Exam 1

Name and briefly describe the types of intercellular junctions found in epithelial tissue.

*Tight Junctions = forces almost all materials to move through, rather than between, the epithelial cells in order to cross the epithelium Adhering Junctions = This type of junction occurs when extensive zones of microfilaments extend from the cytoplasm into the plasma membrane, forming a supporting and strengthening belt within the plasma membrane Desmosomes = small region that holds cells together and provides resistance to mechanical stress at a single point Hemidesmosomes = Each cell contributes half of the complete desmosome *Gap Junctions = Gap junctions provide a direct passageway for small molecules traveling between neighboring cells. Ions, glucose, amino acids, and other small solutes can pass directly from the cytoplasm of one cell into the neighboring cell through these channels.

Know the three primary germ layers and their derivatives.

-Derivatives of Endoderm? Digestive System and Respiratory System -Derivatives of Mesoderm? Muscle tissue, heart kidneys, reproductive organs, connective tissue -Derivatives of Ectoderm? Skin, Nervous tissue

Comprehend the basic events leading to nervous system development, body folding, and early organ formation so that the details of organ system development can be learned with each of the subsequent lessons. As a study guide, do the following: Describe the process and results of gastrulation. Name the three primary germ layers and their derivatives. Describe transverse and cephalocaudal body folding of the embryo. Outline the steps involved in neurulation. Explain the fetal period and organogenesis.

1) -Gastrulation is process by which the cells of the epiblast migrate and form the three primary germ layers, which are the cells from which all body tissues develop -Gastrulation begins with the formation of the primitive streak -The primitive streak is like a trench in World War I. -Epiblast cells then migrate into the primitive streak -What is invagination? Cells detach from the epiblast layer and migrate through the primitive streak between the epiblast and hypoblast layers 2)-Derivatives of Endoderm? Digestive System and Respiratory System -Derivatives of Mesoderm? Muscle tissue, heart kidneys, reproductive organs, connective tissue -Derivatives of Ectoderm? Skin, Nervous tissue 3) Cephalocudal Folding = occurs in the cephalic (head) and caudal (tail) regions of the embryo. Essentially, the embryonic disc and amnion grow very rapidly, but the yolk sac does not grow at all. This differential growth causes the head and tail regions to fold on themselves. Transverse Folding = occurs when the left and right sides of the embryo curve and migrate toward the midline. 4) -What is the cylindrical mass of mesoderm that forms immediately internal and parallel to the primitive streak? The Notochord. - The notochord influences some of the overlying ectoderm to begin to form nervous tissue via a process called induction. -The neural plate is formed in induction -As the lateral edges of the neural plate are formed, what is the depression between the neural folds? Neural Groove -Then, The neural folds approach each other gradually in the midline and fuse. After the fusing is completed, it is called the neural tube -The neural tube eventually forms the brain and spinal cord 5)-What is organogenesis? The development of organs -Organogenesis occurs after gastrulation and body folding -During organogenesis, Upper and lower limbs form, Rudimentary organ systems have developed by week 8, and the Embryo is approximately 1 inch long by week 8 -During the fetal period, there is growth and maturation of existing organs -A premature birth is any birth before week 38 -The earliest infants can be born and can survive without lifesaving measures is week 30 -Infants can survive as early as week 22

Diagram, label, and explain the five parts of a reflex arc. Explain the differences between monosynaptic and polysynaptic reflexes. Give an example of each.

16.5a Components of a Reflex Arc A reflex arc is the neural "wiring" of a single reflex. It always begins at a receptor in the PNS, communicates with the CNS, and ends at a peripheral effector, such as a muscle or gland cell. The number of intermediate steps varies, depending upon the complexity of the reflex. Generally, five steps are involved in a simple reflex arc, as illustrated in figure 16.12 and described here: Stimulus activates sensory receptor. Sensory receptors (dendritic endings of a sensory neuron) respond to both external and internal stimuli, such as temperature, pressure, or tactile changes. Nerve impulse travels through sensory neuron to the CNS. Sensory neurons conduct impulses from the receptor into the spinal cord (or brain). Information from nerve impulse is processed in the integration center by interneurons. More complex reflexes may use a number of interneurons within the CNS to integrate and process incoming sensory information and transmit information to a motor neuron. Sensory information is also sent to the brain through interneuron collaterals. The simplest reflexes do not involve interneurons; rather, the sensory neuron synapses directly on a motor neuron in the anterior gray horn of the spinal cord. Motor neuron transmits nerve impulse to effector. The nerve impulse is transmitted through the anterior root of a motor neuron and then the spinal nerve to the peripheral effector organ (muscle or gland). Effector responds to nerve impulse from motor neuron. An effector is a muscle or a gland that responds to the nerve impulse from the motor neuron. This response is intended to counteract or remove the original stimulus.

Describe how epithelial tissue is classified according to cell shape and layers, and know the characteristics of cillia and microvilli.

A cilium, or cilia (plural), are small hair-like protuberances on the outside of eukaryotic cells. They are primarily responsible for locomotion, either of the cell itself or of fluids on the cell surface. Microvilli (singular: microvillus) are microscopic cellular membrane protrusions that increase the surface area for diffusion and minimize any increase in volume, and are involved in a wide variety of functions, including absorption, secretion, cellular adhesion, and mechanotransduction

elastic connective tissue

Allows stretching of some organsWalls of large elastic arteries

Describe, in your own words, what the study of anatomy and physiology is all about. Discuss the difference between gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy.

Anatomy = Study of body structure Physiology = Study of function of the body structures Gross Anatomy = Macroscopic, visible eye Microscopic Anatomy = Tiny structures with unaided eye

Describe how muscles function for movement.

Body movement. Bones of the skeleton move when muscles contract and pull on the tendons that attach the muscles to the bones. The integrated function of the muscles, bones, and joints can produce both the large movements involved in running and localized movements such as underlining a word in a book. Other types of body movements include those associated with producing facial expressions, speaking, breathing, and swallowing.

Define cartilaginous joint. Name the two subtypes. Draw a picture and give examples of each subtype.

Cartilaginous Joints = Cartilaginous joints allow more movement between bones than a fibrous joint but less than the highly mobile synovial joint

axon regeneration in the PNS and CNS

Central nervous system (CNS) axons do not spontaneously regenerate after injury in adult mammals. In contrast, peripheral nervous system (PNS) axons readily regenerate, allowing recovery of function after peripheral nerve damage.

Describe the location and general functions of the cerebral cortex, cerebral nuclei, amygdala, and hippocampus.

Cerebral Cortex- The cerebral cortex is the largest site of neural integration in the central nervous system. It plays a key role in attention, perception, awareness, thought, memory, language, and consciousness. Cerebral Nuclei- The basal ganglia are associated with a variety of functions, including control of voluntary motor movements, procedural learning, habit learning, eye movements, cognition, and emotion. Amydala- perception of emotions such as anger, fear, and sadness, as well as the controlling of aggression Hippocampus- It is an important part of the limbic system, a cortical region that regulates motivation, emotion, learning, and memory.

Describe the three fiber types that are present in connective tissue proper.

Collagen = Strong, Stretch-resistant Elastic = Flexible, Resilient Reticular = Forms an interwoven framework

dense irregular connective tissue

Collagen fibers randomly arranged and clumped together Withstands stresses in all directions Dermis

***dense regular connective tissue

Densely packed, parallel collagen fibers Resists stress applied in one direction Tendons and Ligaments

Explain the differences between first-class, second-class, and third-class lever systems.

Don't need to know much about this right now

Describe the structure of cartilage, including chondroblasts, chondrocytes, lacunae, extracellular matrix, and perichondrium.

Lacunae = a cavity or depression, especially in bone.

reticular connective tissue

Located in lymphatic organs and bone marrow

adipose connective tissue

Fat cells Stores energy, protects, cushions, and insulates Also under skin but also surrounds organs

Define fibrous joint. Name the three subtypes. Draw a picture and give examples of each subtype.

Fibrous Joint: These joints are also called fixed or immovable joints because they do not move.

Explain what fontanels are, where they are located, and why they are important.

Gaps between a baby's skull that slowly close up during the first 18 months of life. Allow baby to pass through canal. Soft spots.

Explain the structure of the two-neuron chain (preganglionic and postganglionic neurons) in the autonomic nervous system.

In comparison, a chain of two lower motor neurons extends from the CNS to innervate cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands in the ANS (see figure 18.1b, figure 18.2). The first of the two ANS motor neurons is the preganglionic (prē′gang-lē-on′ik) neuron. Its cell body lies within the brainstem or the spinal cord. A preganglionic axon extends from this cell body and exits the CNS in either a cranial nerve or a spinal nerve. This axon projects to an autonomic ganglion in the peripheral nervous system. Preganglionic neurons have myelinated axons that typically are small in diameter, and the nerve impulse always results in the release of ACh to excite the second neuron. Figure 18.2 Lower Motor Neurons of the Autonomic Nervous System. The autonomic nervous system employs a chain of two lower motor neurons, a preganglionic neuron, and a ganglionic neuron. The dendrites and cell body of a preganglionic neuron are housed within the CNS (brain or spinal cord). The preganglionic axon synapses with a ganglionic neuron within an autonomic ganglion. The preganglionic axon always uses acetylcholine (ACh) to communicate, whereas the postganglionic axon uses either ACh or norepinephrine (NE) at the target organ. The second neuron in this pathway is called a ganglionic neuron. Its cell body resides within an autonomic ganglion. A postganglionic axon extends from the cell body to an effector (cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, or a gland). Ganglionic neurons have unmyelinated axons that are even smaller in diameter than preganglionic axons. The neurotransmitter released from the ganglionic neuron in response to a nerve impulse is either ACh or norepinephrine (NE). Both can either excite or inhibit an effector, depending upon the type of receptors present within the effector (a concept described in section 18.5b). Because motor neurons of the ANS are small or unmyelinated, conduction of nerve impulses is relatively slow in comparison to nerve impulse conduction along somatic motor axons.

Identify the divisions of the diencephalon and describe their functions.

Its functions include relaying sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex and regulating consciousness, sleep, and alertness.

Explain the basic differences between endocrine glands and exocrine glands. Describe the three different types of exocrine glands (merocrine, holocrine and apocrine).

Merocrine = package secretions in secretory vesicles. Sweat Holocrine = formed from cells that accumulate a product and then the entire cell disintegrates. Oil Apocrine = Secretion occurs when the cell's apical portion pinches off, releasing cytoplasmic content. Breast Milk

Describe, in order of increasing complexity, the levels of structural organization of the body. In your answer, include the words molecule, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, and organism.

Molecules Organelle Cell Tissue Organ Organ System Organism

Know the structure, functions, and locations of the following types of connective tissue proper: areolar connective tissue adipose connective tissue reticular connective tissue dense regular connective tissue dense irregular connective tissue elastic connective tissue

Next Slides

Draw a cross-section of compact bone (microscopic view). Label the following: osteon, central canal, blood vessels, lamellae, osteocytes, lacunae, canaliculi, and perforating canal. Explain the functions of each of the labeled structures.

Osteon = provides protection and strength to bones Central Canal = helps to transport nutrients to the spinal cord as well as protect it by cushioning the impact of a force when the spine is affected. Lamellae = provides protection and strength to bones Osteocytes = provides protection and strength to bones Lacunae = supply nutrients via blood vessels, remove cellular wastes, and provide a means of communication between osteocytes Canaliculi = supply nutrients via blood vessels, remove cellular wastes, and provide a means of communication between osteocytes Perforating Canal = provide energy and nourishing elements for osteons.

Functions

Page 452, Chapter 15, table 15.3

Explain what stimuli these sensory receptors respond to: chemoreceptors, thermoreceptors, photoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, baroreceptors, and nociceptors. Give examples of where each type of receptor is found.

Page 559 baroreceptors = Baroreceptors are mechanoreceptors located in the carotid sinus and in the aortic arch. Their function is to sense pressure changes by responding to change in the tension of the arterial wall. The baroreflex mechanism is a fast response to changes in blood pressure.

Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's often starts with a tremor in one hand. Other symptoms are slow movement, stiffness, and loss of balance.

areolar connective tissue

Part of the layer under our skin

Describe the anatomy of a serous membrane. Differentiate between the pericardium, pleura, and peritoneum.

Pericardium= Membrane enclosing the heart Pleura= Membrane surrounding the lungs Peritoneum= Surrounding the abdominal organs

Describe the overall process of early embryonic development, including cell division of the fertilized oocyte, formation of the blastula, and gastrulation. Some important terms that you will learn include oocyte, sperm, fertilization, zygote, cleavage, morula, blastocyst, trophoblast, cytotrophoblast, syncytiotrophoblast, chorion, placenta, inner cell mass (embryoblast), bilaminar disc, epiblast, amnion, and hypoblast.

Prenatal Period = 38 weeks Pre-Emryonic Period- Weeks 1-2 Embryonic Period- Weeks 3-8 Fetal Period- Weeks 9-38 Pre-Embryonic -The sex cell in females is called the secondary oocyte -The parent cells are called Oogonia, and they create the secondary oocytes -Oogonia will go under meiosis and create primary oocytes -Primary Oocytes are arrested in Prophase I until the female reaches puberty and begins monthly menstruation cycles -When the primary oocyte completes the meiotic division, the secondary oocytes are created. -Secondary oocytes are arrested in metaphase II -Sperm are the sex cells in males -The parent cells that produce sperm are called spermatogonia -Spermatogonium go through mitosis and create the primary spermatocyte. And then secondary spermatocytes. The last division it creates spermatids. -In a process called spermiogenesis (sper'mē-ō-jen'ĕ-sis), the spermatids lose much of their cytoplasm and grow a long tail called a flagellum. The newly formed sperm are haploid cells that exhibit a distinctive head, a midpiece, and a tail -When the male's sperm and female's secondary oocyte unite, it is called fertilization -When fertilization happens, there is a single diploid that is produces that is called a Zygote -After fertilization, the zygote begins the process of becoming a multicellular organism -Cleavage is the word to describe the division of cells -When the cell has divided into 16 cells, it is called a Morula -After the morula enters into the lumer, fluid begins to leak through the degenerating zona pellucida surrounding the morula. As a result, a fluid-filled cavity, called the blastocyst cavity, develops within the morula. The pre-embryo at this stage of development is known as a blastocyst -The two components of the blastocyst are the trophoplast and embryoblast (inner cell mass) -The embryoblast (inner cell mass) is a tightly packed group of cells located only within one side of the blastocyst -The embryoblast will eventually become the embryo -The trophoblast is the outer ring of cells surrounding the fluid-filled cavity -The trophoblast will eventually become the fetal half of the placenta -The blastocyst enters into the lumen of the uterus -Implantation is the process by which the blastocyst burrows into and embeds within the functional layer of the endometriium -As the implantation process begins, the trophoblast subdivides into two layers. -The two layers of the trophoblast are the cytotrophoblast and the synctiotrophoblast -What is the difference between cytotrophoblast and syncytiotrophoblast? syncytiotrophoblast is the deeper, thick layer, cytotrophoblast is the inner cellular layers and closer to embryoblast -As the blastocyst is undergoing implantation, the embryoblast will also start dividing into two layers -The two layers of the embryoblast are the epiblast and hypoblast -Together, the epiblast and hypoblast make up the bilaminar germinal disc -What is the amnion? thin membrane that is formed from and continuous with the epiblast layer. The amnion eventually encloses the entire embryo in a fluid-filled sac called the amniotic cavity to protect the embryo from desiccation (drying out) Embryonic -Gastrulation is process by which the cells of the epiblast migrate and form the three primary germ layers, which are the cells from which all body tissues develop -Gastrulation begins with the formation of the primitive streak -The primitive streak is like a trench in World War I. -Epiblast cells then migrate into the primitive streak -What is invagination? Cells detach from the epiblast layer and migrate through the primitive streak between the epiblast and hypoblast layers -What are the 3 layers that are created from gastrulation? Endoderm, Mesoderm, and Ectoderm -The layer that is formed when the epiblast cells go down the primitive streak is the endoderm -The 3 layers are important because it is the formation of all body tissues and organs What is the chorion? outermost extraembryonic membrane and is formed from both the rapidly growing cytotrophoblast cells and syncytiotrophoblast. These cells blend with the functional layer of the endometrium and eventually form the placenta, the site of exchange between the embryo and the mother. What is the placenta? The site of exchange between the embryo and the mother Connection between embryo or fetus? The connection between the embryo or fetus and the mother is the richly vascular placenta (plă-sen'tă; a cake). The main functions of the placenta are as follows: Exchange of nutrients, waste products, and respiratory gases between the maternal and fetal blood Transmission of maternal antibodies (immune system substances that target viruses or bacteria) to the developing embryo or fetus Production of hormones (primarily estrogen and progesterone) to maintain and build the uterine lining

Name the four abdomino-pelvic regions, and identify what organs are found in each quadrant.

RUQ = Liver LUQ = Stomach RLQ = Appendix LLQ = Small Intestine

Explain the composition of a sarcomere and describe how sarcomeres shorten in length.

Sarcomeres are composed of long, fibrous proteins as filaments that slide past each other when a muscle contracts or relaxes. ... Two of the important proteins are myosin, which forms the thick filament, and actin, which forms the thin filament Thick filaments overlap the thin filaments in the middle of the sarcomere, making up the A zone. The thick and thin filaments slide over each other, thus shortening the sarcomere and causing muscular contraction.

Differentiate between sensory (afferent) neurons, motor (efferent) neurons, and interneurons.

Sensory (afferent) = Conducts nerve impulses from body to CNS Motor (efferent) = Conducts nerve impulses from CNS to muscles or glands Interneurons = Found only in CNS; facilitates communication between motor and sensory neurons

Name the 11 organ systems of the human body and the major organs and basic functions of each system.

Skeletal = Bones Integumentary = Skin, Sweat Glands, Oil Glands, Hair, Nails Muscular= Muscles Endocrine= Glands, Hormones Nervous= Brain, Spinal Cord, All the associated nerves, Eye Cardiovascular= Heart, Blood Vessels Respiratory= Breathing Lymphatic= Immune System, Lymphatic Muscles Digestive= Digesting Food Urinary= Filters blood and removes waste Reproductive= Sex cells

Name and briefly describe the five layers of the epidermis. Which are found in thick skin? Which are found in thin skin?

Stratum Lucidum found only in thick skin

Explain the following ways in which neurons differ from other body cells: high metabolic rate, longevity, and inability to divide.

The basic structural unit of the nervous system is the neuron (nū′ron). Neurons conduct nerve impulses from one part of the body to another. They have several special characteristics: Neurons have a high metabolic rate. Their survival depends upon continuous and abundant supplies of glucose and oxygen. Neurons have extreme longevity. Most neurons formed during fetal development are still functional in very elderly individuals. Neurons typically are nonmitotic (unable to divide and produce new neurons). During the fetal development of neurons, mitotic activity is lost, except possibly in certain areas of the brain and the sense organ for smell. Neurons are excitable because they respond to a stimulus (exposure to a chemical, stretch, or pressure change). Neurons exhibit conductivity when an electrical charge is quickly propagated along their plasma membrane.

Epithalamus

The function of the epithalamus is to connect the limbic system to other parts of the brain. Some functions of its components include the secretion of melatonin by the pineal gland (involved in circadian rhythms), and regulation of motor pathways and emotions.

Describe the characteristics and functions of the three meninges and the dural septa.

The meningeal layer of the dura mater extends as flat partitions (septa) into the cranial cavity at four locations. Collectively, these double layers of dura mater are called cranial dural septa. These membranous partitions separate specific parts of the brain and provide additional stabilization and support to the entire brain.

Explain how the primary and somatosensory cortices are organized (describe the homunculus).

The primary motor cortex innervation to various body parts can be diagrammed as a motor homunculus (hō-mŭngk′yū-lŭs; diminutive man) on the precentral gyrus (figure 15.12, left). The bizarre, distorted proportions of the homunculus body reflect the amount of cortex dedicated to the motor activity of each body part. For example, the hands are represented by a much larger area of cortex than the trunk, because the hand muscles perform much more detailed, precise movements than the trunk muscles do. From a functional perspective, more motor activity is devoted to the hand in humans than in other animals because our hands are adapted for the precise, fine motor movements needed to manipulate the environment, and many motor units are devoted to muscles that move the hand and fingers.

Compare the composition and structure of thick and thin filaments.

Thick = have a diameter of about 11 nanometers Thin = only about 5 to 6 nanometers in diameter

Describe the embryonic development of the divisions of the brain.

To understand how the structures of the adult brain are named and connected, it is essential to know how the brain develops. In the human embryo, the brain forms from the cranial (superior) part of the neural tube, which undergoes disproportionate growth rates in different regions. By the late fourth week of development, this growth has formed three primary brain vesicles, which eventually give rise to all the different regions of the adult brain. The names of these vesicles describe their relative positions in the developing head: The forebrain is called the prosencephalon (pros′en-sef′ă-lon; proso = forward, enkephalos = brain); the midbrain is called the mesencephalon (mes-en-sef′ă-lon; mes = middle); and the hindbrain is called the rhombencephalon (rom′ben-sef′ă-lon; rhombo = rhomboid) (figure 15.2a). By the fifth week of development, the three primary vesicles further develop into a total of five secondary brain vesicles (figure 15.2b): The telencephalon (tel-en-sef′ă-lon; tel = head end) arises from the prosencephalon and eventually forms the cerebrum. The diencephalon (dī-en-sef′ă-lon; dia = through) arises from the prosencephalon and eventually forms the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus. The mesencephalon is the only primary vesicle that does not form a new secondary vesicle. It is renamed the midbrain. The metencephalon (met′en-sef′ă-lon; meta = after) arises from the rhombencephalon and eventually forms the pons and cerebellum. The myelencephalon (mī′el-en-sef′ă-lon; myelos = medulla) also derives from the rhombencephalon, and it eventually forms the medulla oblongata.

List what is known about the causes and prevalence of birth defects.

What are some causes of birth defects? Chromosomal, Monogenic, Major environmental, Multifactorial -A teratogen is anything that causes a birth defect

Explain how the female pelvis differs from that of the male. What are the advantages of these differences for the female?

Women's is more oval shaped for child-bearing.

Explain the causes of these conditions: acne (including whiteheads and blackheads) baldness (alopecia) birthmarks (brown, red, purple) blisters cleavage lines (in surgery) fingerprints freckles and moles goosebumps stretch marks (striae) sun tanning wrinkles during aging

acne (including whiteheads and blackheads) = plugged sebaceous ducts baldness (alopecia) = Genetic and hormonal influence (Testosterone causes terminal hair to be replaced by vellus hair) birthmarks (brown, red, purple) = Overgrowth of melanin-forming cells - Harmless unless it mutates and becomes malignant blisters = friction, freezing, burning, infection, and chemical burns cleavage lines (in surgery) = Orientation of collagen bundles fingerprints = - Formed by large folds and valleys of the dermis and epidermis freckles and moles = - Yellowish or brown spots from excessive melanocyte activity, not increased melanocyte cells goosebumps = Extending from the dermal papillae to the mid-region of the hair follicles are thin ribbons of smooth muscle that are collectively called the arrector pili (ă-rek′tōr pī′lī; rectus = to raise up, pilus = hair) muscles. The arrector pili muscles are usually stimulated in response to an emotional state, such as fear or rage, or exposure to cold temperatures. Upon stimulation, the arrector pili muscles contract, pulling on the follicles and elevating the hairs, to produce "goose bumps." stretch marks (striae) = Torn collagen sun tanning = The skin also protects deeper tissues from solar radiation, especially ultraviolet rays. When exposed to the sun, the melanocytes become more active and produce more melanin, thus giving the skin a darker, tanned look. Even when you get a sunburn, the deeper tissues (muscles and internal organs) remain unaffected. wrinkles during aging = Decreased flexibility and thickness of dermis

Explain the various functions of epithelial tissue (where it is found and what it does).

covers or lines every body surface and all body cavities

Eye Structures Part 2

https://html1-cluster-e.mheducation.com/smartbook2/data/150203/highlighted_epubmhe/OPS/img/chapter019/mck85278_1911l.png

Identify the following functional areas of the cerebral cortex on brain diagrams. Give the function of each area.frontal lobe: primary motor cortex, premotor cortex, prefrontal cortexparietal lobe: primary somatosensory cortex, somatosensory association cortexoccipital lobe: primary visual cortex, visual association cortextemporal lobe: primary auditory cortex, auditory association cortexinsula: primary gustatory cortex

primary motor cortex, premotor cortex, prefrontal cortexparietal lobe: primary somatosensory cortex, somatosensory association cortexoccipital lobe: primary visual cortex, visual association cortextemporal lobe: primary auditory cortex, auditory association cortexinsula: primary gustatory cortex

Draw a typical synovial joint, labeling the following: articular cartilage, joint cavity, bone, periosteum, fibrous capsule, synovial membrane, synovial fluid, and ligaments. State the function of each of the labeled structures.

synovial joint = At synovial joints, the articular surfaces of bones are covered with smooth articular cartilage. This gives the bones of a synovial joint the ability to move smoothly

Be able to visualize and identify the major body cavities and subcavities listed. Be able to name organs found in each. ventral abdominopelvic thoracic abdominal pelvic pleural pericardial cranial posterior aspect vertebral

ventral = thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities abdominopelvic = Stomach, Liver, Kidneys, Pancreas thoracic = Pleural Cavity (Lungs) and Pericardial Cavity (Heart) abdominal = Stomach, liver, intestines pelvic = Bladder, Reproductive Organs pleural = Lungs pericardial = Heart cranial = Brain posterior aspect = Cranial Cavity and Vertebral Canal vertebral = Spinal Cord

Identify the following structures on vertebrae, and provide a brief description of their function: vertebral body vertebral foramen vertebral arch (pedicle and lamina) spinous process transverse process intervertebral foramen superior and inferior articular processes costal facet and demifacet transverse foramen

vertebral body = The major function of the vertebral column is protection of the spinal cord vertebral foramen = contains the spinal cord vertebral arch (pedicle and lamina) = surrounds and protects the spinal cord. spinous process = provides the point of attachment for muscles and ligaments of the spine. transverse process = the site of attachment for muscles and ligaments of the spine as well as the point of articulation of the ribs intervertebral foramen = essentially "exit routes" from which the nerve roots leave the spine and branch out to all parts of the body. superior and inferior articular processes = make the backbone more stable costal facet and demifacet = costal facet- site where a rib forms a joint with the top of a vertebrademifacet- semicircular depression that articulates with either the superior or inferior edge of the head of the rib. transverse foramen = opening on each of the transverse processes which gives passage to the vertebral artery and vein and a sympathetic nerve plexus