uses of nuclear energy on weapons

•Nuclear technique has been used on weapons •Nuclear bomb uses fission only or both fission and fusion (Tsar Bomba - Most Powerful Manmade Explosion in History) •Here is a video briefly explaining the differences between fission-based atomic bombs vs. fusion-based hydrogen bombs

Limitations on Traditional Geothermal Power

•Often at plate boundaries •Geothermal fields are stationary -Long distance power transmission is wasteful -Many locations of plate boundaries are not accessible •Most geothermal fields have limited life spans -The Geysers, CA - production decreased by 50% in ~ 1 decade -Reason: poor thermal conductivity of rocks: replenishment rates are lower than extraction rates •Geothermal fields circulate water, which can lead to the depletion of aquifers or even subsidence Many locations of plate boundaries are not accessible mid ocean bridge Yellowstone national park--- unique scenic and geological values , so not geothermal power plants.

Chemical Composition

•Oil and gas are mixtures of different hydrocarbons, chemical compounds made of different proportions of carbon and hydrogen atoms. - Oil is made of large organic molecules, while the most abundant chemical compound in natural gas is methane(CH4) - Hydrocarbon Example: Octane, C8H18, flammable liquid - Methane molecule, CH4, natural gas

Environmental versus Resource Struggle?

•Oil sand is sometimes referred to as Canada's 'dirty oil' because of its significant environmental impacts •However, oil sand accounts for the majority of energy reserves in Canada

Organic matter decomposition pathway:

•Organic matter is broken down/decomposed by bacteria -If ample oxygen is available then aerobic decomposition occurs C6H12O6 + 6O2à6CO2 +6 H2O -If there is too much aerobic decomposition then water will become oxygen depleted -If oxygen is depleted then anaerobic decomposition occurs, which produces noxious gases - hydrogen sulfide, methane -Equations on the right show some examples of anaerobic decomposition

Other Producers - 37 member countries

•Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) produces 24% of all oil, or 21 million barrels per day. • The USA is the biggest single producer in OECD but Mexico, Canada and the UK are also major suppliers • Outside OECD, the states of the former Soviet Union are also major producers supplying a further 15% of global output

Example of population growth.

•Overpopulation leads invasion and deterioration of wildlife habitats •Time is running out in S.E. Asia (highly populated) to save wildlife: most large-bodied animals are under immediate threat of extinction. •Overpopulation and poverty, pollution, and health •To feed a large population, soils are over fertilized, and crops are grown in areas inappropriate for agriculture •This pollutes soil, water, air, food, and eventually our health

Types of Air Pollution

•Particulates -Dust -Smoke -Soot -Ash •Gaseous pollutants -CO and CO2 -SO2 -NOx -Ozone and CFCs

Lead (Pb)

•Pb: atomic number 82; a metal; soft and malleable •Natural sources are minor; anthropogenic sources concentrate the element •Historically, used in water pipes in old building: arguably contributing to the fall of Roman Empire due to the toxicity of Pb from eroded pipes •Today it is used in or released from batteries, metallurgy, glass, textile, chemical industry, paper mills, petroleum refining ( a very useful but also toxic metal) Well-documented impacts on brain functions

Also Macro-plastics

•Peanut (the sea turtle) became deformed due to the six-pack ring •Her inner organs were undeveloped •Luckily she was rescued •But there are many more peanuts out there who were not rescued

Coal Forming Process (Coalification)

•Peat - first combustible product to form •Lignite - soft brown form of coal •Bituminous - harder variety of coal •Anthracite - hardest variety of coal •Harder coal gives off more heat for a given weight •Higher grade: high Carbon to oxygen ratios

Emerging Contaminants

•Pollutants that have been detected to accumulate in the environment, having environmental and health concerns, but are yet to be regulated •Examples: Pharmaceuticals, Microplastics, Personal care chemicals, Food additives, etc. •This is a new topic I am adding this year. New-generation environmental scientists (such as you) will be facing new challenges posed by emerging contaminants. I will use pharmaceuticals and microplastics as examples here.

Remediation Methods: (3) Chemical Treatment

•Polluted water can be treated in wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) before they are discharged back to the environments •Chemical treatment is a commonly used method in WWTP •One simple chemical treatment method is to promote coagulation •What is coagulation? the collecting into a mass of minute particles of a solid dispersed throughout a liquid, usually followed by the precipitation or separation of the solid mass from the liquid. •Why coagulation? It promotes the settling down of particles and attached pollutants (or impurities), which purifies the water • How to promote coagulation? Careful addition of salts of aluminum, calcium, or iron to phosphorous laden sediments may reduce the risk of eutrophication---aluminum sulfate to cause coagulation in water

What controls water/fluid abundance in rocks?

•Porosity and permeability play a big role in groundwater resources •Porosity: the proportion of void space (holes and/or cracks) in material (soil or rock) where fluid can be stored •Porosity is a storage measure -Usually expressed as a percent (i.e., 15%) -Pore space can be occupied by fluid or gas (note some rocks store oil and gas-something we will discuss in later topics) -pores can be connected or not Permeability: a measure of water/fluid mobility, i.e., how easily fluid passes through the media/rock High porosity usually result in high permeability. But when pores are not connected, the media has high porosity but low permeability Similarly, some rocks can have high permeability but low porosity. Permeability is quantified by hydrogeologists using hydraulic conductivity(K) (unit: cm per second) Here, we are not going to discuss too much about quantification, but we focus on a general understanding of how different properties of rocks control porosity and permeability Observe the figure below, which one has high permeability?

How did coagulation work?

•Primary coagulants neutralize the electrical charges of particles in the water which causes the particles to clump together.

Strategies for Reducing Erosion

•Protect the soil from fast moving wind -Plant wind breaks perpendicular to dominate wind direction •Protect the soil from fast moving water -Reduce the slope so runoff is slowed -Plow fields parallel to contours ( terrace fields)

In situ measures

•Rocky Mountain Arsenal, CO •Toxic wastes got into groundwater •Subsurface barrier (impermeable) put around site where there is groundwater flow •Water is treated and then re-injected

Food security- example: Bangladesh

•Saltwater intrusion •Salinity increases in groundwater and surface water •Disastrous effects in rice farms

Saltwater Intrusion

•Saltwater intrusion destroyed useful •aquifers beneath Brooklyn, New York, in the 1930s •It is a significant problem in many coastal areas nationwide •The brown shaded areas in the map show areas under the threat of saltwater intrusion •Note that AL coast is also highlighted •The issue is particularly severe in Baldwin country, AL

Tar Sand (Oil Sand)

•Sedimentary rocks containing tar-like petroleum -Immature hydrocarbons or hydrocarbons in which the lighter portion has migrated away -Two extraction methods, both of which requires energy to change the tar-like texture to liquid: •Crush rock and heat to extract petroleum •Heat In-situ with steam for several weeks and then pump -Canada and Venezuela have reserves equal to the total world reserves of crude oil US almost no

Metal: Cadmium (Cd) toxicity

•Severe pains in spines and joints •Softening of bones •Kidney failure •Mass poisoning : itai-itai disease, name given to the mass cadmium poisoning of Japan, starting around 1912.

Unconventional Natural Gas Sources: Shale Gas

•Shale gas boom in U.S.: 1% of natural gas production in 2000 to 20% in 2010 •Drilling technological advances lead to this boom •These technological advances include Horizontal drilling and Hydrofraking to create fractures

Soil Erosion versus Soil Formation

•Slow! •Formation of 30 cm takes 50 years in regions where sediments build up rapidly. 0.6cm/yr •Normally, when new soil is formed from the weathering of parent rock, 1cm may require 100 - 1,000 years. 0.01cm~0.001 cm/yr •Soil losses in U.S. amount to billions of tons per year - about 0.04 cm/ year •Please compare soil formation rate and soil erosion rate Currently, soil is eroding in the U.S. about 10 times faster than it is forming, and we are losing soils!

Plastics

•Small size plastics, e.g. microplastics (MP) and nanoplastics (NP), in environment are of a particular concern due to their harmful effects and difficulty in detect and remove •MP: <5 mm (one-dimensional) •Diverse compositions: polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), nylon (PA), thermoplastic polyester (PET), poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), cellulose acetate (CA), polysterol polystyrene, polyethylene terephthalate, and foamed polystyrene. •Insoluble in water, nondegradable (years to centuries), and possess diverse physicochemical properties that determine bioavailability to organisms. •Accumulating in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems

The Soil Resource, The Global View

•Soil degradation is a global issue •Destructive processes exist such as: -Erosion -Salination -Contamination from pollution -Chemical modification of soils and water These processes combine to the loss of soil, loss of soil quality, and degraded acreage left to grow enough food for a hungry world. Land area is finite.

A more detailed classification: soil taxonomy

•Soil scientists have developed a comprehensive and systematic classification of soils known as soil taxonomy, which emphasizes the physical and chemical properties of the soil profile • USDA grouped soils into 11 orders, including Entisols, Vertisols, Inceptisols, Aridsols, Mollisols, Andisols, Spodosols, Alfisols, Ultisols, Oxisols, and Histosols •Each soil order reflects certain environmental and ecosystem characteristics

How Groundwater is stored?

•Soils and rocks have pore spaces that can store water •These soils and rocks are termed as "Aquifer" •Aquifers must meet two conditions: (i) porous enough to store abundant water; (ii) permeable enough to allow water movement •See the figure below for "Aquifer" •Do not worry about other terminologies in the figure; we will revisit this figure in the next topic

Solar Energy

•Solar Electricity -Sunlight excites electrons and cause them to flow -Solar panel/cell -Commonly used for generating electricity at remote sites -Restricted by land Photons will excite electons and cause them to flow Solar charger Photovoltaics (PV) is a method of generating electrical power by converting solar radiation into direct current electricity using semiconductors that exhibit the photovoltaic effect. A semiconductor is a material with electrical conductivity due to electron flow (as opposed to ionic conductivity) intermediate in magnitude between that of a conductor and an insulator. This means a conductivity roughly in the range of 103 to 10−8 siemens per centimeter. Semiconductor materials are the foundation of modern electronics, including radio, computers, telephones, and many other devices. Such devices include transistor, solar cells, many kinds of diodes including the light-emitting diode, the silicon controlled rectifier, and digital and analog integrated circuits. Similarly, semiconductor solar photovoltaic panels directly convert light energy into electrical energy. In a metallic conductor, current is carried by the flow of electrons. In semiconductors, current is often schematized as being carried either by the flow of electrons or by the flow of positively charged "holes" in the electron structure of the material The photovoltaic effect refers to photons of light knocking electrons into a higher state of energy to create electricity. •Solar Electricity-utility scale -100 MW solar electric plant •30-40,000 tons of steel, 5000 tons of glass, 200,000 tons of concrete -100 MW nuclear plant •5000 tons of steel, 50,000 tons of concrete •Although solar electricity is expensive to build, it harvests free energy and is clean •It is limited to locations with high solar radiation

Summary of the Demographic Transition Curve

•Stage I: "pretransition" hygiene and medicine are poor (all counties out of this stage) •Stage II: "mortality transition": hygiene and medicine are better; society is mainly labor based, agriculture is important (some developing/very poor countries such as Niger and Afghanistan) •Stage III: "fertility transition" urbanization, support for a family is increasing better family planning (e.g.. contraceptives): most countries in the world •Stage IV: "stability transition" stable, both birth rate and death rate is low, support for family is very high, e.g., Sweden (western European countries + Japan) •US is between stage 3 and 4 •The demographic transition did not occur overnight in Europe. It is anticipated that a transition like this will occur in all countries as they become further developed. However, time (many decades) will be needed for the birth and death rates to equilibrate - during which time the population will continue to grow rapidly, and enormous challenges will occur

Dissolved oxygen calculation •The amount of organic matter (C6H12O6) in the pond is 10,000 g in total. How much dissolved oxygen will be consumed by this amount of organic matter, assuming that all this organic matter is consumed through aerobic decomposition?

•Step 1: to estimate the amount of dissolved oxygen consumed by 10,000 g organic matter, we will start from the chemical equation C6H12O6 + 6O2à6CO2 +6 H2O •Step 2: in this equation the molecular weight of C6H12O6 is 180 (12*6+1*12+16*6=180) and the molecular weight of O2 is 32 (16*2=32) •Step 3: As such, 180 g of C6H12O6 needs 192 g of O2 (6*32=192), which means 1 g of C6H12O6 needs ~1.07 g of O2 (192/180=~1.07). •Step 4: Then 10,000 g organic matter needs 10,000*1.07=10700 g dissolved oxygen •The final answer is 10,700 g dissolved oxygen

Why is stratospheric O3 beneficial?

•Stratospheric ozone layer absorbs harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation •UV radiation causes skin cancer: 1% reduction in stratospheric ozone might result in 3% increase in skin cancer cases •UVA -longest wavelength, least harmful (aging of skin, tanning, some cancer, moles) - zinc and titanium oxide •UVB - intermediate wavelength, absorbed by ozone (main cancer risk) •UVC - shortest wavelength, most damaging, but absorbed by oxygen and water vapor in the atmosphere •Note the energy E is negatively proportional to wavelength. So, the longer the wavelength, the less energy and less harmful •Observe the figure below to check the wavelength of different lights

Cold Fusion: is it possible?

•Sun: where fusion takes place at about 27,000,000°F •1980s: Fleischmann and Pons described their experiments as generating considerable "excess energy", in the sense that it could not be explained by chemical reactions alone. •This will be significant as it can resolve the challenge of using fusion reactions to produce energy •However, these experiments are flawed and not reproducible •Research is still ongoing • •

Modern period climate changes (centuries): The Greenhouse Effect

•The Greenhouse Effect involves sun light (energy) entering the atmosphere and a component of the atmosphere (CO2) trapping radiant heat (infrared energy) •The result is warming of the atmosphere and Global Warming •Increases, or decreases, in the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere will show a respective increase, or decrease, in global warming

When was coal formed

•The bulk of coal deposits was formed during the Carboniferous •Carboniferous Period (360-299 mya): mean CO2concentration 800 ppm (today 410 ppm) •Warm climate, widespread swamps

Long-term climate change vs. Plate tectonics

•The continents (plates) "drift" on top of a fluid substrate over geologic time. • •At the edge of plates, plates collide or move apart, leading to increased volcanism. •Volcanism releases greenhouse gas "CO2" to the atmosphere • •CO2 can be removed from the atmosphere by dissolving into the ocean and reacting with rocks and minerals • •Ice House: low volcanism, low CO2 Warm House: high volcanism, high CO2

Surface subsidence along the Gulf of Mexico Coast

•The contour line in the figure on the left shows the depth of subsidence in Galveston, TX •Many faults are created due to subsidence •Subsidence was caused by groundwater withdrawal and oil exploration •Consequently, the area is subjected to more extensive flooding, coastal erosion, and loss of coastal wetlands

What happened at the molecular level?

•The decomposed plant materials contain mostly lignin •With microbial degradation, heat and pressure, the molecules lose mostly oxygen atoms. Carbon bonds that link aromatic rings are formed, resulting in more compact molecules and structures •Below are examples of molecular structures for different stages/grades of coal

Geothermal Power

•The earth is hot (varied surface thermal features: volcano, hot spring, geyser)! •The source of heat is radiogenic decay of elements in rocks •Also some residual heat from the formation of the Earth Thermal features in yellowstone hot spring Magma is a complex high-temperature fluid substance. Temperatures of most magmas are in the range 700 °C to 1300 °C (or 1300 °F to 2400 °F) Earth is a big heat engine Either hot water or steam Slow decay of radioactive particles in all rocks A geyser is a spring characterized by intermittent discharge of water ejected turbulently and accompanied by a vapour phase (steam). This is called a hydrothermal explosion. fumarole, vent in the Earth's surface from which steam and volcanic gases are emitted.

Soil Formation

•The process is referred to as pedogenesis •Factors: Time, Parent Materials, Climate, Topography, Organisms •Slow! •Formation of 30 cm takes 50 years in regions where sediments/soils build up rapidly. 0.6cm/yr •Normally, when new soil is formed from the weathering of parent rock, 1cm may require 100 - 1,000 years. 0.01cm~0.001 cm/yr

African countries adopt controversial deadly chemical, DDT, for malaria treatment

•The use of DDT remains controversial today •DDT is argued to be the most effective and affordable treatment of malaria in underdeveloped countries

possible solutions to alleviate the loss of discharge?

•There are some solutions to alleviate the loss of discharge •Artificial recharge strategies -Build artificial recharge basins -Employ any measures to slow down run off and increases surface water infiltration -See figure below for recharge basin, recharge trench, and recharge well

Man-made, synthetic chemicals

•They are not produced by natural processes •They are synthesized in laboratories •They are produced on a large scale for certain purposes (e.g., medical uses, agricultural and industrial applications) •Some of them accumulate in the environment, which leads to unknown and negative consequences

Herbicides & Pesticides

•They are used to kill Insects, snails, slugs, plants, rodents, birds, fish, fungi, bacteria, algae. •365,000,000 kg of pesticides are put into the environment in the US each year •They accumulate and persist in the environments because there are no general metabolic pathways (meaning they cannot be readily broken down by microbes) •They are also subjected to Biomagnification (check topic 9 for this concept) •They are heavily used prior to ~1960s when wide awareness of their negative consequences started

Nuclear Power: Fission

•This figure describes the process of U235 nuclear fission and associated chain reactions •U235 has 92 protons and 143 neutrons •When bombarded with neutrons, U235 splits into smaller parties and releases more neutrons and energy in the form of heat •Extra neutrons produced will lead to splitting of more U235 and thus extra energy being released •The reactions are self-sustained until the depletion of U235

Algae blooms

•Today, most plankton can be found where deep ocean currents rise to the surface. • This upwelling water is rich in nutrients and causes the plankton to thrive. • Blooms of certain plankton called dinoflagellates may give the water a red tinge and be harmful for people and other marine organisms.

Sea level change

•Tools: satellite radar altimetry the Ocean ToPography EXperiment (TOPEX/Poseidon): a joint U.S./French satellite that uses radar to map the precise features of the oceans' surface Jason: measures ocean height and monitors ocean circulation Ice, Cloud and Land Elevation Satellite (ICESat): to study the mass of polar ice sheets and their contributions to global sea level change. Altimeter received waveforms in sea to land transition illustration (COASTALT portal); http://www.altimetry.info/radar-altimetry-tutorial/how-altimetry-works/

Loss of land, country, culture-Tuvalu is Disappearing

•Tuvalu is a Polynesian island nation in the Pacific Ocean •It has a population of ~13k •4.5 meter above sea level •Tuvalu is the strongest critics for the lack of adequate joint efforts in mitigating climate changes •Check this video to learn the consequences of Climate Change in Tuvalu

Nuclear Energy Fuel: Uranium

•U-235: 0.7% of natural U; it is fissionable •U-238 :99.3% of natural U; It is not fissionable itself, but it can be converted to plutonium-239 (94Pu), which is fissionable •Both can be fission fuels •Widely distributed with minor amounts in many crustal rocks •40% of World's Uranium resources in Australia •Uranium ore in the U.S. is in short supply and could be used up in a few decades •Here is the process when U238 is bombarded by neutrons •U-238 does not fission •It produces a heavier nucleus Pu239 •Pu-239 is fissionable

Coal Reserves and Resources

•U.S. coal reserves -~50 times the energy of the remaining oil reserves •Estimated world reserves of 1 trillion tons •Estimated U.S. reserves over 270 billion tons of recoverable coal US: last for >200 yrs

Deep Geological Repository

•Underground, long-term storage for radioactive wastes •Need to have a stable and safe environment: deep (usually >300 m), stable geology (e.g., no earthquake, volcanic activities), distant from aquifers, remote areas •For example, Yucca mountain geological repository in Nevada was proposed but cancelled due to environmental concerns related to groundwater and detected seismic activities

CFC Sources

•Uses of CFCs: Coolants in air conditioning and refrigerating; Cleaning of electrical parts; Fumigants for granaries and cargo holds; Bubbles in polystyrene plastic foam packaging & insulation; Propellants in aerosol spray cans Industrialized countries use 84% of CFCs •US is 25% of global consumption of CFCs: Vehicle air conditioners account for about 3/4 of US CFC emission. •Demographics: By year 2000, 75 countries phased out all CFC use, banned in US since 1978 •Current substitute---- HCFC, containing at least one hydrogen atoms shorter residence time: 6-7yrs Beginning of phase-out HCFCs

Existing deep geological repository

•Waste Isolation Pilot Plant New Mexico •2,150 feet (655 m) underground •Excavated within a 3,000 foot (1000 m) thick salt formation •Began operation 1999 •Expected to continue to 2070 •the world's third deep geological repository •Licensed to permanently dispose of radioactive waster for 10,000 years from the research and production of nuclear weapons. •Does not have the capacity to store wastes from power plants

Flow of groundwater

•Water table has a similar shape to land surface, but is more subdued •Groundwater is driven by gravity and mostly flows down the slope of the water table However, groundwater flow direction is also influenced by the rock units

Future Prediction

•We began to see a rapid drop of fertility rate in many populated countries: China, Iran, Brazil •A problem of high fertility rates mostly in Africa- 16% of world population •Population as a whole- on the path of non-explosion Hania Zlotnic- director of the UN Population Division

Nuclear Power - Fusion

•We have learned about fusion reactions in Topic 1-think the difference between fusion and fission (see the figure below for fusion reactions) •Sun is a huge nuclear fusion reactor, illustrating that fusion is a significant energy source •Relative to fusion, nuclear fusion as an energy source have the following pros and cons: •Advantage: Fuel is abundant; clean and safe •Disadvantage: Fusion is difficult to achieve with current technology •Requires high temperature (million degrees) to fuse nuclei Challenges in materials and energy

Start of Life

•We still do not know exactly when and where life started •Where did the life come from? 1.Extraterrestrial- outer space 2.Hydrothermal vents •It has to be life that can survive under extreme and tough conditions •Archaea (a domain of single-celled organism) is believed to be the most ancient forms of life •Complex life only existed on for a "brief" period of Earth's history •

Is Global Warming happening?

•Weather vs. climate •If this is true, what types of evidence you need to see? As such, we must examine long-term weather records across a large spatial area to examine climate change

Solar Energy-Passive heating

•What is Passive Solar Heating? -Harvesting solar energy without mechanical assistance -Enhanced by good design -In the U.S. 40-90% of most home heating could potentially come from passive solar heating

Solar Energy-Active heating

•What is active solar heating -Harvesting energy with mechanical assistance (e.g., a pump to circulate water) -Water filled solar collectors -air and water heating -May require backup system for cloudy and rainy days A solar collector is the basic component of the two main types of solar heating mechanisms. These are fluid hot-water collectors that heat water, and air collectors that heat air. As well as typical home uses, heated water can also be used to heat a room when used in a hydronic heating system such as a baseboard system or a radiant floor heating system. a dark flat-plate absorber of solar energy, (2) a transparent cover that allows solar energy to pass through but reduces heat losses, (3) a heat-transport fluid (air, antifreeze or water) to remove heat from the absorber, and (4) a heat insulating backing.

Aquifer

•What types of rocks that can be aquifers rocks—high porosity and permeability Sandstone

Aquitards

•What types of rocks that can be aquitard/ aquiclude? low /very low permeability Granite, Basalt, Shale

Malthusian catastrophe "an essay of the principle population"

•Who was Thomas Malthus? English scholar influential in political economy and demography (1766-1834) •What did he propose? Malthusian catastrophe: a linear increase in agricultural productivity cannot meet the need for the exponential growth of population, and as such, population will be checked by famine, disease and widespread mortality •Why is it considered one of the most influential ideas? China's one-child policy is rooted in this idea This idea is also well accepted by many influential scholars If you are interested, read Bertrand Russell's essay "population pressure and war" (1957) https://users.drew.edu/~jlenz/br-on-population.html "During what remains of the present century, the world has to choose between two possible destinies. It can continue the reckless increase of population until war, more savage and more dreadful than any yet known, sweeps away not only the excess but probably all except a miserable remnant. Or, if the other course is chosen, there can be progress, rapid progress, towards the extinction of poverty, the end of war, and the establishment of a harmonious family of nations."

Malthusian catastrophe

•Why might Malthus be correct? 1) Population is exponentially increasing 2) Resources are not exponentially increasing and will limit/check population •Why might he be wrong? 1)Some resources may be increasing exponentially with technology (short term) 2) Birth control education and access

The future of coal

•World Peak coal •The U.S. has used most of its oil reserves, but only a few percent of its coal reserves •Compare to Fig. of peak oil

Phreatic zone

•aka. saturated zone or the zone of saturation, is the zone below the water table; pore spaces are filled/saturated with water

Regolith

•all unconsolidated materials at the surface of a planetary body. For example, lunar regolith •As such, regolith includes soil

Vadose zone

•also known as unsaturated zone (the zone of unsaturation), is the portion between ground surface and water table; pore spaces contain both water and air and thus unsaturated with water (Vadose = shallow)

Groundwater Treatment

•economical way to treat polluted ground water is allow natural processes to remove or destroy pollutants •Commonly, polluted groundwater is only treated after it is extracted for use - Decontamination after extraction or pump-and-treat

Perched water table

•is above an accumulation of groundwater in the unsaturated zone. It lies above the regional water table. The presence is related to a local presence of aquitard.

Aquifer

•rock and mineral units that are adequately porous and permeable that water can be stored and transmitted at rates sufficient enough to be useful. There are some inconsistencies on whether aquifer includes those units in the unsaturated zone—some use aquifer to refer to only those units in saturated zones and others use aquifer to refer to those permeable soils and rocks in both unsaturated and saturated zones

A pyramid structure

•structure in developing world number of young people >>number of senior • Why? high birth rate, high death rate, short life expectancy; higher rate of immature death due to poverty

Soil

•unconsolidated, loose materials that are fertile to support plant growth at the surface of a planetary body