Exam 2

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

motivations

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

Toddlerhood (1-3) issue

autonomy vs shame and doubt

Which example demonstrates that learning has occurred?

avoiding speeding in an area where one received a ticket previously

fixed interval example

reinforcement for behavior after a fixed time such as Tuesday discount prices

grief is ________ more severe if death occurs unexpectedly

more

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

According to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, our most basic needs are physiological including the need for food and water; just above these are _______ needs

safety

maturation(nature)

sets the basic course of development

Cannnon-Bard Theory

the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

we prioritize survival-based needs and then social needs more than the needs for esteem and meaning

intristic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

What is operant conditioning?

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

reinforcement

any consequence that strengthens behavior

stimuli

any event or situation that evokes a response

examples of positive reinforcement

pet a dog that comes when you call it; pay the person who paints your house

Food cravings

Classical conditioning makes avoiding sweets difficult

Discrimination

when a organism learns that a certain responses , but not others, will be reinforced

placenta

transfers nutrients and oxygen from the mother to embryo

reinforcement tells

what to do

mirror neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.

How did Garcia and Koelling's taste-aversion studies help disprove Gregory Kimble's early claim that "just about any activity of which the organism is capable can be conditioned . . . to any stimulus that the organism can perceive"?

Garcia and Koelling demonstrated that rats may learn an aversion to tastes, on which their survival depends, but not to sights or sounds

What conditioning principle is influencing the snail's affection

Generalization

Which statement reflects classical rather than operant conditioning?

Generalization refers to the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.

grit

Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction - a strategy designed to decrease international tensions

Why are habits, such as having something sweet with a cup of coffee, so hard to break?

Habits form when we repeat behaviors in a given context and, as a result, learn associations— often without our awareness. For example, we may have eaten a sweet pastry with a cup of coffee often enough to associate the coffee with the treat, so that the cup of coffee alone just doesn't seem right anymore.

Hannah's parents and older friends all drive over the speed limit, but they advise her not to. Breonna's parents and friends drive within the speed limit, but they say nothing to deter her from speeding. will Hannah or Breonna be more likely to speed

Hannah may be more likely to speed. Observational learning studies suggest that childeren tend to do as others do and say what they say

Nature and Nurture

How does our genetic inheritance (our nature) interact with our experiences (our nurture) to influence our development?

Joslyn constantly misbehaves at preschool even though her teacher scolds her repeatedly. Why does Joslyn's misbehavior continue, and what can her teacher do to stop it?

If Joslyn is seeking attention, the teacher's scolding may be reinforcing rather than punishing. To change Joslyn's behavior, her teacher could offer reinforcement (such as praise) each time she behaves well. The teacher might encourage Joslyn toward increasingly appropriate behavior through shaping, or by rephrasing rules as rewards instead of punishments. ("You can use the blocks if you play nicely with the other children" [reward] rather than "You may not use the blocks if you misbehave!" [punishment].)

Infancy description of task

If needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust

Companies often pay to make their products visible in popular movies — such as when admired actors drink certain berverages. Based on classical conditioning principles, what might be an effect of this pairing?

If viewing an admired actor (a US) elicits a positive response (a UR), then pairing the US with a new NS (the beverage) could turn the beverage into a conditioned stimulus (CS) that also elicits a positive conditioned response (CR).

Conventional morality example of moral reasoning

If you steal the medicine, everyone will think you're a criminal

preconventional morality example of moral reasoning

If you steal the medicine, you'll go to jail

Unconditioned response (UR)

In classical conditioned an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth)

How do cognitive processes affect classical and operant conditioning?

In classical conditioning, animals may learn when to expect a US and may be aware of the link between stimuli and responses. In operant conditioning, cognitive mapping and latent learning research demonstrate the importance of cognitive processes in learning.

In classical conditioning, what are the processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination?

In classical conditioning, the first stage is acquisition, or associating an NS with the US so that the NS begins triggering the CR. Acquisition occurs most readily when the NS is presented just before (ideally, about a half-second before) a US, preparing the organism for the upcoming event. This finding supports the view that classical conditioning is biologically adaptive. Through higher-order conditioning, a new NS can become a new CS. Extinction is diminished responding, which occurs if the CS appears repeatedly by itself (without the US). Spontaneous recovery is the appearance of a formerly extinguished response, following a rest period. Generalization is the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to a CS. Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other irrelevant stimuli.

Acquisition

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

acquisiton

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

succesive approximations

in the operant-conditioning procedure of shaping, behaviors that are ordered in terms of increasing similarity or closeness to the desired response.

avoidant attachment

in which people experience discomfort getting close to others and use avoidant strategies to maintain distance from others

Danielle walks into a friend's kitchen, smells cookies baking, and begins to feel very hungry. The smell of baking cookies is a(n) ____________ (incentive/drive).

incentive

reinforcement __________ the probability of a behavior occurring in the future

increase

violence-viewing effect

increased aggression and reduced prosocial behavior (helping an injured person) after viewing violence media

reinforcing good behavior

increases the occurance of these behaviors

The first two weeks of prenatal development is the period of the _________. The period of the _________ lasts from 9 weeks after conception until birth. The time between those two prenatal periods is considered the period of the _________.

zygote; fetus; embryo

The basic idea behind classical conditioning is that the organism

learning associations between events that we do not control

basic idea of operant conditioning

learning associations between our behavior and its consequences

associative learning (classical conditioning)

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

discrimination (operant conditioning)

learning that some responses, but not others, will be reinforced

Researchers often find it more challenging to train dolphins rather than dogs, even though dolphins are smarter. One of the reasons for this difficulty is that dolphins have _____ shared evolutionary heritage with humans than dogs, so they condition to stimuli that are different than what will affect dogs and humans.

less

emotional arousal

like a crisis control center, the autonomic nervous system arouses the body in a crisis and calms it when danger passes

__________ (woman/men) report experiencing emotions more deeply, and they tend to be more adept at reading nonverbal behavior

women

Young adulthood description of task

young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated

observational learning

learning by observing others; also called social learning

Associative Learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

taste aversion

a learned avoidance of a particular food

Brain maturation provides us with

an abundance of neural connections.

attachment

an emotional tie with others; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to caregivers and showing distress on separation.

conditioned reinforcer

an event that gains its reinforcing power through its link with a primary reinforcer

grasping reflex

an infant's clinging response to a touch on the palm of his or her hand

Primary reinforcers

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

valence of emotion

how positive or negative the experience is

Emotional Dimension

how the mind affects body function and responds to body conditions

About 12 through adulthood

Formal operational Reasoning abstractly

Preschool (3-6) issues

Initiative vs guilt

Conditioned

Learned

Neutral Stimulus in Pavlov's experiment

The bell (tone)

experience (nurture)

adjusts development

punishment

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

generativity

being productive and supporting future generations

Think about abstract concepts

formal operational

variable-ratio schedule example

slot machines, gambling

punishment tells you

what not to do

postconventional morality example of moral reasoning

"People have the right to live"

accomodate

(1) in developmental psychology, adapting our current schemas (understandings) to incorporate new information. (2) in sensation and perception, the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.

(1) Based on the facial feedback effect, how might students report feeling when the rubber bands raise their cheeks as though in a smile? (2) How might students report feeling when the rubber bands pull their cheeks downwards

(1) most students report feeling more happy than sad when their cheeks are raised upward. (2) Most students report feeling more sad than happy when their cheeks are pulled downward.

Unconditioned Stimulus in Pavlov's experiment

Food

Lazarus example

The sound is "just the wind"

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth 9 weeks - birth

Learning

The process of acquiring through experiences new and relatively information or behaviors.

Unconditioned

Unlearned

Conditioned taste aversion is a real-world example of _____ in action.

classical conditioning

immune system _____ with age

decreases

arousal of emotion

how active or passive the experience is

The text suggests that the most famous experiments in all of psychology are those of __________, who discovered classical conditioning

Ivan Pavlov

Infancy to 1 year old issue

Trust bs mistrust

arousal fuels

emotion

Late adulthood (late 60s and up) issue

integrity vs despair

generalization (classical conditioning)

(Also called stimulus generalization) in classical conditioning, the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

The process of conception

(a) Sperm cells surround an egg. (b) One sperm penetrates the egg's jellylike outer coating, triggering a series of chemical events that will cause sperm and egg to fuse into a single cell. If all goes well, that cell will subdivide again and again to emerge 9 months later as a 37-trillion-cell human being

prenatal development

(a) The embryo grows and develops rapidly. At 40 days, the spine is visible and the arms and legs are beginning to grow. (b) By the start of the ninth week, when the fetal period begins, facial features, hands, and feet have formed. (c) As the fetus enters the sixteenth week, its 3 ounces could fit in the palm of your hand.

Performance peaks at lower levels of arousal for difficult tasks, and at higher levels for easy or well-learned tasks. (1) How might this phenomenon affect runners? (2) How might this phenomenon affect anxious test-takers facing a difficult exam?

(a) well-practiced runners tend to excel when aroused by competition (b) high anxiety about a difficult exam may disrupt test-takers' performance

What findings in psychology support (1) the stage theory of development and (2) the idea of stability in personality across the life span? What findings challenge these ideas?

1) stage theory is supported by the work of Piaget(cognitive development), Kohlburg(moral development), and Erikson(psychosocial development) 2. some traits, such as temperament, exhibit remarkable stability across many years

steps to reinforce desired behavior

1. state a realistic goal in measurable terms and announce it 2. Decide how, when, and where you will work toward your goal 3. monitor how often you engage in your desired behavior 4. reinforce the desired behavior 5. reduce the rewards gradually

Arif can't seem to get into the routine of taking a multivitamin at breakfast. Perhaps he just hasn't made a sufficiently consistent effort. Based on the research described in the text, Arif should be sure to take the multivitamin every day for just over _____ to ensure that it becomes a habit.

2 months

Justina wishes to make a 10-minute meditation session part of her morning routine. Based on research described in the textbook, Justina should meditate every day for just over _____ days to ensure that meditation becomes a habit.

60

about 2 to 6-7

Preoperational Representing things with words and images; using intuitive rather than logical reasoning

Amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.

What does a polygraph measure and why are its results questionable?

A polygraph measures emotion-linked physiological changes, such as in perspiration, heartrate, and breathing. But the measure cannot distinguish between emotions with similar physiology (such as anxiety and guilt).

How do different reinforcement schedules affect behavior?

A reinforcement schedule defines how often a response will be reinforced. In continuous reinforcement (reinforcing desired responses every time they occur), learning is rapid, but so is extinction if rewards cease. In partial (intermittent) reinforcement (reinforcing responses only sometimes), initial learning is slower, but the behavior is much more resistant to extinction. Fixed-ratio schedules reinforce behaviors after a set number of responses; variable-ratio schedules, after an unpredictable number. Fixed-interval schedules reinforce behaviors after set time periods; variable-interval schedules, after unpredictable time periods.

"Sex sells!" Is a common assumption in advertising. Using good classical conditioning terms, explain how sexual image in advertisements can condition your response to a product.

A sexual image is a US that triggers a UR of interest or arousal. Before the ad pairs a product with a sexual image, the product is an NS. Over time the product can become a CS that triggers the CR of interest or arousal.

Puberty follows

A surge of hormones which may intensify moods and which trigger a series of bodily changes

Homeostasis

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level. Drive reduction is one way our bodies strive for.

instinct theory

A view that explains human behavior as motivated by automatic, involuntary, and unlearned responses.

Which is NOT an example of learning?

A woman reflexively pulls back her hand from a hot burner.

After hours of driving alone in an unfamiliar city, you finally see a diner. Although it looks deserted and a little creepy, you stop because you are really hungry. How would Maslow's hierarchy of needs explain your behavior?

According to Maslow, our drive to meet the physiological needs of hunger and thirst takes priority over our safety needs, prompting us to take risks at times

The first step of classical conditioning, when a NS becomes a CS, is called _____. When a US no longer follows the CS, and the CR becomes weakened, this is called ___________

Acquisition;extinction

How is adolescence defined, and how do physical changes affect developing teens?

Adolescence is the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to social independence. Early maturation can be a challenge for developing adolescents. The brain's frontal lobes mature and myelin growth increases during adolescence, enabling improved judgment, impulse control, and long-term planning.

What is the selection effect, and how might it affect a teen's decision to join sports teams at school

Adolescents tend to select similar others and to sort themselves into like-minded groups. For an athletic teen, this could lead to finding other athletic teens and joining school teams together

What themes and influences mark our social journey from early adulthood to death?

Adults do not progress through an orderly sequence of age-related social stages. Chance events can determine life choices. The social clock is a culture's preferred timing for events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement, but people today feel freer than they once did about keeping their own time. Adulthood's dominant themes are love and work (Erikson's intimacy and generativity).

Aiden has a bad cold and finds himself shuffling to class with his head down. How might his posture, as well as his cold, affect his emotional well-being?

Aiden's droopy posture could negatively affect his mood thanks to the behavior feedback effect, which tends to make us feel the way we act

Parent and Peer Influence

Although teens become independent of their parents as they grow older, they nevertheless relate to their parents on a number of things, including religiosity and career choices. Peer approval and relationships are also very important.

How do biological constraints affect classical and operant conditioning?

An animal's capacity for conditioning is limited by biological constraints, so some associations are easier to learn. Each species has a biological predisposition to learn associations that aid its survival—a phenomenon called preparedness. Those who readily learned taste aversions were unlikely to eat the same toxic food again and were more likely to survive and leave descendants. Nature constrains each species' capacity for both classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Our preparedness to associate a CS with a US that follows predictably and immediately is often (but not always) adaptive. During operant training, animals may display instinctive drift by reverting to biologically predisposed patterns.

Conditioning helps

Animals survive and reproduce — by responding to cures that help it gain food, avoid dangers, locate mates, and produce offspring

Stimulus

Any event or situation that evokes a response

____________ theory attempts to explain behaviors that do NOT reduce physiological needs

Arousal

Which is not evidence supporting the view that humans are strongly motivated by a need to belong

As adults, adopted children tend to resemble their biological parents

acquistion (operant conditioning)

Associating a response with a consequence (reinforcer or punisher)

acquisiton in classical conditioning

Associating events; NS is paired with US and becomes CS

How do caregiver-infant attachment bonds form?

At about 8 months, soon after object permanence develops, children separated from their caregivers display stranger anxiety. Infants form attachments with caregivers who gratify biological needs but, more importantly, who are comfortable, familiar, and responsive. Many birds and other animals have a more rigid attachment process, called imprinting, that occurs during a critical period.

How have psychologists studied attachment differences, and what have they learned?

Attachment has been studied in strange situation experiments, which show that some children are securely attached and others are insecurely (anxiously or avoidantly) attached. Infants' differing attachment styles reflect both their individual temperament and the responsiveness of their caregivers. Adult relationships seem to reflect the attachment styles of early childhood, lending support to Erik Erikson's idea that basic trust is formed in infancy by our experiences with responsive caregivers.

what distinguishes imprinting from attachment

Attachment is the normal process by which we form emotional ties with important others. Imprinting occurs only in certain animals that have a critical period very early in their development during which they must form their attachments, and they do so in an inflexible manner.

What outcomes are associated with each parenting style?

Authoritative parenting is associated with greater self-esteem, self-reliance, self-regulation, and helpfulness; authoritarian parenting with lower self-esteem, less social skill, and a brain that overreacts to mistakes; permissive parenting with greater aggression and immaturity; and neglectful parenting with poor academic and social outcomes. However, correlation does not equal causation (for example, it's possible that children with particular traits are more likely to bring out positive parenting methods).

Who was Skinner, and how is operant behavior reinforced and shaped?

B. F. Skinner was a college English major and aspiring writer who later entered graduate school for psychology. He became modern behaviorism's most influential and controversial figure. Expanding on Edward Thorndike's law of effect, Skinner and others found that the behavior of rats or pigeons placed in an operant chamber (Skinner box) can be shaped by using reinforcers to guide successive approximations of the desired behavio

What are some newborn abilities, and how do researchers explore infants' mental abilities?

Babies are born with sensory equipment and reflexes that facilitate their survival and their social interactions with other humans. For example, they quickly learn to discriminate their mother's smell, and they prefer the sound of human voices. Researchers use techniques that test habituation to explore infants' abilities.

In a series of experiments, the Harlows found that monkeys raised with artificial mothers tended, when afraid, to cling to their cloth mother rather than to a wire mother holding the feeding bottle. Why was finding this important?

Before these studies, many psychologists believed that infants simply became attached to those who nourished them.

Respondent behavior

Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

Classical conditioning is

Biologically adaptive because it helps humans and other animals prepare for good or bad events

How do we learn?

By association. Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence.

Extinction (classical conditioning)

CR decreases when CS is repeatedly presented alone

Pavlov and Watson

Came to share both a disdain for "mentalistic" concepts (such as consciousness) and a belief that the basic law of learning were the same for all animals,

What are some of the most significant challenges and rewards of growing old

Challenges: decline of muscular strength, reaction times, stamina, sensory keenness, cardiac output, and immune system functioning. Risk of cognitive decline increases. Rewards: positive feelings tend to grow; negative emotions subside; and anger, stress, worry, and social-relationship problems decrease.

What is the impact of prosocial modeling and of antisocial modeling?

Children tend to imitate what a model does and says, whether the behavior being modeled is prosocial (positive, constructive, and helpful) or antisocial. If a model's actions and words are inconsistent, children may imitate the hypocrisy they observe.

Immune responses

Classical conditioning even works on the body;s disease-fighting immune system.

What have been some applications of Pavlov's work to human health and well-being? How did Watson apply Pavlov's principles to learned fears?

Classical conditioning techniques are used to improve human health and well-being in many areas, including behavioral therapy for some types of psychological disorders. The body's immune system may also respond to classical conditioning. Pavlov's work also provided a basis for Watson's idea that human emotions and behaviors, though biologically influenced, are mainly a bundle of conditioned responses. Watson applied classical conditioning principles in his studies of "Little Albert" to demonstrate how specific fears might be conditioned.

Lazarus' explanation for emotion

Cognitive appraisal (dangerous or not) sometimes without our awareness- defines emotions

Elementary school (6- puberty)

Competence vs. Inferiority Children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior

About 7 to 11 years

Concrete operational Thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations

In Pavlov's experiments, the tone started as a neutral stimulus, and then become a(n) ______________ stimulus

Conditioned

Why did Skinner's ideas provoke controversy, and how might his operant conditioning principles be applied?

Critics of Skinner's principles believed the approach dehumanized people by neglecting their personal freedom and seeking to control their actions. Skinner replied that people's actions are already controlled by external consequences, and that reinforcement is more humane than punishment as a means for controlling behavior. Teachers can use shaping techniques to guide students' behaviors, and use interactive media such as online adaptive quizzing to provide immediate feedback. (The LearningCurve adaptive quizzing available in Achieve with this text provides such feedback, and allows students to direct the pace of their own learning.) Coaches can build players' skills and self-confidence by rewarding small improvements. Artificial intelligence (AI) programs developed using reinforcement principles are teaching us about the limits of human learning. Managers can boost productivity and morale by rewarding specific, achievable behaviors. Parents can reward desired behaviors but not undesirable ones. We can shape our own behaviors by stating realistic goals, planning how to work toward those goals, monitoring the frequency of desired behaviors, reinforcing desired behaviors, and gradually reducing rewards as behaviors become habitual.

Taste-aversion research has shown that some animals develop aversions to certain tastes but not to sights or sounds. Which of Darwin's principles does the support?

Darwin's principle that natural selection favors traits that aid survival

What three issues have engaged developmental psychologists?

Developmental psychologists study physical, cognitive, and social changes across the life span. They often use cross-sectional studies (comparing people of different ages at one point in time) and longitudinal studies (retesting the same people over a period of years) to explore three issues: nature and nurture (the interaction between our genetic inheritance and our experiences); continuity and stages (which aspects of development are gradual and continuous, and which change relatively abruptly); and stability and change (whether our traits endure or change as we age).

Unconditioned response in Pavlov's experiment

Drooling

What is emerging adulthood?

Due to earlier sexual maturity and later independence, the transition from adolescence to adulthood is taking longer than it once did. Emerging adulthood is the period from age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many young people are not yet fully independent. This stage is found mostly in today's Western cultures.

How do arousal, expressive behavior, and cognition interact in emotion?

Emotions are responses of the whole organism, involving bodily arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience resulting from one's interpretations. Theories of emotion generally address two major questions: (1) Does physiological arousal come before or after emotional feelings? and (2) How do feeling and cognition interact? The James-Lange theory maintains that emotion occurs when we become aware of our body's response to emotion-inducing stimuli (we observe our heart pounding and feel fear). The Cannon-Bard theory proposes that our physiological response to an emotion-inducing stimulus occurs at the same time as our subjective experience of the emotion (one does not cause the other).

What are the social tasks and challenges of adolescence?

Erik Erikson proposed eight stages of psychosocial development across the life span. He believed we need to achieve trust, autonomy, initiative, competency, identity (in adolescence), intimacy (in young adulthood), generativity, and integrity. Each life stage has its own psychosocial task. Solidifying one's sense of self in adolescence means trying out a number of different roles. Social identity is the part of the self-concept that comes from a person's group memberships.

How are facial expressions rooted in biology and culture?

Facial expressions tend to be universally recognizeable, regardless of cultural background. However, the same expression may convey a different emotion depending on context and culture. Like most psychological events, facial expressions are best understood not only as biological and cognitive phenomena, but also as social-cultural phenomena

How does operant conditioning differ from classical conditioning?

In operant conditioning, an organism learns associations between its own behavior and resulting events; this form of conditioning involves operant behavior (behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding or punishing consequences). In classical conditioning, the organism forms associations between stimuli—events it does not control; this form of conditioning involves respondent behavior (automatic responses to some stimulus).

positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

Use Piagets first three stages of cognitive development to explain why young children are not just mini adults in the way they think

Infants in Piaget's sensorimotor stage tend to be focused only on their own perceptions of the world and may, for example, be unaware that objects continue to exist when unseen. A child in the preoperational stage is still egocentric and incapable of appreciating simple logic, such as the reversibility of operations. A preteen in the concrete operational stage is beginning to think logically about concrete events but not about abstract concepts.

Learning is defined as "the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring __________ or ___________."

Information; behaviors

What is behaviorism's view of learning?

Ivan Pavlov's work on classical conditioning laid the foundation for behaviorism, the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes. The behaviorists believed that the basic laws of learning are the same for all animals, including humans.

Who was Pavlov, and what are the basic components of classical conditioning?

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian psychologist, created novel experiments on learning. His early twentieth-century research over the last three decades of his life demonstrated that classical conditioning is a basic form of learning. Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. In classical conditioning, an NS is a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning. A UR is an event that occurs naturally (such as salivation), in response to some stimulus. A US is something that naturally and automatically (without learning) triggers the unlearned response (as food in the mouth triggers salivation). A CS is a previously neutral stimulus (such as a tone) that, after association with a US (such as food) comes to trigger a CR. A CR is the learned response (salivating) to the originally neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus.

The __________________ theory of emotion maintains that our emotional experience occurs after our awareness of a physiological response

James Lange

Jeff's psychology assignment is to observe and list any behaviors of his relatives that indicate learning. Which example should be included on his list?

Jeff's little brother whines whenever he wants something.

How has Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning been criticized?

Kohlberg's work reflected an individualist worldview, so his theory is less culturally universal than he supposed.

How do we define learning, and what are some basic forms of learning?

Learning is the process of acquiring through experience new information or behaviors. In associative learning, we learn that certain events occur together. In classical conditioning, we learn to associate two or more stimuli. Automatically responding to stimuli we do not control is called respondent behavior. In operant conditioning, we learn to associate a response and its consequences. These associations produce operant behaviors. Through cognitive learning, we acquire mental information that guides our behavior. For example, in observational learning, we learn new behaviors by observing events and watching others.

How did Vygotsky view children's cognitive development?

Lev Vygotsky's studies of child development focused on the ways a child's mind grows by interacting with the social environment. In his view, parents, teachers, and other children provide temporary scaffolds enabling children to step to higher levels of thinking.

According to B. F. Skinner, which example illustrates the BEST use of an alternative to punishment in the attempt to reduce an undesirable behavior?

Mark is reinforced for working quietly in class instead of being punished for disrupting class.

hierarchy of needs

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active

What is the violence-viewing effect?

Media violence can contribute to aggression. This violence-viewing effect may be prompted by imitation and desensitization. Correlation does not equal causation, but study participants have reacted more cruelly to provocations when they have viewed violence (instead of entertaining nonviolence).

What are some ways to manage our social networking time successfully

Monitor our time spend online, as well as our feelings about that time. Hide from distracting online friends when necessary. Check our devices less often. Get outside and away from technology regularly.

Morality is rooted in

Moral intuitions "quick gut feelings"

How does experiencing adversity affect children's social development?

Most children growing up under adversity are resilient, and they may be hardier when facing future stresses. But extreme trauma in childhood can alter the brain, affecting stress responses or leaving epigenetic marks. Children who experience severe or prolonged abuse, neglect, bullying, poverty, or wartime atrocities are at increased risk for health problems, psychological disorders, substance abuse, and criminality.

What are some of the basic emotions?

Most emotion scientists agree that anger, fear, disgust, sadness, and happiness are basic human emotions. Carroll Izard's 10 basic emotions are joy, interest-excitement, surprise, sadness, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame, and guilt.

How do we communicate nonverbally?

Much of our communication is through body movements, facial expressions, and voice tones. Even seconds-long filmed slices of behavior can reveal feelings.

What physical changes occur during middle and late adulthood?

Muscular strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, and cardiac output begin to almost imperceptibly decline in the mid-twenties; this downward trajectory accelerates through middle and late adulthood, varying considerably with personal health and exercise habits. Women's period of fertility ends with menopause around age 50; men experience a more gradual decline. In late adulthood, the immune system weakens, increasing susceptibility to life-threatening illnesses. But exercise can slow aging, enhancing physical health as well as boosting memory, improving judgment, and reducing the risk of severe cognitive decline.

An experimenter sounds a tone just before delivering an air puff that causes your eye to blink. After several repetitions, you blink to the to the tone alone. What is the NS? The US? The UR? The CS? The CR?

NS = tone before conditioning; US = air puff; UR = blink to air puff; CS = tone after conditioning; CR = blink to tone

During conditioning

Neutral stimulus NS + Unconditioned stimulus UCS = Unconditioned response UCR

Object permanece, pretend play, conservation, and abstract logic are developmental milestones for which of Piaget's stages, respectively?

Object permanence for the sensorimotor stage, pretend play for the preoperational stage, conservation for the concrete operational stage, and abstract logic for the formal operational stage

What is observational learning?

Observational learning (also called social learning) involves learning by watching and imitating, rather than through direct experience.

Observational learning

One form of cognitive learning that lets us learn from other's experiences

biological predispositions of operant conditioning

Organisms best learn behaviors similar to their natural behaviors; unnatural behaviors instinctively drift back toward natural ones

How may observational learning be enabled by neural mirroring?

Our brain's frontal lobes have a demonstrated ability to mirror the activity of another's brain, which may enable imitation and observational learning. Some scientists argue that mirror neurons are responsible for this ability, while others attribute it to distributed brain networks.

Adaptability

Our capacity to learn new behaviors that help us cope with out changing world.

Schachter-singer explanation of emotion

Our experience of emotion depends on two factors: general arousal and a conscious cognitive label

What does it mean to develop a theory of mind?

Our theory of mind—our ideas about our own and others' mental states—develops during early childhood. Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have difficulty understanding that others' state of mind may differ from their own.

Why does Pavlov's work remain so important

Pavlov taught us that significant psychological phenomena can be studied objectively, and that classical conditioning is a basic form of learning that applies to all species.

What range of reactions does a loved one's death trigger?

People do not grieve in predictable stages, as was once supposed, and bereavement therapy is not significantly more effective than grieving without such aid. Life can be affirmed even at death, especially for those who experience what Erikson called a sense of integrity—a feeling that one's life has been meaningful.

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

Performed pioneering conditioning experiments on dogs. These experiments led to the development of the classical conditioning model of learning.

How did Piaget, Kohlberg, and later researchers describe adolescent cognitive and moral development?

Piaget theorized that adolescents develop a capacity for formal operations and that this development is the foundation for moral judgment. Lawrence Kohlberg proposed a stage theory of moral reasoning, from a preconventional morality of self-interest, to a conventional morality concerned with upholding laws and social rules, to (in some people) a postconventional morality of basic rights and self-defined ethical principles. Other researchers believe that morality lies in moral intuition and moral action as well as thinking. Kohlberg's critics note that the postconventional level is culturally limited (representing morality only from the perspective of an individualist society), and male-focused (since women more often emphasize care for those in need over what is "fair"). Life success can grow from the ability to delay gratification.

Although Piaget's stage theory continues to inform our understanding of childrens thinking, many researchers believe that

Piaget's stage begin earlier and development is more continuous than you realized

How effective are polygraphs in using body states to detect lies?

Polygraphs (machines used in attempts to detect lies) measure several emotion-linked physiological changes, but are not accurate enough to justify widespread use in business and law enforcement. Using the Concealed Information Test produces better indications of lying.

How does punishment differ from negative reinforcement, and how does punishment affect behavior?

Punishment administers an undesirable consequence (such as a time-out) or withdraws something desirable (such as taking away a favorite toy) to decrease the frequency of a behavior (a child's disobedience). Negative reinforcement (taking an aspirin) removes an aversive stimulus (a headache). This desired consequence (freedom from pain) increases the likelihood that the behavior (taking aspirin to end pain) will be repeated. Physical punishment rarely corrects unwanted behavior and has five major drawbacks: suppressing rather than changing unwanted behaviors; failing to provide a direction for appropriate behavior; encouraging discrimination (so that the undesirable behavior appears when the punisher is not present); creating fear; and teaching aggression.

ages 3-6 brain development

Rapid frontal lobe growth and continued growth into adolescence and beyond

How does memory change with age?

Recall begins to decline, especially for meaningless information, but recognition memory remains strong. Developmental researchers study age-related changes such as in memory with cross-sectional studies and longitudinal studies. "Terminal decline" describes the cognitive decline in the final few years of life.

How do positive and negative reinforcement differ, and what are the basic types of reinforcers?

Reinforcement is any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. Positive reinforcement adds a desirable stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior. Negative reinforcement reduces or removes an aversive stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior. Primary reinforcers (such as receiving food when hungry or having nausea end during an illness) are innately satisfying—no learning is required. Conditioned (or secondary) reinforcers (such as money) are satisfying because we have learned to associate them with more basic rewards (such as the desirable things we buy). Immediate reinforcers (such as a food reward given right after a desired behavior) offer immediate payback; delayed reinforcers (such as a paycheck) require the ability to delay gratification.

How do our facial expressions influence our feelings?

Research on the facial feedback effect shows that our facial expressions can trigger emotional feelings and signal our body to respond accordingly. We also mimic others' expressions, which helps us empathize. A similar behavior feedback effect is the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others' thoughts, feelings, and actions

Conditioned Response in Pavlov's experiment

Salivation in response to the tone

Preconventional (before age 9) focus

Self-interest; Obey rules to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards

Birth to nearly 2 years

Sensorimotor experiencing the world through senses and actions Object permanence, stranger anxiety

Physical Development

Sit, crawl, walk, run—the sequence of these motor development milestones is the same around the world, though babies reach them at varying ages.

The eminent psychologist _____ became known for shaping rat and pigeon behaviors by delivering rewards as the animals more closely approximated a desired behavior.

Skinner

Thorndike's law of effect was the basis for __________ work on operant conditioning and behavior control.

Skinner

Which statement about B. F. Skinner's beliefs is FALSE?

Skinner advocated the greater use of punishment to control human behavior and achieve a more perfect society.

The law of effect MOST clearly influenced:

Skinner's experiments on reinforcement.

zajonc; LeDeoux explanation of emotion

Some embodied responses happen instantly, without conscious appraisal

People who send spam e-mail are reinforced by which schedule? Home bakers checking the oven to see if the cookies are done are on which schedule? Sandwich shops that offer a free sandwich after every 10 sandwiches purchased are using which reinforcement schedule?

Spammers are reinforced on a variable-ratio schedule (receiving a response after sending a varying number of emails). Cookie checkers are reinforced on a fixed-interval schedule. Sandwich shop rewards programs use a fixed-ratio schedule

How does our well-being change across the life span?

Surveys show that until the very end of life, life satisfaction is unrelated to age. Self-esteem and psychological well-being remain stable. Positive emotions increase after midlife and negative ones decrease, and older adults experience fewer extremes of emotion and mood. While older adults do have smaller social networks, with fewer friendships and greater loneliness, they also experience fewer relationship problems.

Ruben is reading the descriptions of some of the psychology courses in his college's course catalog. The description of one course reads in part, "An introduction to the processes whereby new and enduring behavior and information is acquired through experience." This course is MOST likely titled:

The Psychology of Learning

To experience emotions, must we consciously interpret and label them?

The Schachter-Singer two-factor theory holds that our emotions have two ingredients: physical arousal and a cognitive label. The cognitive labels we put on our states of arousal are an essential ingredient of emotion. But Zajonc and LeDoux have contended that some simple emotional responses occur instantly, not only outside our conscious awareness, but before any cognitive processing occurs. This interplay between emotion and cognition illustrates our two-track mind. Lazarus agreed that some emotional responses do not require conscious thinking, but he asserted that appraisals can occur outside of conscious awareness and give rise to emotions.

In Watson and Rayner's experiments "Little Albert" learned to fear a white rat after repeatedly experiencing a loud noise as the rat was presented. In these experiments, what was the US? The UR? THE NS? THE CS? The CR?

The US was the loud noise; the UR was the fear responses to the noise; the NS was the rat before it was paired with the noise; the CS was the rat after pairing; the CR was fear of the rat

Cognitive Learning

The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through langauag

What is the link between emotional arousal and the autonomic nervous system?

The arousal component of emotion is regulated by the autonomic nervous system's sympathetic (arousing) and parasympathetic (calming) divisions. In a crisis, the fight-or-flight response automatically mobilizes your body for action.

For those who value children's self reliance, the four parenting styles may be described as "too hard, too soft, too uncaring, and just right" Which parenting style goes with each of the styles and how do children benefit from the "just right" style

The authoritarian style would be described as too hard, the permissive style too soft, the neglectful style too uncaring, and the authoritative style just right. Parents using the authoritative style tend to have children with high self-esteem, self-reliance, self-regulation, and social competence.

How is operant conditioning work in this cartoon

The baby negatively reinforces her parents' behavior when she stops crying once they grant her wish. Her parents positively reinforce her cries by letting her sleep with them.

During infancy and childhood, how do the brain and motor skills develop?

The brain's nerve cells are sculpted by heredity and experience. As a child's brain develops, neural connections grow more numerous and complex. Experiences then trigger a pruning process, in which unused connections weaken and heavily used ones strengthen. In childhood, complex motor skills—sitting, standing, walking—develop in a predictable sequence, though the timing of that sequence is a function of individual maturation and culture. For some skills, we seem to have a critical period. We have few or no conscious memories of events occurring before about age 4. This infantile amnesia occurs in part because major brain areas have not yet matured.

If the aroma of a baking cake sets your mouth to watering, what is the US? The CS? The CR?

The cake (including its taste) is the US. The associated aroma is the CS. Salivation to the aroma is the CR.

How do emotions activate different physiological and brain-pattern responses?

The large-scale body changes that accompany fear, anger, and sexual arousal are very similar (increased perspiration, breathing, and heart rate), though they feel different. Emotions may be similarly arousing, but some subtle physiological responses (such as facial muscle movements) distinguish them. More meaningful differences have been found in activity in some brain pathways and cortical areas.

What is the course of prenatal development, and how do teratogens affect that development?

The life cycle begins at conception, when one sperm cell unites with an egg to form a zygote. The zygote's inner cells become the embryo, and the outer cells become the placenta. In the next 6 weeks, body organs begin to form and function, and by 9 weeks, the fetus is recognizably human. Teratogens are potentially harmful agents that can pass through the placenta and harm the developing embryo or fetus, as happens with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS).

What are the four main parenting styles?

The main parenting styles are authoritarian (coercive), permissive (unrestraining), neglectful (uninvolved), and authoritative (confrontive).

How are gestures and facial expressions understood within and across cultures?

The meaning of gestures varies with culture, but some facial expressions, such as those of happiness and sadness, are universal. Context and culture can influence the interpretation of facial expressions; cultural display rules also influence the amount of emotion expressed.

After conditioning

The neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus. elicts salivation which is now the unconditioned response

Puberty

The period of sexual maturation, when a person usually becomes capable of reproducing

spontatneous recovery

The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a time delay.

conditioned stimulus in Pavlov's experiment

The ringing of the bell

Which of the following is true of motor-skill development

The sequence but not the timing , is universal

Instinctive drift and latent learning are examples of what important idea?

The success of operant conditioning is affected not just by environmental cues, but also by biological and cognitive factors

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

What roles do the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system play in our emotional responses?

The sympathetic division of the ANS arouses us for more intense experiences of emotion, pumping out the stress hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine to prepare our body for fight or flight. The parasympathetic division of the ANS takes over when a crisis passes, restoring our body to a calm physiological and emotional state.

How have students reacted in studies where they were made to feel rejected and unwanted? What helps explain these results?

They engaged in more self-defeating behaviors and displayed more disparaging and aggresive behavior. These students' basic need to belong seems to have been disrupted

cortical areas

Thinking, memory and language are the last to develop. Mental abilities surge-Fiber pathways supporting language and agility.

Law of Effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Zanjonc; LeDoux example

We automatically feel startled by a sound in the forest before labeling it as a threat.

How does social networking influence us?

We connect with others through social networking, strengthening our relationships, meeting new friends or romantic partners, and finding support at difficult times. But increased online time displaces other activities, and social media leads people to compare their lives with others. Researchers are investigating possible connections between increasing screen time and a rise in teen mental health problems. When networking, people tend toward increased self-disclosure. People with high narcissism are especially active on social networking sites. Working out strategies for self-control and disciplined usage can help people maintain a healthy balance between their real-world and online time

Why cant we consciously recall learning to walk

We consciously recall little from before age 4, in part because major brain areas have not yet matured.

James-Lange Example

We observe our heart racing after a threat and then feel afraid

Continuity and stages

What parts of development are gradual and continuous, like riding an escalator? What parts change abruptly in separate stages, like climbing rungs on a ladder?

Overimitate

When children are copying the actions of adults that are irrelevant to what they are doing.

How did Piaget broaden our understanding of the way a child's mind develops, and how have today's researchers built on his work?

When studying children's cognitive development, Jean Piaget proposed that children actively construct and modify their understanding of the world through the processes of assimilation and accommodation. They form schemas that help them organize their experiences. Progressing from the simplicity of the sensorimotor stage of the first two years, in which they develop object permanence, children move to more complex ways of thinking. In the preoperational stage (about age 2 to about 6 or 7), children are egocentric and unable to perform simple logical operations. By about age 7, they enter the concrete operational stage and are able to comprehend the principle of conservation. By age 12, children enter the formal operational stage and can reason systematically. Research supports the sequence Piaget proposed, but it also shows that young children are more capable, and their development more continuous, than he believed.

When is the insula activated?

When we experience various negative social emotions, such as lust, pride, and disgust.

stability and change

Which of our traits persist through life? How do we change as we age?

How do men and women differ in nonverbal communication?

Women tend to read emotional cues more easily and to be more empathic. They also show greater emotional responsiveness and expressiveness, especially for positive emotions.

How could your psychology instructor use negative reinforcement to encourage your attentive behavior during class?

Your instructor could reinforce your attentive behavior by taking away something you dislike. For example, your instructor could offer to shorten the length of an assigned paper or replace standard lecture time with an interesting in-class activity. In both cases, the instructor would remove something aversive in order to negatively reinforce your focused attention.

Emotion researchers have disagreed about whether emotional responses occur in the absence of cognitive processing. How would you characterize the approach of each of the following researchers: Zajonc, LeDoux, Lazarus, Schachter, and Singer?

Zajonc and LeDoux suggested that we experience some emotions without any conscious, cognitive appraisal. Lazarus, Schachter, and Singer emphasized the importance of of appraisal and cognitive labeling in our experience of emotion

Preparedness

a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value

Developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

instinct

a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned

congetial

a condition that is present at birth and may be the result of either genetic or environmental factors

achievement motivation

a desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard

startle reflex

a newborn's automatic response to a loud noise or a touch on the stomach, in which the legs are thrown up, fingers spread, and arms are first extended, and then brought back rapidly while the fingers close in a grasping action

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

Emerging adulthood

a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults

temperament

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.

incentives

a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

synaptic pruning

a process whereby the synaptic connections in the brain that are used are preserved, and those that are not used are lost

Stroke a newborn's cheek and the infant will root for a nipple. This illustrates

a reflex

delayed reinforcer

a reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior

immediate reinforcer

a reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior

learning

a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience

Emotions

a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience

unconditioned stimulus

a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response (FOOD)

conditioned stimulus

a stimulus to which an organism has learned to make a response (BELL)

Classical Conditioning

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov's classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food)

Discrimination (operant conditioning)

ability to become specific in what situations may trigger a response (2) in social psychology, unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members

key milestones formal operational

abstract logic, potential for mature moral reasoning

basic trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers.

self-transcendence

according to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self

In the 1990s, singer-songwriter Alanis Morissette titled a song, "You Learn." Presumably, Morissette meant that people: Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button. Answer choices

acquire new behaviors through experience

Postconventional morality (adolescence and beyond) focus

actions reflect belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles

positive punishment

adding an undesirable stimulus to stop or decrease a behavior

How do parents and peers influence adolescents?During

adolescence, parental influence diminishes and peer influence increases. Adolescents tend to seek out peers with similar attitudes, interests, and traits—due in part to the selection effect—and to adopt their peers' ways of dressing, acting, and communicating. Positive parent-teen relationships correlate with positive peer relationships, however. Personalities and temperaments are shaped by both nature and nurture, including parental and peer influences.

fixed ratio example

after buying 10 coffees your get a free one

Teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

critical period

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development

In psychology, the term conditioning refers to

learning associations between environmental events and behavioral responses

authoritarian parenting style

arents are coercive. They impose rules and expect obedience: "Don't interrupt." "Keep your room clean." "Don't stay out late or you'll be grounded." "Why? Because I said so."

When is the peak of physical development?

around 20 years of age and then it declines imperceptibly

spillover effect

arousal response to one event spills over into our response to the next event

amygdala and emotion

assesses stimulating events and forms emotional memories, responsible for instantaneous response to an emotional event. Responsible for emotional learning

How does the seal demonstrate associative learning

associates slapping and barking with a herring; learns to anticipate the future

How do sea slugs portray associative learning

associates the squirt with an impending shock; learns to anticipate the future

Classical and operant conditioning involve learning through _____, whereas observational learning involves learning through _____. Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button.

association; imitation

Every time Martin opens the cabinet door where he stores his dog's treats, his dog begins to bark in anticipation of getting a treat. This is an example of:

associative learning

Operant behaviors

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

operant conditioning forms associations between

behaviors and the resulting events

Skinner argued

behaviors were shaped by external influences instead of inner thoughts and feelings

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

Disliking the taste of chili after becoming violently sick a few hours after eating chili

biological predispositins

When Juan was a child, he was attacked by a swarm of hornets in his backyard. Now, every time he hears the sound of hornets, he immediately becomes frightened. This is an example of:

classical conditioning

Emotions are a mix of

bodily arousal (heart pounding), expressive behaviors (quickened pace), conscious experience (is this a kidnapping?) feelings (panic, fear, joy)

reappraisal

changing one's emotional experience by changing the way one thinks about the emotion-eliciting stimulus

Elementary school description of task

children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior

Five-year-old Arianna is frightened by the noise thunder makes. Arianna associates lightning with thunder because lightning always precedes thunder. Thus, when Arianna sees lightning, she often cries in anticipation that she will hear thunder soon afterward. This is an example of _____ conditioning.

classical conditioning

Five-year-old Destiny is frightened by the noise thunder makes. Destiny associates lightning with thunder because lightning always precedes thunder. Thus, when Destiny sees lightning, she often cries in anticipation that she will hear thunder soon afterward. This is an example of:

classical conditioning

John has been a coffee drinker since he started college 3 years ago. He finds that, anytime he smells coffee when he enters a nearby Starbucks, he starts to feel more alert and awake even before he takes his first sip of coffee. This is an example of:

classical conditioning

Lightning is associated with thunder and always precedes it. Thus, when one sees lightning, one often anticipates hearing thunder soon afterward. This is an example of:

classical conditioning

Marshall ate a hamburger he purchased from his favorite fast-food restaurant. An hour later, his stomach became very upset and he spent the rest of the evening vomiting. A week later, he entered the restaurant and immediately became nauseous when he saw a hamburger. Marshall's nausea when he saw the hamburger is an example of:

classical conditioning

People have been observed to form negative attitudes toward Pokémon characters who were repeatedly shown with negative words and images next to them. This BEST illustrates the impact of:

classical conditioning

Salivating when you smell brownies in the oven

classical conditioning

Sophie is frightened by the pain of a needle. Sophie associates the sight or even the thought of a needle with pain because the sight of the needle always precedes pain. Now, when she sees a needle, Sophie often gets squeamish in anticipation of potential pain. This is an example of:

classical conditioning

While 5-year-old Martha was looking at one of the balloons her mother set out for her birthday, Martha's brother Timmy took a pin and popped the balloon, causing her to flinch and blink quickly. Later, during the party, Martha's mother approached her with a balloon and she blinked and flinched. This is an example of:

classical conditioning

Drug cravings

classical conditioning may inform treatments for substance use disorder

According to Schachter and Singer, two factors lead to our experience of an emotion: (1) physiological arousal and (2) ______________ appraisal.

cognitive

In their dismissal of mentalistic concepts such as consciousness, Pavlov and Watson underestimated the importance of _____ processes and biological constraints on an organism's learning capacity.

cognitive

Because we are human, language allows us to learn things we have neither experienced nor observed. This type of learning is called:

cognitive learning

evidence that cognitive processes play an important role in learning comes in part from studies in which rats running a maze develop a ____________ of the maze

cognitive map

zajonc and LeDoux have maintained that some emotional reactions occur before we have had the chance to consciously label or interpret them. Lazarus noted the importance of how we appraise events. These psychologists differ in the emphasis they place on __________ in emotional responses.

cognitive processing

evolutionary psychologists believe

commitment has survival

When does life begin

conception

Having the ability to reverse math operations

concrete operational

understanding that physical properties stay the same even when objects change form

concrete operational

Jonas, a veteran of the war in Iraq, suffers from posttraumatic stress disorder. Now, back home in a quiet California neighborhood, he jumps when he hears a firecracker or a car backfire. In the terminology of classical conditioning, these sounds are BEST thought of as _____ stimuli.

conditioned

Pavlov noticed that dogs began salivating at the mere sight of the person who regularly brought food to them. For the dogs, the sight of this person had become a _____ stimulus.

conditioned

Alan feels fine at a picnic until a spider very similar to the one that bit him last year and made him sick starts to walk onto his picnic blanket. He begins to become anxious and fearful. This reaction is MOST likely a(n):

conditioned response

In a study of classical conditioning, A. J. repeatedly hears a tone just before having a puff of air directed into their eye. Blinking in response to a tone presented without a puff of air is a(n):

conditioned response

Linda had leukemia as a child and had to undergo numerous bouts of chemotherapy. The chemotherapy always made her nauseous. As she underwent a year of treatment, the waiting room started to make her nauseous. The nausea from the waiting room is the:

conditioned response

A consumer products firm redesigns an offensive logo because it does not want its products to evoke the negative feelings that the logo immediately inspires. In the language of classical conditioning, the firm does not want its products to become:

conditioned stimuli

At the beginning of the chapter, the text describes a Japanese rancher who outfitted his cattle with beepers, which he called from his phone. After 1 week, the animals learned to associate the beep of their pager and the arrival of food. In this example, the pager's beep is a(n):

conditioned stimulus

Ever since she foolishly drank too much tequila at a rock concert and vomited all over her best friend, Erin becomes nauseous at the smell or taste of tequila. In the terminology of classical conditioning, the smell of tequila is now a(n) _____.

conditioned stimulus

When Laney passes Avenue D, her heart pounds and her stomach tightens. Laney has some unpleasant memories of Avenue D. Within the framework of classical conditioning, the sight of Avenue D is a(n) _____ stimulus, whereas her body's reaction is a(n) _____. Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button. Answer choices

conditioned stimulus; conditioned response

When Laney passes Avenue D, her heart pounds and her stomach tightens. Laney often bought crack cocaine on that street before she became clean. Within the framework of classical conditioning, the sight of Avenue D is a(n) _____ stimulus, whereas her body's reaction is a(n) _____.

conditioned; conditioned response

second-order conditioning

conditioning where the US is a stimulus that acquired its ability to produce learning from an earlier procedure in which it was used as a CS lit a light, than ring the bell connects a second neutral stimulus

Dr. Jones is known for her difficult pop quizzes. Immediately before she springs a pop quiz on her students, she typically goes to the classroom door and closes it, and her students begin to feel anxious and tense. Students soon learn to anticipate a pop quiz and feel anxious whenever Dr. Jones closes the classroom door. Closing the door has become a(n) _____ stimulus. Please type the correct answer in the following input field, and then select the submit answer button or press the enter key when finished.

conditoned

Pavlov and Watson considered

consciousness, or mind, unfit for the scientific study of psychology; underestimated cognitive processes and biological constraints

key milestones concrete operational

conservation, mathematical transformations

predictability

consistency, reliability, and dependability in a relationship

Developmental researchers who emphasize learning and experience are supporting ________; those who emphasize biological maturation are supporting __________

continuity; stages

When Danielle texts Matt, he always texts back right away—like, every single time. Matt provides _____ reinforcement for Danielle's texting.

continuous

The three major issues that interest developmental psychologists are nature/nurture, stability/changes, and _____________

contituity/stages

Sean takes his 1-year-old son, James, out for a walk. James reaches over to touch a red flower and is stung by a bumblebee sitting on the petals. The next day, James' mother brings home some red flowers. She removes a flower from the arrangement and takes it over for her baby to smell. James cries loudly as soon as he sees it. According to the principles of classical conditioning, what is the unconditioned response in this example?

crying to the bee sting

punishment ___________ the probability of a behavior occuring in the future

decrease

Ignoring unwanted behavior

decreases their occurance

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

ostracism

deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups

The five stages of grief

denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance

A scientist conditions a dog to salivate in response to the sound of a high-pitched tone. The scientist then presents a low-pitched tone. The dog fails to salivate. The dog is demonstrating:

discrimination

After being bitten by his neighbor's dog, Miguel experienced fear at the sight of that dog but not at the sight of other dogs. This BEST illustrates the process of:

discrimination

Dogs have been taught to salivate to a circle but not to a square. This process is an example of

discrimination

When people are induced to assume fearful expressions, they often report feeling a little fear. This result is known as the _____________ ___________ effect.

facial feedback

Three-year-old Antoine is waiting with his older brother in their pediatrician's examination room. As soon as the nurse, wearing a white uniform, enters the room, his older brother screams and cries loudly, which scares Antoine and causes him to begin screaming and crying as well. The next week when Antoine is going for his first dentist appointment, his mother is afraid that he will cry and scream when she takes him to his appointment. The dental assistant enters, wearing her white uniform, and Antoine shows no sign of fear. Antoine's lack of a fear response to the white uniform worn by the dental assistant is an example of:

discrimination

With classical conditioning, we learn associations between events we (do/do not) control. With operant conditioning, we learn associations between our behavior and (resulting/random) events.

do not; resulting

Body organs first begin to form and function during the period of the _______; within 6 months, during the period of the _______, the organs are sufficiently functional to allow a good chance of survival.

embryo; fetus

18-25

emerging adulthood

Some developmental psychologists now refer to the period that occurs in some Western cultures from age 18 to the mid-twenties and beyond (up to the time of social independence) as _______ _____.

emerging adulthood

cognition channels

emotion

Cannon-Bard Explanation of Emotions

emotion-arousing stimuli trigger our bodily responses and simultaneous subjective experience

James-Lange Explanation of Emotions

emotions arise from our awareness of our specific bodily responses to emotion-arousing stimuli

Piaget

emphasized how the child's mind grows through interaction with the physical environment

Vygotsky

emphasized how the child's mind grows through interaction with the social environment

epigenetic effects

environmental factors affect whether or not particular genes in particular cells are expressed

In continuous reinforcement, an organism is reinforced _____, whereas in partial or intermittent reinforcement, an organism is reinforced _____.

every time the desired behavior occurs; sporadically when the desired behavior occurs

Narcissism

excessive self-love and self-absorption

DeMarcus drinks several cups of coffee a day. Often, DeMarcus experiences an almost immediate sense of alertness when he smells a fresh cup of coffee, even though it takes about 20 minutes for the caffeine in the coffee to reach significant levels in the bloodstream. He decides, with the encouragement of his physician, to quit drinking coffee. At first, he still experiences the alertness when he smells freshly brewed coffee, but after about 10 days, he no longer experiences the effect. That DeMarcus no longer experiences the alertness effect exemplifies:

extinction

A restaurant delivery service is running a special deal. After you buy four meals at full price, you will get a free appetizer. This is an example of a _______________ schedule of reinforcement

fixed ratio

An automobile insurance company rewards policyholders with a deductible reduction after each 6 months without an accident. The reduction is provided on a _____ schedule of reinforcement

fixed-interval

Checking one's postal mailbox is generally reinforced on a _____ schedule, because the mail only comes once per day at about the same time.

fixed-interval

Marissa knows that a package shipping company usually delivers overnighted packages to her business at about 9:45 A.M. Expecting an important package, Marissa glances out her window more frequently as 9:45 approaches to spot the truck. Marissa's glancing is reinforced on a _____ schedule.

fixed-interval

In Eriksons stages, the primary task during adolescence is

forging an identity

according to piaget, a person who can think logically about abstractions is in the _______________ stage

formal operational

intimacy

forming close relationships

Between ages 3 to 6, the human brain experiences the greatest growth in the ______________ lobes, which enable reasoning and planning

frontal

A year after surviving a shooting, Angie still responds with terror at the sight of toy guns and the sound of balloons popping. This reaction BEST illustrates:

generalization

After Watson and Rayner classically conditioned Little Albert to fear a white rat, the child later showed fear in response to a rabbit, a dog, and a furry coat. This illustrates

generalization

Four-year-old Tommy developed a fear of going down steps after falling down the steps in his house several times. When he was at his grandmother's house, he was fearful of climbing the steps to her front door. Much like Little Albert's fear of white rats and other furry objects, Tommy was demonstrating: Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button. Answer choices

generalization

Janine, who completed several tours of duty in Afghanistan, suffers from posttraumatic stress disorder. Now, back home in Texas, she is frightened by firecrackers and car backfiring. The fact that these sounds scare her reflects:

generalization

In Laurie's psychology laboratory, Laurie and her lab partner conditioned a rat to press a lever for food when a red light was on, but discovered that the rat would also press the lever when a white light was on. Laurie and her partner reported that the rat had exhibited _____ through _____ conditioning.

generalization; operant

Freud defined the healthy adult as one is able to love and work. Erikson agreed, observing that the adult struggles to attain intimacy and _____________.

generativity

Middle adulthood (40s to 60s) issue

generativity vs stagnation

Today's evolutionary psychology shares an idea that was an underlying assumption of instinct theory. That idea is that

genes predispose species-typical behavior

John just started his vacation from work and scheduled a tee time with friends to play golf on Monday morning. On Monday morning, he started driving his car to work instead of the golf course. Driving his car to work instead of the golf course is an example of:

habitual behavior

Infants' ___________ to repeated stimulation helps developmental psychologists study what they can learn and remember.

habituation

An example of a physiological need is ________. An example of a psychological drive is ________.

hunger; a "push" to find food

In one example described in the text, a Japanese rancher outfitted his cattle with beepers, which he called from his phone. After 1 week, the animals learned to associate the beep of their pager and the arrival of food, and to associate their hustling to the food trough with the pleasure of eating. In this example, the association between _____ is explained by ____. Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button. Answer choices

hustling to the trough and the pleasure of eating; operant conditioning

Adolescence (teen years into 20s) issue

identity vs role confusion

Intimacy

in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood

egocentric

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) at which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.

sensiormotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years of age) at which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities.

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7 to 11 years of age) at which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events.

formal operational

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) at which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.

scaffold

in Vygotsky's theory, a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking.

Neutral stimuli (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

netural stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

discrimination (classical conditioning)

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned Response (CR)

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Variable-Inerval Schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

fixed ratio schedules

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

discrimative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement

Reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Piaget's core idea

intellectual progression reflects an unceasing struggle to make sense of our experiences

Assume that after returning from an hour-long run, you receive a letter saying that your scholarship application has been approved. The two-factor theory of emotion would predict that your physical arousal will

intensify your happiness

assimilate

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

Young adulthood (20s to early 40s) issue

intimacy vs isolation

response in classical conditioning

involuntary, automatic

What is achievement motivation, and what are some ways to encourage achievement?

is a desire for significant accomplishment, for mastery of skills or ideas, for control, and for attaining a high standard. High achievement motivation leads to greater success, especially when combined with determined, persistent grit. Research shows that excessive rewards (driving extrinsic motivation) can undermine intrinsic motivation. To achieve our own goals, we can make a resolution; announce the goal; develop an implementation plan; create short-term rewards; monitor and record progress; create a supportive environment; and transform the behavior into a habit.

How do psychologists define motivation? What are four key motivation theories

is a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior. The instinct/evolutionary perspective explores genetic influences on complex behaviors. Drive-reduction theory explores how physiological needs create aroused, motivated states (drives) that direct us to satisfy those needs. Environmental incentives can intensify drives. Drive-reduction's goal is homeostasis, maintaining a steady internal state. Arousal theory proposes that some behaviors (such as those driven by curiosity) do not reduce physiological needs but rather are prompted by a search for an optimal level of arousal. The Yerkes-Dodson law describes the relationship between arousal and performance. Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs proposes a pyramid of human needs, from basic needs up to higher-level needs.

Most experts agree that repeated viewing of media violence

is a risk factor for viewers' increased agression

unconditioned response

is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus (SALIVATION)

Pavlov's greatest contribution to psychology

isolating elementary behaviors from more complex ones through objective scientific procedures

Learning that occurs internally and is expressed behaviorally only when there is sufficient incentive to do so is called _____ learning.

latent

Knowing the way from your bed to the bathroom in the dark

latent learning

Rats that explored a maze without any reward were later able to run the maze as well as the other rats that had received food rewards for running the maze. The rats that had learned without reinforcement demonstrated __________ _____________.

latent learning

Edward L. Thorndike's research with cats demonstrated that behavior changes because of its consequences. Favorable consequences lead to the behavior being repeated, whereas unfavorable consequences make the behavior less likely. Thorndike referred to this as the law of _____.

law of effect

higher order animals

learn through observing and imitating others

conditioned response

learned response to a previous netural stimulus (SALIVATION)

spontaneous recovery (classical conditioning)

the reappearance after a rest period of a weakened CR

Freud defined the healthy adult as one who is able to ______________ and to ______________.

love; work

Biological growth processes called __________ explains why children begin walking by around 11-15 months

maturation

Middle adulthood description of task

middle-aged people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose

Some scientists believe that the brain has ________ neurons that enable empathy and imitation

mirror

Joey watches his older brother twirl his pasta around his fork using a spoon. Joey then attempts to twirl his pasta in the same way. Joey's older brother served as a _____ for Joey.

model

With a challenging task, such as taking a difficult exam, performance is likely to peak when arousal is

moderate

biological predispositions of classical conditioning

natural predisposition constrain what stimuli and responses can easily be associated

biological influences in classical conditioning

natural predispositions constrain what stimuli and responses can easily be associated

Developmental psychologists who consider how biological, psychological, and social-cultural forces interact are focusing on _________

nature;nurture

Jason is busy with a work project that he brought home. His son wants him to put a movie on. Jason tells him to wait 10 minutes; however, his son whines and complains so much that Jason decides to put the movie on right away. If Jason's son stops complaining, Jason's behavior of starting the movie immediately may be maintained by _____ reinforcement.

negative

Linda had a severe toothache for many days before she went to the dentist. After treatment, she was much relieved. The next time she experienced pain in her teeth, she went to the dentist right away. This is MOST clearly an example of _____ reinforcement.

negative

Thomas regularly buckles his seat belt simply because it turns off the car's irritating warning buzzer. This BEST illustrates the value of _____ reinforcement.

negative

_____ reinforcement involves the removal of an aversive stimulus after a response. It serves to strengthen the response.

negative

Nannette's daughter refused to brush her teeth and threw her toys across the room. Nannette gave her daughter a 20-minute time-out. This is an example of a:

negative punishment

Neuroplasticity

neural tissue is ever changing and reorganizing in response to new experiences.

biological influences of successful aging

no genetic predisposition to early cognitive or physical decline; appropriate nutrition

Bobo doll experiment

nursery school students observed an adult play aggressively (yelling & hitting) with an inflatable clown (Bobo); when children were later allowed to play with the Bobo, those children who witnesses the Bobo doll performed the same aggressive actions and improvised new ways of playing aggressively

key milestones sensorimotor stage

object permanence, stranger anxiety

John B. Watson believed that psychology should be the science of

observable behavior

The textbook mentions that Pavlov and his associates explored five major conditioning processes. These processes do NOT include:

observation

Four-year-old Mia watched her mother sing while she was brushing her hair. The next day, Mia's mother saw Mia singing while brushing her dog. Mia acquired the behavior through _____ learning.

observational

Pauline is learning how to play badminton. For her first lesson, her instructor models serving the birdie while Pauline patiently watches. Pauline then tries to imitate the sequence of swings and motions made by her instructor. This is an example of _____ learning.

observational

Sabaah learns how to select relevant articles from internet news sites and post them to a private group on a social media platform by watching another group member do it first. Which type of learning or conditioning does this example illustrate?

observational

Children learn many social behaviors by imitating parents and other models. This type of learning is called

observational learning

If one chimpanzee sees another chimp solve a puzzle and gain a food reward, it may solve the puzzle itself more quickly than it would have otherwise. Which type of learning or conditioning does this example illustrate?

observational learning

Jill is learning how to play tennis. For her first lesson, her instructor models serving and backhand returns while Jill patiently watches. Jill then tries to imitate the sequence of swings and motions made by her instructor. Which concept BEST describes how Jill is learning to play tennis? Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button.

observational learning

One chimpanzee watches a second chimp solve a puzzle for a food reward. The first chimp then imitates how the second chimp solved the puzzle. This BEST illustrates:

observational learning

Tamika's cat learned to press a lever so more food would be poured into her food bowl. Tamika's roommate's kitten watched the older cat perform this behavior and within a month the kitten was performing this behavior. This is an example of:

observational learning

Your little brother getting in a fight after watching a violent action movie

observational learning

vicarious reinforcement

observing someone else receive a reward or punishment

first-order conditioning

occurred in Pavlov's experiment when dog directly associated sound of bell with presentation of food, resulting in drooling in both instances

respondent behavior

occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

generalization

occurs when an organisms response to a similar stimuli is also reinforced

Animals and humans learn about the consequences of behavior through _____ conditioning. Please type the correct answer in the following input field, and then select the submit answer button or press the enter key when finished.

operant

This research device developed by B.F. Skinner, contains a bar that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer. The bar is attached to a recording device. This device is known as a(n)

operant chamber

After five speech-imitating African grey parrots were adopted by a British wildlife park, they started swearing. "The more they swear, the more [park visitors] laugh, which then triggers them to swear again," explained the park manager. The parrots are demonstrating _____ in this example. Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button. Answer choices

operant conditioning

At work, there is a vending machine that gives extra candy bars when Don selects either the A or B choices. Don continues to frequent this machine regularly. This BEST illustrates:

operant conditioning

Dan wanted to train his dog, Rocket, to come to him when called. Every time Dan called Rocket and he came, Dan would give him a treat and pet him. Soon Rocket would come every time he was called. Which type of learning is Dan using?

operant conditioning

If Jamal wants to train his dog to sit and lie down when he commands the behavior, which type of conditioning should he utilize to train his dog?

operant conditioning

JaMara is encouraged to continue posting selfies on Instagram when she receives dozens of "likes" for each one. This example BEST illustrates: Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button.

operant conditioning

Macy gave her dog a treat each time she came to Macy when she called her by name. Soon, the dog came every time Macy called the dog by name. This is an example of:

operant conditioning

The practical application of a type of learning called _____ is apparent in the common practice of rewarding small steps toward desired behavior in educational, athletic, and workplace settings. Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button. Answer choices

operant conditioning

Your dog racing to greet you on your arrival home

operant conditioning

Which statement is false with respect to operant conditioning?

operant conditioning involves respondent behavior

Shaping

operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Select the option that correctly completes this sentence: _____ is a type of _____. Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button.

operant conditioning; associative learning

_____ behavior produces events in the environment, whereas _____ behavior occurs as an automatic response to a stimulus.

operant; respondent

operant behavior

operates on the environment, producing rewarding or punishing stimuli

psychological influences of successful aging

optimistic outlook, physically and mentally active lifestyle

cognitive influences in classical conditioning

organisms develop an expectation that a CS signals the arrival of a US

cognitive influences in operant conditioning

organisms develop an expectation that a response will be reinforced or punished; they also exhibit latent learning, without reinforcement

cognitive processes in classical conditioning

organisms develop expectation that CS signals the arrival of US

cognitive processes in operant conditioning

organisms develop expectation that a response will be reinforced or punished; they also exhibit latent learning, without reinforcement

In classical conditioning, _____, whereas in operant conditioning, _____.

organisms learn associations between events they do not control; organisms learn associations between their behavior and resulting events

biological influences in operant conditioning

organisms most easily learn behaviors similar to their natural behaviors; unnatural behaviors instinctively drift back toward natural ones

sixth months after conception

organs such as the stomach develop enough to give the fetus a good chance of surviving and thriving if born prematurely. Responsive to sound

fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

crystallized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age; we gain vocabulary and knowledge but lose and recall memory more slowly

Cannon-Bard example

our heart races at the same time that we feel afraid

arousal theory

our need to maintain an optimal level of arousal motivates behaviors that meet no physiological need (such as our yearning for stimulation and our hunger for information)

Identity

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

Spontaneous Recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

Authoritative parenting style

parents are confrontive. They are both demanding and responsive. They exert control by setting rules, but, especially with older children, they encourage open discussion and allow exceptions.

Neglectful parenting style

parents are uninvolved. They are neither demanding nor responsive. They are careless, inattentive, and do not seek a close relationship with their children.

Permissive parenting style

parents are unrestraining. They make few demands, set few limits, and use little punishment.

Reinforcing a desired response only some of the times it occurs is called ___________ reinforcement.

partial (intermittent)

anxious attachment

people constantly crave acceptance but remain alert to signs of possible rejection.

theory of mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

fetal alcohol syndrome

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking

Order of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

physiologic, safety and security, love and belonging, self-esteem and recognition, self-actualization

Base of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

physiological needs

Peggy has been working nights and weekends to get a project completed at work. She is successful, and a couple of weeks later she comes into work and her boss presents her with a bonus check. This BEST illustrates the value of _____ reinforcement.

positive

Contrary to what many people assume,

positive feelings tend to grow after midlife

To discourage trolls in an online chat session, Ashleigh insults them in "all caps." Ashleigh's insults are a:

positive punishment

To reduce the self-destructive behavior of some children, a therapist might squirt water in the children's faces whenever they bite themselves. The squirt of water is a:

positive punishment

Your dog is barking so loudly that it's making your ears ring. You clap your hands, the dog stops barking, your ears stop ringing, and you think to yourself, "I'll have to do that when he barks again." The end of the barking was for you a

positive punishment

prosocial behaviors

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

People use recreational drugs for many reasons. For example, drugs may produce euphoria. Alternatively, they may reduce distress. In the language of operant conditioning, producing euphoria is to reducing distress as _____ reinforcement is to _____ reinforcement.

positive; negative

antisocial effects

possible response of observational learning Researcher: Albert Bandura (1961) Example: watch abusive parents and become abusive when you are a parent OR kids watching tv learn bad habits and get idea that violence is acceptable

According to Kohlberg, ______________ morality focuses on self-interest, ______________ morality focuses on self-defined ethical principles, and ______________ morality focuses on upholding laws and social rules.

preconventional; postconventional; conventional

Enjoying imaginary play (such as dress up)

preoperational

Having difficulty taking another's point of view (as when blocking someone's view of the TV).

preoperational

Preschool description of task

preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about their efforts to be independent

key milestones preoperational stage

pretend play, egocentrism

Spontaneous Recovery (Operant Conditioning)

the reappearance, after a rest period, of an weakened response

vicarious punishment

process where the observer sees the model punished, making the observer less likely to imitate the model's behavior

When does Adolescence start

puberty

adolescence is marked by the onset of

puberty

A medieval proverb notes that "a burnt child dreads the file." In operant conditioning, the burning would be an example of a

punisher

By age 65, a person would be most likely to experience a cognitive decline in the ability to

recall and list all the important terms and concepts in a chapter

partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

continous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

cross-sectional study

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time

longitudinal study

research that follows and retests the same people over time

Operant behavior produces events in the environment, whereas _____ behavior occurs as an automatic reaction to a stimulus.

respondent

Classical conditioning focuses on _______ behavior, whereas operant conditioning focuses on _________ behavior

respondent; operant

Salivating in response to a tone paired with food is a(n) __________ behavior; pressing a bar to obtain food is a(n) __________ behavior.

respondent; operant

generalization (operant conditioning)

responses learned in one situation occurring in other, similar situations

negative emotions

right prefrontal cortex tends to be more active than the left

people who vies their lives with a sense of integrity

see life as meaningful and worthwhile

What have researchers found to be an even better predictor of school performance than intelligence test scores?

self-discipline(grit)

understanding that something is not gone for good when it disappears from sight

senorsimotor

In teaching her son to play basketball, Ms. Richards initially reinforces him with praise for simply dribbling while standing still, then only for walking while dribbling, and finally only for running while dribbling. She is using a procedure known as: Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button.

shaping

One way to change behavior is to reward natural behaviors in small steps, as they get closer and closer to the desired behavior. This process is called

shaping

If we want to increase our chance of success in achieving a new goal, such as stopping smoking, we _____ (should/should not) announce the goal publicly, and we _____ (should/ should not) share with others our progress toward achieving that goal.

should

Experiences

sights and smells, touches and tastes, music and movement—activate and strengthen some neural pathways while others weaken from disuse.

According to the Cannon-Bard theory, (a) our physiological response to a stimulus (for example. a pounding heart), and (b) the emotion we experience (for example, fear) occur ___________ (simultaneously/sequentially). According to the James-Lange theory, (a) and (b) occur ____________ (simultaneously/sequentially)

simultaneously; sequentially (first the physiological response, and then the experienced emotion).

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

social clock

When does adulthood begin?

somewhere in the mid-20's.

In both classical and operant conditioning, the term _____ refers to the reappearance of an extinguished response after a rest period.

spontaneous recovery

Jane had leukemia as a child and had to undergo numerous bouts of chemotherapy. She had grown to associate the waiting room with nausea. Now 35 years old, she had to take her mother to the same hospital for breast cancer treatment. She became nauseous while in the waiting room with her mother. Her nausea BEST illustrates:

spontaneous recovery

examples of positive punishment

spray water on a barking dog; give a traffic ticket for speeding

Well-being and people's feelings of satisfaction are _____ across the life span.

stable

classical conditioning forms associations between

stimuli (CS and US)

An 8-month old infant who reacts to a new babysitter by crying and clinging to his father's shoulder is showing _____________--

stranger anxiety

Social networking tends to _____________- (strengthen/weaken) your relationships with people you already know, and _____________ (increase/decrease) your self-disclosure

strengthen; increase

social-cultural influences of successful aging

support from family and friends, meaningful activities, cultural respect for aging, safe living conditions

negative punishment examples

take away a teen's driving privileges; revoke a library card for nonpayment of fines

examples of negative reinforcement

take painkillers to end pain; fasten seatbelt to end loud beeping

Newton ordered pizza from a national pizza chain and became very ill immediately after eating the pizza. Years later, Newton still feels queasy when he sees an advertisement for the pizza chain or drives by one of its establishments. Newton has developed a(n):

taste aversion

Garcia and Koelling's ---------------- studies showed that conditioning can occur even when the unconditioned stimulus (US) does not immediately follow the neutral stimulus (NS)

taste-aversion

Adolescence description of task

teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are

Although development is lifelong, there is stability of personality over time. For example,

temperament tends to remain stable throughout life

positive moods

tend to trigger more left frontal lobe activity

Chemicals that the placenta isnt able to screen out that can harm an embryo or fetus are called

teratogens

Social identity

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

two-factor theory

the Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

Fabian ordered chicken from a national chicken chain restaurant and became very ill immediately after eating it. Years later, Fabian still feels queasy when he sees an advertisement for the chicken chain or drives by one of its establishments. In this example, the unconditioned stimulus is the:

the bacteria that caused the illness

Frank takes his 1-year-old son, Jaleel, out for a walk. Jaleel reaches over to touch a red flower and is stung by a bumblebee sitting on the petals. The next day, Jaleel's mother brings home some red flowers. She removes a flower from the arrangement and takes it over for her baby to smell. Jaleel cries loudly as soon as he sees it. According to the principles of classical conditioning, what is the unconditioned stimulus in this example?

the bee sting

social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month (inner cells) 2 weeks - 8 weeks

Extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age.

Zygotes

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo Conception - 2 weeks

drive-reduction theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

infantile amnesia

the inability to remember events from early childhood

Egocentrism

the inability to see the world through anyone else's eyes

physiological needs

the most basic human needs to be satisfied- water, food, shelter, and clothing

affiliation need

the need to build relationships and to feel part of a group

conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

Yerkes-Dodson Law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases. moderate arousal leads to optimal performance

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life.

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

behavior control

the regulation of the behaviors and actions that workers perform on the job

negative punishment

the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

behavior feedback effect

the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others' thoughts, feelings, and actions

facial feedback effect

the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness

instinctive drift

the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns

Mirror neurons help give rise to children's empathy and to their ability to infer another's mental state, an ability known as:

the theory of mind

James-Lange Theory

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli

self-determination theory

the theory that we feel motivated to satisfy our needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

Adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

10 days after conception

the zygote attaches to the mother's uterine wall

Parents are most effective in getting their children to imitate them if

their words and actions are consistent

Four-year-old Katie observed Maggie, 2 years younger, begin to cry when she fell down. Katie immediately ran over to Maggie and patted her on the back and told her everything would be alright. She even began to cry herself. Katie's ability to infer Maggie's mental and emotional state is an example of:

theory of mind

Which statement BEST expresses the relationship between stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination?

they are opposites

In classical conditioning, humans learn _____, whereas in operant conditioning, humans learn _____.

to associate two stimuli and thus to anticipate events; to associate a response and its consequence

What evidence points to our human affiliation need—our need to belong?

to feel connected and identified with others—had survival value for our ancestors, which may explain why humans in every society live in groups. According to self-determination theory, we strive to satisfy our needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Social bonds help us to be healthier and happier, and feeling loved activates brain regions associated with reward and safety systems. Ostracism is the deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups. Social isolation can put us at risk mentally and physically.

Toddlerhood description of task

toddlers learn to exercise will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities

Two forms of associative learning are classical conditioning, in which the organism associates ___________, and operant conditioning, in which the organism associates _________.

two or more stimuli; a response and consequence

Carla had leukemia as a child and had to undergo numerous bouts of chemotherapy. The chemotherapy always made her nauseous. As she underwent a year of treatment, the waiting room started to make her nauseous. The nausea from the chemotherapy is the:

unconditioned response

A consumer products firm redesigns an offensive logo because it does not want its products to evoke the negative feelings that the logo immediately inspires. In the language of classical conditioning, the offensive logo functions as a(n):

unconditioned stimulus

In conditioned taste aversion, spoiled or poisoned food is a powerful:

unconditioned stimulus

Sonya had leukemia as a child and had to undergo numerous bouts of chemotherapy. The chemotherapy always made her nauseous. As she underwent a year of treatment, the waiting room started to make her nauseous. The chemotherapy is the:

unconditioned stimulus

Before conditioning

unconditioned stimulus --> unconditioned response neutral stimulus --> no response

variable-interval example

unpredictably often: reinforcement for behavior after a random amount of time, as when checking our phone for a message

Selective pruning

unused neuronal connections are lost to make other pathways more efficient

conventional morality (early adolescence) focus

uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order

Pop quizzes and random checks of quality help to produce slow, steady responding and are examples of the _____ schedule of reinforcement.

variable interval

The partial reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after a unpredictable time periods is a _________________ schedule

variable-interval

Although it is unknown if one must buy 1, 10, or 100 scratch-off lottery tickets to get a winning ticket, it is probable that if one keeps buying, eventually one will get a winner. In fact, maybe the very next ticket will be a winner. Therefore, buying scratch-off lottery tickets is reinforced according to a _____ schedule.

variable-ratio

Gamblers and fishers have a difficult time controlling their need to gamble and fish because of the _____ schedule of reinforcement

variable-ratio

Jack finds it extremely difficult to pull himself away from the blackjack table. He keeps thinking he will break even, as the next hand will be his winning one. This is an example of the effects of a _____ schedule of reinforcement.

variable-ratio

According to Bandura, we learn by watching models because we experience ________ reinforcement or ________ punishment.

vicarious

response of operant conditioning

voluntary, operates on environment

schachter-singer example

we may interpret our arousal as fear or excitement, depending on the context

Extinction (operant conditioning)

when a response is no longer reinforced

Late adulthood description of task

when reflecting on his or her life, the older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure

Generalization (operant conditioning)

when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations

Tyler has just been released from a drug rehabilitation center where he was treated for heroin addiction. His therapist recommended that he stay away from old drug-related associates and places where he once used the drug. Studies show that this is a(n) _____ recommendation because _____.

wise; he will experience the craving for drugs when in these situations due to classical conditioning