Exam #2 (Chp 6-10) - Organizational Behavior

What can we boost the effectiveness of rewards? How, or is what ways, does this impact employ perceptions of rewards?

TYPES OF REWARDS: Financial, material, and social rewards qualify as extrinsic rewards because they come from the environment. Psychic rewards, however, are intrinsic rewards because they are self-granted. If you work primarily to obtain rewards such as money or status, you are extrinsically motivated. If you derive your primary reward from the task itself, or the feeling that your work is meaningful and gives you a sense of responsibility, then you are motivated by intrinsic rewards DISTRIBUTION CRITERIA: Results Tangible results include quantity produced, quality, and individual, group, or organizational performance. These are often accounting-type measures—sales, profit, or error rate. Employers increasingly include customer satisfaction. Behavior and actions. Examples are teamwork, cooperation, risk taking, and creativity. Nonperformance considerations. Examples are abundant, such as rewards linked to seniority or job title. Associate attorneys' salaries are commonly linked to the number of years out of law school—first-year associates get paid a set salary, which differs from second-year associates, and so on. Night or weekend shifts often pay differently. Perks provided to executives, like use of a company plane or membership to a golf club, are nonperformance rewards. They get them just because they hold the job not because of what they do. DESIRED OUTCOMES: 1. Desired outcome. You get more of what you intended and for which you are rewarding people. 2. Nothing. The reward can have no effect. 3. Undesired side effects. Rewards reinforce or motivate the wrong behaviors. Why rewards fail... and what to do • Too much emphasis is placed on monetary rewards. • They foster counterproductive behavior. • A lag occurs between performance and reward. • Reward structures are not tailored to goals, tasks (i.e., one-size fits all rewards) • They have a short half-life. • Continued use of demotivating practices (e.g., across the board raises). • Involve employees in designing the system = solution.

What are the elements of crucial conversations? Be able to identify the types of conversations that are authors identify, or categorize, as being crucial.

"Crucial conversations are discussions between two or more people where (1) the stakes are high, (2) opinions vary, and (3) emotions run strong." Examples Include • Ending a relationship • Addressing offensive behavior • Giving negative feedback Moreover, crucial conversations often happen unexpectedly, which means we typically are unprepared. When this happens, again, negative emotions can dominate and self-efficacy decline. State Share your facts Tell your story Ask for other's facts and stories Talk tentatively Encourage testing

What are Tuckman's Five Stages of Group Development? Understand, in general terms, what a group (and/or its members) is typically experiencing at each stage of development.

1. Forming During the ice-breaking forming stage, group members tend to be uncertain and anxious about the unknowns such as their roles, the people in charge, and the group's goals. Mutual trust is low, and there is a good deal of holding back to see who takes charge and how. Forming •Dependence on leader--directive •Little understanding of mission •Roles & Resp. unclear •No processes •Ice-braking stage -Excitement - Anticipation - Anxiety - Optimism Stage 2: Storming The storming stage is a time of testing. Individuals test the leader's policies and assumptions as they try to decide how they fit into the power structure. Subgroups may form and resist the current direction of a leader or another subgroup. Storming •Uncertainties re: purpose persist •Team members vie for position •Power struggles •Sub-groups take shape •Decisions difficult •Leader coaches - Reality sets in - Frustration - Dissatisfaction - Adjustment anxiety Stage 3: Norming Groups that make it through Stage 2 generally do so because a respected member, other than the leader, challenges the group to resolve its power struggles so work can be accomplished. A feeling of team spirit is sometimes experienced during this stage because members believe they have found their proper roles. Group cohesiveness, the degree to which members feel part of the collective or "we" of the group, is the principal by-product of Stage 3. Norming •Commitment & unity strong •Roles & Resp. clear/accepted •Agreement on big decisions •Develop processes •Cohesion •Leader facilitate -Shared goals - Team cohesion - Coping - Acceptance Stage 4: Performing Activity during this vital stage is focused on solving task problems, as contributors get their work done without hampering others. This stage is characterized by a climate of open communication, strong cooperation, and lots of helping behavior. Conflicts and job boundary disputes are handled constructively and efficiently. Cohesiveness and personal commitment to group goals help the group achieve more than could any one individual acting alone. Norming •Commitment & unity strong •Roles & Resp. clear/accepted •Agreement on big decisions •Develop processes •Cohesion •Leader facilitate -Teamwork -Cohesiveness - Leadership -Performance Stage 5: Adjourning The group's work is done; it is time to move on to other things. The return to independence can be eased by rituals such as parties or award ceremonies celebrating the end and new beginnings. During the adjourning stage, leaders must emphasize valuable lessons learned. - Seperation anxiety - Crisis - Dissatisfaction - Negativity - Options explored - skilled - anticipation - excitment

What is the definition of teams offered in the text and how are accountability and leadership characterized when a group becomes a (true) team?

As noted previously, teams are a collection of individuals whose tasks and responsibilities depend on the other members, are collectively accountable for the performance and outcomes associated with their work, and who work together for the time required for task completion or to fulfill their responsibilities. "People with different views and perspectives coming together, putting aside their narrow self-interests, and discussing issues openly and supportively in an attempt to solve a larger problem or achieve a broader goal." Besides being a central component of the Organizing Framework, teams are a cornerstone of work life. This means practically all employees need to develop skills related to being good team players and building effective teams. It also means that in today's team-focused work environment, organizations need leaders who are adept at teamwork themselves and can cultivate the level of trust necessary to foster constructive teamwork. Teams and the Power of Common Purpose How Are Teams Different from Groups? "A team is a group, but a group necessarily is not a team. Most work groups are "teams" in name only.... A group becomes a team when • The group develops its own purpose or mission • Accountability shifts from strictly individual to both individual and collective • Effectiveness is measured by the group's collective outcomes and products • Leadership becomes a shared activity • Problem solving becomes a way of life, not a part-time activity. Self-managed teams Self-managed teams have collective autonomy and responsibility to plan, manage, and execute tasks interdependently to achieve their goals • Groups of workers who are given administrative oversight for their task domains such as planning, scheduling, monitoring, and staffing • Involves a revolutionary change in management philosophy, structure, staffing and training practices as well as reward systems

Understand how Whole Foods has historically done good via an adherence to the tenets of conscious capitalism. Be able to recognize these tenets and understand what conscious capitalism is not. (See slides for this information)

Balancing the needs of multiple stakeholders—employees, customers, communities, and investors—is a major challenge. Despite what particular leaders may say, most give clear priority to one, often at the expense of the others. But some truly attempt to satisfy all stakeholders. Doing Well and Doing Good Characteristics: Positive businesses do well, and they do good. They do well by being profitable and performing at a high level, but they also do good by making the well-being of their employees and other stakeholders (suppliers, customers, and communities) a priority. Measurable Social Impact. Fortune assessed the magnitude and lasting nature of the company's impact on a notable societal problem. Business Results. How does the company benefit? Shareholder return factors heavily. It isn't enough to receive good PR and reputational benefits. Degree of Innovation. It isn't enough to do good and do so profitably, it also is important to do so creatively, differently from others. Amazon vs Whole Foods: Amazon's presence was immediately felt. In addition to plastering its logo everywhere In Whole Foods stores, it also used its strengths in data and data analysis to determine appropriate product mixes and bring efficiencies to many processes. After all, Amazon is known for its efficiencies, low costs, and low prices. This is a stark contrast to Whole Foods' highly empowered approach to doing business, wherein individual stores and their employees had autonomy regarding decisions about product selection, inventory, and how best to serve customers. This employee-centric focus is what earned the company a spot-on Fortune's Best Places to Work list for 20 consecutive years, and the reason its customers enjoyed personalized intensive, hands-on service. Although this decentralized, high-touch approach had real benefits, it also had considerable inefficiencies that Amazon was keen to address. Amazon and its employees utilized data, rigorous analysis and controls, and demanding performance management practices. In the eyes of Amazon, customers were faceless digital profiles of purchasing history and preferences. This environment was a good fit for some employees but incredibly stressful and negative for others. Evidence for this was Whole Foods dropping from Fortune's list in 2018. These differences have the potential to undermine the hopes and goals of the merger, which were to bring Amazon's efficiencies and operating prowess to Whole Foods' unique approach and loyal customers, enabling it to scale up and make an even larger impact in the market. Leaders at Amazon, and to a lesser extent at Whole Foods

What are the common uses (three functions) of performance management?

Common Uses of Performance Management: ​

What is intergroup conflict? How does in-group thinking manifest itself in terms of both morality and perceived differences in comparison to other groups?

Conflict among work groups, teams, departments, and organizations is a threat to effectiveness across organizational levels, as illustrated in the Organizing Framework. Conventional Forms of Conflict - Intergroup conflict: • Cohesion and "in-group thinking" - impacts a team's ability to think critically - Can result in perceptions of moral superiority - exaggerate the differences between their group and other groups • Proposed Solutions include... - Contact (hypothesis) - Team building, prep for cross-functional teamwork - Encourage and facilitate friendships - Avoid or neutralize gossip - Create a psychologically safe climate The contact hypothesis suggests that the more members of different groups interact, the less intergroup conflict they will experience. Those interested in improving race, international, and union-management relations typically encourage cross-group interaction. The hope is that interaction will reduce stereotyping and diminish differences A psychological safety climate represents a shared belief among team members that it is safe to engage in risky behaviors, such as questioning current practices without retribution or negative consequences

What are the two functions of feedback? Be able to provide a basic example of each.

Experts say feedback serves two functions for those who receive it: one is instructional and the other Motivational. 1. Feedback instructs when it clarifies roles or teaches new behavior. 2. Feedback motivates when it serves as a reward, such as recognition for a job well done, or promises a reward. • Has the potential to boost performance. • Regulates, supports, directs, corrects work efforts and outcomes. • Dramatically underutilized - Given less often, and less well than people would like. - Strains relationships, lack of confidence, inconsequential, takes time. - Frequently uni-directional and geared towards improvements.

What is functional conflict? And by what other names is commonly known?

Functional conflict, commonly referred to as constructive or cooperative conflict, is characterized by consultative interactions, a focus on the issues, mutual respect, and useful give-and-take. In such situations people often feel comfortable disagreeing and presenting opposing views. Functional conflict can foster several desirable outcomes, such as: Open-mindedness. When conflict is functional, people speak up, others listen, which in turn can increase engagement. Increased understanding and strengthened relationships. Feeling understood, even when views differ, cultivates respect and empathy. These of course facilitate productive problem solving. Innovation. Working through conflicts in a positive manner pushes people to consider different views than they would otherwise, which often results in new and better processes and outcomes. Accelerated growth. Functional conflict results in change—a break from the status quo—and improves performance across levels of OB.8

What is the amplifying effect? And how does it contribute to positive OB?

In the amplifying effect, positive practices from one individual result in additional positive practices by others, which spur positivity in others, which generate other positive outcomes. The amplifying effect is often conveyed via positive emotions and social capital (your relationships and network). The idea is positivity fuels more positivity, such that both the receiver and witnesses of kind acts are likely to perform kind acts of their own. This results in reinforcing cycles or upward spirals of positivity. Such behaviors can then transform organizations into more compassionate and harmonious places, while improving interpersonal interactions, collaboration, information sharing, and efficiency. This perspective on positive emotions is called the broaden-and-build theory, which proposes positive emotions broaden our attention and make us more open to experience. These are self-reinforcing—more creates more—resulting in upward spirals of additional positive emotions and actions People are more likely to exhibit prosocial behaviors when positive OB is taking place in their work environments. Prosocial behaviors are positive acts performed without the expectation of anything in return

What are the organizational values that are considered to be essential for promoting positive OB? Have a basic (general) understanding of what the pursuit of each of these values entails.

In the context of organizational climate, organizational values represent ideals endorsed, shared, and supported by the organization as a whole. Restorative justice reflects "a shared belief in the importance of resolving conflict multilaterally through the inclusion of victims, offenders, and all other stakeholders."116 Organizations subscribing to restorative justice tend to resolve conflict by giving all parties a chance to express their thoughts and feelings. This in turn leads to healing when there has been hurt or offense, thereby producing solutions focusing on the greater good. Compassion is a shared value that drives people to help others who are suffering. It is associated with behaviors related to sympathy, kindness, tenderness, warmth, and love.117 Temperance is a shared belief in showing restraint and control when faced with temptation and provocation. Temperance promotes self-control, humility, and prudence. It helps people avoid egocentric and heated emotional responses and practice patience and restraint. Organizational practices are the procedures, policies, practices, routines, and rules that organizations use to get things done. Figure 7.4 shows training programs, support programs, and human resource practices and policies represent three key sets of practices that shape organizational climate.119 Employees have greater commitment, satisfaction, citizenship behavior, and performance—and lower absenteeism and intentions to quit—when they believe organizational practices support them professionally or personally.120 Virtuous Leadership: Virtuousness represents "what individuals and organizations aspire to be when they are at their very best."123 The focus of virtuous leadership is to help individuals, groups, and organizations to elevate, enrich, and flourish. Virtuous leaders are more focused on the greater good than on self-interest. Virtuous leaders tend to promote trust by making sure their words match their actions, and by treating people with respect and dignity. Integrity, who comes from being guided by morals and honesty, fosters positive OB. The final component of virtuous leadership, forgiveness, is "the capacity to foster collective abandonment of justified resentment, bitterness, and blame, and, instead, it is the adoption of positive, forward-looking approaches in response to harm or damage."126 In addition to promoting positive outcomes, forgiveness can affect your health. Research shows that unforgiveness is associated with bitterness, anger, health problems, and premature death

What are the various sources of "noise" in communication processes? Understand that these sources of noise can function as communication barriers.

Noise is anything that interferes with the transmission and understanding of a message. There are many other sources of noise: language differences, speech impairment, illegible handwriting, inaccurate statistics, poor hearing and eyesight, environmental noises, other people talking, faulty equipment, and physical distance between sender and receiver. Noise affects all the links in the communication process. Nonverbal communication, discussed later in this chapter, also is a source of noise, as are cross-cultural differences between senders and receivers, and the physical work environment.

What is Performance Management (defined)? Be able to recognize the four steps in the performance management process.

Performance management (PM) is a set of processes and managerial behaviors that include defining, monitoring, measuring, evaluating, and providing consequences for performance expectations. Performance management typically operates through an organization's managers and human resources policies and practices. Effective PM, in contrast, is a continual process and a critically important individual-level process of which appraisals are a subset Performance Management Process effective PM has four components: 1. Defining Performance set goals and communicate performance expectations. 2. Monitoring and Evaluating Performance. Measure and evaluate progress and outcomes. 3. Reviewing Performance Deliver feedback and coaching. 4. Providing Consequences Administer valued rewards and appropriate punishment. ​

What is the primary focus in the study of positive organizational behavior (OB)? How does this emphasis relate to the realities associated with doing business?

Positive OB focuses on positive human characteristics that can be measured, developed, and effectively managed for performance improvement. It Is an offshoot of positive psychology and positive organizational scholarship, and like these, focuses on building positive qualities in and positive outcomes for individuals, groups, and organizations. Positive OB contrasts with the historical concentration in these disciplines on sickness and dysfunction in people and organizations. Many professionals who first encounter positive organizational behavior assume it simply rejects the realities in the first scenario: the need to solve problems, manage uncertainty, overcome resistance, achieve profitability, and compete successfully. But something else is happening. Positive organizational behavior "does not reject the value and significance of the phenomena in the first worldview. Rather, it emphasizes the phenomena represented in the second." Goes beyond just happiness and satisfaction Higher (and more successful) performance (16%); Less burnout (-125%); increased commitment (32%) Amplifying effect and upward spirals of positivity Where positive behaviors, feelings, and attitudes feed your own and those of others in a continual, reinforcing process; can transform organizations Buffering effect Reduction of the effects of negative events and stressors Doing Well by Doing Good Promotes well-being of employees, as well as that of other stakeholders

What is role conflict (see slides)?

Role conflict occurs when others have contradictory or inconsistent expectations of a focal person (group member)

What are signature strengths (defined)?

Signature strengths "are positive human traits that influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors and provide a sense of fulfillment and meaning."99 Signature strengths are a subset, typically three to seven for most individuals, of a larger collection of character strengths (see Table 7.3). What helps differentiate signature strengths from the rest is that "a person owns, celebrates, and frequently exercises" them, and these strengths are "core to people's identities, and feel authentic, exciting, and invigorating when used." Signature strengths can be developed, too.

What are the five factors that, when pursued for their own sake, are believed to contribute to well-being?

Seligman originally believed happiness was the most important outcome in our lives but has changed his mind over the years. He now believes people equate happiness with being cheerful, and you don't have to be cheerful to be physically or psychologically healthy. Seligman proposed that well-being was the combined impact of five elements—positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and achievement (PERMA). Well-being comes from freely pursuing one or more of these five elements. Flourishing represents the extent to which our lives contain PERMA. PERMA is the most important outcome from the process of positivity shown in Figure 7.2 When we flourish, our lives are characterized by "goodness . . . growth, and resilience."130 We should all strive to flourish because of its association with other positive outcomes like lower cardiovascular risk, lower levels of inflammation, longer life, greater REM sleep, and positive mental health.131 PERMA elements are also positively related to important outcomes in the Organizing Framework—task performance, career satisfaction, organizational commitment, and low turnover P = Positive emotions E = Engagement (flow and the exercise of strengths) R = Relationships (and social support) M = Meaning A = Achievement Positive emotions also build on themselves, resulting in a spreading of positive emotions within yourself and to those around you. Positive emotions broaden your perspective as to how to overcome challenges in life. Engagement and positive emotions are not one and the same. When we are in flow, we are not necessarily thinking about anything; we are just doing! Our concentration is so high during flow that we use all the cognitive and emotional resources normally needed for thought and feelings. Relationships, both insects and people prefer to be in groups and to work collaboratively with others to get things done. While others may on occasion annoy us, positive relationships are a strong contributor to our well-being. They buffer us from stressors and provide resources enabling us to more effectively accomplish tasks. Positive relationships fuel the giving and receiving of social support. Social support is the amount of perceived helpfulness we derive from social relationships. There are four types. Esteem support: reassurance a person is accepted and respected despite any problems or inadequacies. Informational support: help defining, understanding, and coping with problems. Social companionship: time spent with others in leisure and recreational activities. Instrumental support: financial aid, material resources, or needed services *Kindness to flourish! Meaningfulness, Frankl's conclusion was "striving to find a meaning in one's life is the primary motivational force" for people.142 In other words, it is the drive to find meaning in our lives that instills in us a sense of purpose and motivation to pursue goals. Meaningfulness is the sense of "belonging to and serving something that you believe is bigger than the self. achievement, pertains to the extent to which you have a self-directed "achieving life." In other words, we flourish when we pursue achievement for its own sake. Doing so fosters feelings of competence and mastery, which in turn enhances our self-esteem and self-efficacy

What is our textbook definition of trust?

Trust is the willingness to be vulnerable to another person, and the belief that the other person will consider the impact of how his or her intentions and behaviors will affect you.

What is the contingency approach to conflict resolution, as stated by the authors of our text?

When to Apply the Various Conflict-Handling Styles Consistent with the contingency approach described throughout this book, conflict resolution is not a "one style fits all" approach. Research and practice thankfully provide some guidance indicating which styles seem to work best in particular situations

What is dysfunctional conflict? What is the relationship between the intensity of conflict and performance?

dysfunctional conflict, which are disagreements that threaten or diminish an organization's interests. A primary reason we study and manage conflict is because of its costs due to: Absenteeism. Conflict is a major driver of people not showing up. More conflict generates more stress, more stress results in more time off. Turnover. Lack of fairness, bullying, or other forms of disrespect and incivility cause people to quit altogether. Unionization. Again, a lack of fairness can be costly and motivate employees to organize to combat poor treatment and practices. Litigation. If conflict is not dealt with effectively internal to the organization, many employees will seek legal remedies which are often expensive not only in terms of money, but also time and reputations.10

Chapter 10 - Conflict and Negotiations Study Guide

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Chapter 6 - Performance Management Study Guide

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Chapter 7 - Positive Organizational Behavior Study Guide

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Chapter 8 - Groups and Teams Study Guide

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Chapter 9 - Communication Study Guide

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What is the difference between distributive and integrative approaches to negotiation?

A distributive negotiation usually concerns a single issue—a "fixed pie"—in which one person gains at the expense of another.88 This win-lose approach is arguably the most common type of negotiation and is characterized by dividing up the pieces of a pie. Haggling over the price of a car is a position-based or distributive negotiation. You have a particular price you want, and you get it only if the seller compromises on the price he or she desires. Many conflicts, however, bring together a variety of interests (not just the price of a car), and each party in the negotiation values those interests differently. The outcome is no longer a fixed pie distributed among all parties, but instead multiple interests are integrated into a mutually satisfying solution. Such scenarios call for integrative negotiation, in which numerous interests are considered, resulting in an agreement that is satisfactory for both parties.89 This kind of interest-based negotiation is a more collaborative, problem-solving approach. As one group of researchers puts it, instead of dividing a pie, as in position-based negotiation, interest-based negotiations often generate win-win outcomes—one party gets the crusts and the other the fruit (the part each prefers). Interest-based negotiations may even lead to creative solutions. The parties may decide to build a pie factory together instead of negotiating over individual pies.90

What are task roles and what are maintenance roles (generally defined)? Please note: you do not need to memorize the lists of task and maintenance roles, but please do be able to distinguish between what would be considered a task role and what would be considered a maintenance role.

A role is a set of expected behaviors for a particular position, and a group role is a set of shared expected behaviors for members of the group as a whole. Each role you play is defined in part by the expectations of that role Task roles enable the work group to define, clarify, and pursue a common purpose; and maintenance roles foster supportive and constructive interpersonal relationships. Task roles keep the group on track, while Maintenance roles keep the group together. Members can play more than one role at a time, or over time. Example: think of a team for one of your classes, perhaps a team case analysis. When the team meets and a member clarifies the deliverables for the assignment, that person is playing a task role (information seeker/giver in Table 8.3). If another member solicits input from all other members, to ensure their voices are heard, then this person is playing a maintenance role (gatekeeper in Table 8.3). The group's leader or any of its members can play any of the task and maintenance roles in combination or in sequence.

What are the practices that are known to improve mindfulness?

Benefits of mindfulness • Increased physical, mental, and interpersonal effectiveness. • More effective communication and decision making • More balanced emotions. • Personal satisfaction Practicing mindfulness • Meditations - Walking - Breathing • Apps • Classes and workshops Mindfulness can be learned via practice, and though it takes time and commitment, the benefits are substantial

Know the common teamwork competencies and be able to recognize examples of the behaviors that are representative of each of the five competencies?

Common Teamwork Competencies 1. contributes to the team's work - completed work in a timely manner - came to meetings prepared - did complete and accurate work 2. Constructively interacts with team members - communicated effectively - listened to teammates - accepted feedback 3. keeps team on track - Helped team plan and organize work - stayed aware of team member's progress -Provided constructive feedback. 4. Expects High quality work - expected team to succeed. - cared that the team produced high quality work. 5. Possesses relevant knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) for team's responsibilities - Possessed necessary ksas to contribute meaningfully to the team - Applied knowledge and skill to fill in as needed for other members' roles

What is communication (defined)?

Communication is "the exchange of information between a sender and a receiver, and the inference (perception) of meaning between the individuals involved."6 It is a circular and dynamic process in which people interpret and make sense of the information they exchange. And it's a very important activity in both our personal and professional lives.7

What is conflict (as defined by the authors of our text)?

Conflict is the energy created by the perceived gap between what we want and what we're experiencing, and as such, it is important to use this energy most effectively. Any situation where your concerns or desires differ from another person's or A disagreement between two or more people accompanied by strong emotion

What are some of the behaviors and tools for building trust? (See both text and slides for this one)

Contractual trust. Trust of character. Do people do what they say they will do? Do managers and employees make clear what they expect of one another? Keep track of your commitments, be realistic (don't overpromise), and be sure to deliver quality work on time. Communication trust. Trust of disclosure. How well do people share information and tell the truth? Keep team members and employees informed by explaining policies and decisions and providing accurate feedback. Be candid about your challenges and limitations. And of course, tell the truth. Competence trust. Trust of capability. How effectively do people meet or perform their responsibilities and acknowledge other people's skills and abilities? Enhance your credibility by demonstrating good business sense, technical ability, and professionalism. *The practical application for building trust is to act in ways that demonstrate each of the three types of trust Teams and Trust Building Trust Kiniki and Fugate (our text) • Communication • Support • Respect • Fairness • Predictability • Competence Lencioni ( Five Dysfunctions) • Personal Histories • Experiential Team Exercises • Personality and Behavioral Profiles • Team Effectiveness Exercises • 360 Feedback Lastly on trust.... • Admitting mistakes, weaknesses and concerns - without fear of reprisal • A unique resource - It expands the more it is used • It absence is taxing - formal rules, regulations • It is foundational - Without it teams are incapable of engaging in unfiltered and passionate debate of ideas

What are the characteristics of a cross-functional team and what are they commonly used for?

Cross-functional teams are created with members from different disciplines within an organization, such as finance, operations, and R&D. Cross-functional teams can be used for any purpose, they can be work or project teams, and they may have a short or indefinite duration. New-product development is an area in which many organizations utilize cross-functional teams. Such teams often contain members with expertise in design, manufacturing, marketing, and sales.

What are the feedback dos? What are the feedback don'ts?

DONT: Don't use feedback to punish, embarrass, or put someone down. Don't provide feedback that is irrelevant to the person's work. Don't provide feedback too late to do any good. Don't provide feedback about something beyond the individual's control. Don't provide feedback that is overly complex or difficult to understand. DO: Keep feedback relevant by relating it to existing goals. Deliver feedback as close as possible to the time the behavior was performed. Provide specific and descriptive feedback. Focus the feedback on things employees can control. Be honest, developmental, and constructive. *Remember, feedback itself is simply information. It becomes positive or negative only when you compare it to a goal or expectation. negative feedback, such as being told your performance is below average, can have a positive motivational effect. Coaching is a customized process between two or more people with the intent of enhancing learning and motivating change. Coaching can occur at any component in the PM process, but it most often follows the review and consequences of performance. Goes beyond mentoring and training • Developmentally focused • Features specific performance goals • Involves self-assessment, self-reflection • Consistent with positive OB

What is defensiveness and what are its antecedents (i.e., What type of communication might trigger a defensive reaction) ? Be able to identify an example of such a trigger.

Defensiveness occurs when people perceive they are being attacked or threatened. You may be surprised to learn that defensiveness is often triggered by nothing more than a poor choice of words or nonverbal posture during interactions. In the language of behavior modification, these triggers are antecedents of defensiveness Communicating, non-defensively • Defensiveness can foster exchange of inaccurate and inefficient comm. • Maybe a simple matter of word choice, and/or the use of absolutes

What do the devil's advocacy and dialectic methods of programmed conflict each entail (I.e. what is one doing when they engage in each of these two approaches to programmed conflict)?

Devil's advocacy • Assigning someone the role of critic Dialectic method • Fostering a structured debate of opposing viewpoints The dialectic method involves a structured dialogue or debate of opposing viewpoints prior to making a decision. It is a good idea to rotate the job of devil's advocate so no one person or group develops an undeserved negative reputation. Moreover, periodically playing the devil's advocacy role is good training for developing analytical and communication skills and emotional intelligence. The strengths of this approach are critical thinking and reality testing, but a major drawback is that the goal of "winning the debate" might overshadow the issue at hand. The dialectic method also requires more skilled training than does devil's advocacy. Research on the relative effectiveness of the two methods ended in a tie, although both methods were more effective than consensus decision making.73 However, another study showed that devil's advocacy produced more potential solutions and made better recommendations for a case problem than did the dialectic method The important thing is to actively stimulate functional conflict when possible, such as when the risk of blind conformity or groupthink is high.

Be able to recognize the types of hard data the constitute effective (and objective) feedback

Feedback is an important, but not always present, cousin of goal setting. It enables you to learn how your performance compares to the goal, which you can then use to modify your behaviors and efforts. We therefore define... feedback as information about individual or collective performance shared with those in a position to improve the situation. Effective feedback is only information—it is not an evaluation. Subjective assessments such as "You're lazy" or "You have a bad attitude" do not qualify as effective feedback. They are simply opinions and often have little value. But hard data such as units sold, days absent, dollars saved, projects completed, customers satisfied, and quality rejects are all examples of effective feedback. Book Example Quote: Feedback is the exchange of information about the status and quality of work products. It provides a road map to success. It is used to motivate, support, direct, correct, and regulate work efforts and outcomes. Feedback ensures that the manager and employees are in sync and agree on the standards and expectations of the work to be performed. Traditional appraisals, on the other hand, discourage two-way communication and treat employee involvement as a bad thing. Employees are discouraged from participating in a performance review, and when they do, their responses are often considered "rebuttals." Three common sources of feedback 1. others - receive feedback from others (peers, supervisors, employees, customers) 2. task - objective feedback 3. self - you

What is personality conflict? What is this conventional form of conflict typically based upon, and how does it manifest itself?

Given the many possible combinations of personality traits (recall Chapter 3), it is clear why personality conflicts are inevitable. How many times have you said or heard, "I just don't like him (or her)? We don't get along." One of the many reasons for these feelings and statements is personality conflicts. We define a personality conflict as interpersonal opposition based on personal dislike or disagreement. Like other conflicts, personality conflicts can escalate if not addressed. Think of personality conflicts you've had at school or work. What were the consequences for you? The other person? Members of your team, department, or class? Did things escalate? If the source of a conflict really is personality, then dealing with such conflicts is particularly troublesome since personality traits are by definition stable and resistant to change. Research shows conflicts over work tasks can turn into personal conflicts and escalate into bullying.21 But they have other undesirable outcomes too, such as negative emotions related to particular coworkers and to work in general. If these feelings persist beyond work, employees can ruminate and fail to recover appropriately, resulting in poor health and strained nonwork relationships.

What are group norms and how are they formed?

Group (and Team) Norms "The attitudes, opinions, feelings, or actions shared by two or more people - that guides behavior. Creation of norms • Can be purposefully created • Often emerge on their own Norms are reinforced for many purposes • Group or organizational survival • Clarification of behavioral expectations • Avoidance of embarrassment • Clarification of central values or unique identity. Norms are shared and apply to the group, team, or organization. They help create order and allow groups to function more efficiently because they save groups from having to figure out how to do the same things each time they meet. Norms also help groups move through the development process. Finally, another way to think about roles and norms is as peer pressure. Peer pressure is about expectations, and we all know how effective or problematic expectations can be. At its root, peer pressure is simply the influence of the group on the individual, and the expectations of associated roles and norms are the means of this influence.

Understand the difference between continuous reinforcement and intermittent reinforcement schedules.

If every instance of a target behavior is reinforced, then a continuous reinforcement (CRF) schedule is in effect. Just as you train your dog to do a new trick by providing a reward each time, he or she does it successfully, CRF schedules are especially useful when employees learn a new task or skill. Continuous reinforcement • Every instance of a target behavior reinforced • Fixed ratio (Piece-rate pay; bonuses tied to the sale of a fixed number of units); fixed interval (Paychecks (every two weeks or once a month); annual bonuses; probationary periods and less costly than fixed ratio). • Can quickly lose its effect • Great when learning a new skill One way to help guard against the fading benefit of reinforcers is to use intermittent schedules. Intermittent reinforcement consists of reinforcement of some but not all instances of a target behavior. Intermittent reinforcement • Involves reinforcement of some but not all instances • Variable Ratio (Slot machines that pay after a variable number of pulls; lotteries that pay after a variable number of tickets sold); variable interval (Random supervisor "pats on the back"; spot rewards; random audits (financial); random drug tests of athletes and employees; pop quizzes ad least costly). • More resistant to "extinction" • Can vary the ratio and interval

Understand that an organization needs to be team friendly for its work team to be effective.

Important for structures, culture and rewards of the organization (as a whole) to be "team friendly"

What is known about the five stages of group development in terms of their duration and intensity?

In contrast to the discrete stages of Tuckman's model, some groups follow a form of development called punctuated equilibrium, as groups establish periods of stable functioning until an event causes a dramatic change in norms, roles, and/or objectives; the group then establishes and maintains new norms of functioning, returning to equilibrium (see Figure 8.3). Extreme examples of punctuated equilibrium often occur because of disruptive technologies, like Apple's introduction of iTunes. This innovation caused all players in the music industry to radically change their approaches from digital to streaming and from purchasing entire albums to buying individual songs and subscriptions. In such scenarios, companies and teams that adapt will realize tremendous new opportunities, but those that don't often find themselves obsolete and go out of business. This phenomenon plays out at all levels of OB, such that punctuated equilibrium at the organizational level drives significant change, development, and opportunity at the group and individual levels too. Many careers have been extinguished and others ignited due to punctuated equilibrium. * as time progresses and the stages progress so does the productivity and intensity.

How does bullying differ from other forms of incivility?

Incivility is any form of socially harmful behavior, such as aggression, interpersonal deviance, social undermining, interactional injustice, harassment, abusive supervision, and bullying. Bullying Different from other forms of incivility • Most often evident to others • Affects even those NOT bullied • Negatively affects group dynamics; group satisfaction and performance Bullying is unwelcomed behavior that occurs over a period of time and is meant to harm someone who feels powerless to respond. Bullying also occurs at multiple levels in OB and is different from other forms of mistreatment or incivility in at least three ways. Bullying is usually evident to others. Bullies at work don't have to push you down or take your lunch money, like they do in elementary school.60 Even when the bullying is less obvious and nonviolent, coworkers are commonly aware through either gossip or other forms of communication (meetings, e-mail, and social media) that someone is being bullied. Bullying affects even those who are NOT bullied. Research shows that employees who are simply aware of bullying of colleagues but are not themselves a target are more likely to quit their jobs. This means bullying has costs that extend well beyond the harm to the person being bullied.61 Simply witnessing or being aware one of your colleagues is mistreated has negative effects on you. Bullying has group-level implications. Because even those who are not targeted by bullies can be affected, bullying often negatively affects group dynamics and group satisfaction and performance,62 important processes and outcomes in the Organizing Framework.

How do the five conflict styles we self-assessed relate to integrative and distributive approaches to conflict and negotiations? Which styles are conducive to distributive outcomes and which are conducive to integrative (see text and slides for this one).

Integrating: Interested parties confront the issue and cooperatively identify it, generate and weigh alternatives, and select a solution. Obliging: Tends to show low concern for yourself and a great concern for others. Such people tend to minimize differences and highlight similarities to please the other party. Page 402 Dominating: High concern for self and low concern for others, often characterized by "I win, you lose" tactics. The other party's needs are largely ignored. This style is often called forcing because it relies on formal authority to force compliance. Avoiding: Passive withdrawal from the problem and active suppression of the issue are common. We addressed the pitfalls of avoiding conflict earlier. Compromising: Is a give-and-take approach with a moderate concern for both self and others. Compromise is appropriate when parties have opposite goals or possess equal power. Which styles are conducive to distributive outcomes and which are conducive to integrative Integrating - Collaborating - Avoiding - Compromising Disruptive - Obliging - Dominating - Compromising

What is the law of effect?

Law of Effect Behavior with favorable consequences tends to be repeated, while behavior with unfavorable consequences tends to disappear. Respondent behavior describes automatic reactions to stimuli, or stimulus-response (S-R), like when you are startled by an unexpected loud noise or yank your hand from a hot surface. These behaviors are obviously important, but not nearly as common and consequential as operant behavior, behaviors that are learned and occur when we "operate on" the environment to produce desired consequences. It can be helpful to think of this as response-stimulus (R-S) model or operant conditioning, as it describes things we do to generate desired behaviors and are the essence of much of OB. Increase desired behaviors Positive reinforcement is the process of strengthening a behavior by contingently presenting something appealing. A behavior is strengthened when it increases in frequency and weakened when it decreases in frequency. Negative reinforcement also strengthens a desired behavior by contingently withdrawing something displeasing. Many probationary periods for new hires are applications of negative reinforcement. During probation periods, often your first 30, 60, or 90 days on a new job, you need to have weekly meetings with your boss or have somebody sign off on your work. Once you've demonstrated your skill these requirements are removed. Unfortunately, most people confuse negative reinforcement with negative feedback, which is a form of punishment. Negative reinforcement, as the word reinforcement indicates, strengthens a desirable behavior because it provides relief from something undesirable (paperwork, meetings, or yelling). decrease undesired behaviors Punishment is the process of weakening behavior through either the contingent presentation of something displeasing or the contingent withdrawal of something positive. Weakening a behavior by ignoring it or making sure it is not reinforced is referred to as extinction.

How does the strengths-based movement (approach) to management differ from conventional research and practice?

Like other more conventional forms of capital (cash, facilities, patents, equipment), PsyCap is a resource you invest in or develop with the expectation of future returns or benefits. It can help you flourish in your professional and personal life. Its components are mutually reinforcing—developing one often helps develop the others. The strengths movement represents a dramatic departure from conventional management research and practice. As noted earlier, the vast majority of writing, research, and managing focuses on how to fix what is wrong and who is underperforming or otherwise not meeting expectations. Individuals with high levels of positive psychological capital (PsyCap) possess considerable hope, efficacy, resilience, and optimism (HERO). H Hope. Persevering toward goals and, when necessary, redirecting paths in order to succeed. E Efficacy. Having the confidence to take on challenging tasks and put in the effort necessary to succeed. R Resilience. When hampered by problems and adversity, sustaining and bouncing back and even beyond to attain success. O Optimism. Making a positive attribution about succeeding now and in the future. This means training and practice can increase your PsyCap. Not only is your PsyCap flexible, but it also has been shown to improve many outcomes in the Organizing Framework, such as increasing job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and well-being, and decreasing intentions to quit, job stress, anxiety, and counterproductive work behaviors.

What has a research revealed with regards to the different ways in which women and men communicate?

Linguistic style - a person's characteristic speaking pattern Male Perspective Males are expected to communicate more aggressively, interrupt others more than women, and hide their emotions because they have an inherent desire to possess features attractive to females. Men also see conversations as negotiations in which people try to achieve and maintain the upper hand. Thus they feel it is important to protect themselves from others' attempts to put them down or push them around. This perspective increases a male's need to maintain independence and avoid failure.38 Although males are certainly not competing for mate selection during a business meeting, evolutionary psychologists propose that men cannot turn off the biologically based determinants of their behavior. Female Perspective According to social role theory, females and males learn ways of speaking while growing up. Research shows that girls learn conversational skills and habits that focus on rapport and relationships, whereas boys learn skills and habits that focus on status and hierarchies. Accordingly, women come to view communication as a network of connections in which conversations are negotiations for closeness. This orientation leads women to seek and give confirmation and support more than men.40 Research Reveal Research demonstrates that women and men communicate differently in a number of ways.41 Women are more likely to share credit for success, to ask questions for clarification, to tactfully give feedback by mitigating criticism with praise, and to indirectly tell others what to do. According to The Wall Street Journal, women also are "more likely to add qualifiers ('I'm not sure, but . . .') and apologies ('I'm sorry to interrupt, but . . .'). When complimented on her work, a woman is more likely to downplay it, saying she was 'lucky.'"42 These tendencies allow women to be interrupted more than men when communicating with others.43 In contrast, men are more likely to boast about themselves, to bluntly give feedback, to withhold compliments, to ask fewer questions, and to avoid admitting fault or weaknesses.

Be able to identify before listening styles and describe (in a bit greater detail) what active listening entails.

Listening is the process of actively decoding and interpreting verbal messages. It requires cognitive attention and information processing; simply hearing does not. You can improve your communication competence by understanding your typical listening style. There are four styles 1. Active—I'm fully invested. Active listeners are "all in." That is, they are motivated to listen and give full attention when others are talking. They focus on what is being communicated and expend energy by participating in the discussion. They also use positive body language, such as leaning in or making direct eye contact, to convey their interest. 2. Involved—I'm partially invested. Involved listeners devote some, but not all, of their attention and energy to listening. They reflect on what is being said and halfheartedly participate in the discussion. Their use of nonverbal cues tends to be inconsistent or intermittent, and they can show nonverbal signs of interest and noninterest in the same conversation. 3. Passive—It's not my responsibility to listen. Passive listeners are not equal partners in a speaking-listening exchange. They assume the speaker is responsible for the quality of the interaction and believe their role is to passively take in information. Passive listeners will display attentiveness, but they can fake it at times. Overall, they don't expend much motivation or energy in receiving and decoding messages. 4. Detached—I'm uninterested. Detached listeners tend to withdraw from the interaction. They appear inattentive, bored, distracted, and uninterested. They may start using mobile devices during the speaking-listening exchange. Their body language will reflect lack of interest, such as slumping and avoiding direct eye contact. Active Listening: active listening made receivers feel more understood. It also led people to conclude that their conversations were more helpful, sensitive, and supportive.23 Clearly, active listening yields positive outcomes.

What is considered to be the richest form of communication? Be able to provide examples of situations where it is best to use this form of communication.

Media richness measures the capacity of a given communication medium to convey information and promote understanding.11 Media vary from rich to lean. As shown in Figure 9.3, there are three zones of communication effectiveness. Effective communication occurs when the richness of the medium is matched appropriately to the complexity of the problem or situation. The richer a medium, the better it is at conveying information. A two-way face-to-face conversation is the richest form of communication. It provides immediate feedback and allows participants to observe multiple cues such as body language and tone of voice. Use face-to-face in situations that are complex or that are highly important to receivers. In contrast, telephone conversations and videoconferencing are not as informative as face-to-face exchanges even though they are relatively high in richness. Media Richness The capacity of a given communication medium to convey information and promote understanding Complexity of the Situation Ambiguous? Difficult to comprehend/analyze? Emotionally charged? Picking the Right Medium Complexity and importance, Audience

What does being mindful entail? And what makes this practice so challenging?

Mindfulness is "the awareness that emerges through paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally to the unfolding of experience moment by moment." • An awareness that emerges through purposefully paying attention • Takes effort because the brain works in ways that detracts us from staying/ being focused • Involves being in the present moment, which requires attentional balance • Is nonjudgmental to the unfolding of experience moment by moment (thinking mind > beginners mind) Textbook: We can be mindful of our inner world (our feelings and thoughts), and our outer world, including the feelings, thoughts, and interactions of others. Everyone has the ability to be mindful, but it takes effort. The default setting in our minds is to judge or evaluate our current internal and external situation,56 and it is this mental chatter that detracts from the inner quiet we need to stay focused on and aware of what is going on around us. The goal of practicing mindfulness is to help you become more calm-and-collected in all circumstances. An influential book, The Leader's Way, explains: "When the mind is disturbed by anger, jealousy, hate, impatience, fear, lack of self-confidence, or negative emotions about things that happened in the past, it is wasting valuable time that instead should be used for constructive thinking."68 Practicing mindfulness helps you focus your mind on productive activities while constraining counterproductive thinking and mind wandering.

How much positivity is enough? How many positive emotions do we need for every negative one?

Negative emotions can motivate you to try harder and improve, and they can also protect you against harmful situations and communicate to others your need for help or support. Instead, to flourish and experience the benefits of positive OB discussed in this chapter, you must have three, five, or more positive experiences for every negative.45 You don't need to focus on which positive emotions you feel at a particular time but be sure you have multiple positives for every negative one. Negative experiences activate a survival orientation and lead us to be more responsive to negative information. Our brains actually look harder for negative than for positive information during daily activities.46 This might help explain why managers tend to give more negative than positive feedback to employees. Positive experiences activate a supportive orientation and lead us to be more responsive to positive information. This is part of the reason managers, and people more generally, seem receptive to new ideas when in a good mood.

What types of rewards are used within organizations that foster the greatest level of collaboration and assemble the most effective teams?

Organizations that foster the greatest collaboration and assemble the most effective teams typically use hybrid reward systems that recognize both individual and team performance. Table 8.7 provides guidance on how to reward performance in teams, based on the desired outcome (speed or accuracy) and the degree of interdependence (low, moderate, high). These guidelines can give you a tremendous head start in determining how best to reward and motivate team performance Appropriate rewards for collaboration and teamwork motivate at both the individual and team levels, and also positively influence important outcomes across all levels in the Organizing Framework Rewards - hybrid rewards foster the greatest levels of collaboration Effective team size - depends on the purpose of the team but usually ten or fewer

What are the practices that foster employee positivity (see table 7.1)? Be able to recognize these four organizational practices.

Provide decision-making discretion Allowing employees to make decisions gives them a sense of control and greater opportunities for learning. Share information Information helps employees see the impact of their work and how it fits into the big picture, like the vision and goals of the organization. Minimize incivility Poor treatment, for example bullying and rude behavior, has dramatic negative effects on outcomes in the Organizing Framework and often leads to uncivil behavior by the victims. Organizations need to select employees based on civility and take swift and appropriate action when incivility occurs. Provide feedback Feedback can be motivational and instructional.

Be able to identify common causes, or situations that result in conflict.

TABLE 10.1 Common Causes of Workplace Conflict11Table Summary: Table divided into five rows notes a list of reasons that often lead to arguments or disputes in the workplace. Personality differences Competing responsibilities Irritating workplace behaviors Change Unmet needs at work Poor management Perceived inequities of resources and policies Poor communication (including no communication) Unclear roles and responsibilities Differences in methods for doing work

What have been found to be the benefits associated with positive OB?

The positivity effect "is the attraction of all living systems toward positive energy and away from negative energy, or toward that which is life giving and away from that which is life depleting."12 Organizations using positive practices are more likely to create an atmosphere of positive energy, which in turn fuels performance,13 such as financial, work climate (more on this later in the chapter), turnover, patient satisfaction, employee participation, and managerial support. Positive OB focuses on creating exceptionally positive inputs, processes, and outcomes at all levels in the Organizing Framework. Exceptionally positive means above and beyond expectations, more than making the grade. This level of achievement is referred to as positive deviance. positive deviance as "successful performance that dramatically exceeds the norm in a positive direction.

What in general terms is the perceptual model of communication? And what does that imply for those who receive communications?

This work has led to development of a perceptual model of communication that depicts it as a process in which receivers create meaning in their own minds. Sender, Message, And Receiver The sender is the person or group wanting to communicate information—the message. The receiver is the person, group, or organization for whom the message is intended. Encoding Communication begins when a sender encodes an idea or thought. Encoding means translating thoughts into a form or language that can be understood by others. This language becomes the foundation of the message. For example, if a professor wants to communicate with you about an assignment, he or she must first think about what information to communicate. Once the professor has resolved this issue in his or her mind (encoding), the next step is to select a medium in which to communicate. Selecting a Medium Managers can communicate through a variety of media. These include face-to-face conversations and meetings, telephone calls, charts and graphs, and the many digital messaging forms—e-mail, texting, voice mail, videoconferencing, Twitter, Facebook, Blackboard, and others. We discuss the best way to select a medium in the next section. Decoding and Creating Meaning Decoding, the process of interpreting or making sense of a message, occurs when receivers receive a message. When a professor communicates with you about an assignment, for example, you decode the message when you receive it. The perceptual model of communication assumes the receiver creates the meaning of a message in his or her mind. This means different people can interpret the same message differently. Feedback The first round of feedback occurs when the original receiver expresses a reaction to the sender's message. Once the initial sender has obtained this feedback, he or she is likely to decode it and send corresponding feedback. This process continues until sender and receiver believe they have effectively communicated.

Re: the team member behaviors that have been found to be characteristic of good team members (see slides and class notes for this one). What are the two teaming behaviors that, when combined, have been found to result in higher levels of trust, communication and respect?

Three Cs of good team members Committed Collaborative Competent 6 Factors That Distinguish Effective Team Members • Experience • Problem-Solving Ability • Openness • Supportiveness • Action Orientation • Personal Style Two Teaming Behaviors - Two factors of collaboration - Openness Surfacing and dealing with issues - Supportiveness Bringing out the best in the other person Highest quality team relationships − Trust − Respect − Communication − Goal Attainability

What is the buffering effect? And how do social resources contribute to the realization of positive OB?

To buffer means to reduce or counteract the effects of a negative force. In the buffering effect, positive practices and resources reduce the impact of negative events and stressors. When we are confronted with stressors or otherwise undesirable experiences, we utilize various social and personal resources to buffer or cope with them.

Of the reinforcement schedules listed in the text which have been found to produce behaviors that are most resistant to extinction? What are the practical implications (suggested actions) for using the strongest (most effective) reinforcement schedule?

Variable ratio and variable interval schedules of reinforcement generally produce the strongest behaviors and are most resistant to extinction. Continuous and fixed schedules, in contrast, are the least likely to elicit the desired response over time. Nevertheless, the majority of work organizations rely on fixed intervals of reinforcement, such as hourly wages and annual reviews and raises. Professor Blue bases student grades solely on short quizzes given at the beginning of every class (continuous reinforcement). Professor Black bases grades on a midterm and final exams of equal weight (fixed interval). Professor Red uses a number of unannounced or pop quizzes (variable interval). Practical implications: Spot Rewards Variable Rewards/Bonuses Celebrations

What is a virtual team and what do advocates have to say about this team type?

Virtual team members work across time, space, and organizational boundaries to achieve common goals. They are connected using various technologies, which enable them to utilize talent more efficiently than in a traditional office setting where work and people are tied to places Advocates say virtual teams are very flexible and efficient because they are driven by information and skills, not by time and location. Virtual teams • Teams that work together over time and distance via electronic media to combine effort and achieve common goals

Understand how what it takes to promote goal commitment (Step B in goal setting process).

Write Your Goals Down: You've heard it before, but writing your goals down makes a real difference. The process of writing them helps refine and imprint them in your mind, and it provides a record that you can go back to and revise as you make progress. It is more efficient since you don't have to keep the goals and details in your head. Identify Key Obstacles and Sources of Support: Be proactive and try to identify who or what might get in your way. Conversely, think of who or what might be able to help you reach your goal. Ask What's in It for YOU? List the benefits of achieving the goal and keeping your eyes on the prize will help you stay motivated over time. Break It Down: Some goals are big and/or take considerable effort and time to achieve. It is helpful to break them down into smaller, sub- or intermediate goals. Visualize: If you haven't tried this—it works! Imagine not only how you will benefit by achieving your goal, but also how you will feel. Adding the positive emotional component can boost your motivation. Organize: Preparation is key. It gives you clarity, makes you more efficient, and helps you avoid wasting energy and time. Reward Yourself: Reward yourself both for making progress while pursuing your goal and for attaining the ultimate outcome. It is important to reinforce your efforts. Building in small wins and rewards along the way can help motivate you and keep you on track

How are goals defined using the contingency approach? Be able to provide and example of each of the three types of goals that are identified in this approach.

a contingency approach. Do what the situation requires rather than applying a one-size-fits-all approach, relying on personal preferences, or doing something "the way it's always been done." Fit the behavior, policy, or practice to the situation. You can apply this same wisdom to goal setting. Learning and performance goals have their place, and SMART goals can give you a significant advantage over your competitors. However, another way to define goals is in terms of behavioral, objective, and task/project. Defining goals in this manner helps you ensure your goals match the situation. For instance, not all performance can or should be defined and measured in dollars and cents. BEHAVIORAL GOALS: Can be used in most jobs. Most relevant for knowledge work. Example: Treat others with professionalism and respect; communicate clearly OBJECTIVE GOALS: Best for jobs with clear and readily measured outcomes. Measure what matters, not just what can be measured. Examples: sales quotas, production rates, error rates TASK OR PROJECT GOALS: Best for jobs that are dynamic, but in which nearer-term activities and milestones can be defined. Similar to SMART goals. Example: Complete your portion of the team project by Tuesday. Once you've clarified expectations and set effective goals, it is necessary to monitor and evaluate your progress and ultimate level of achievement

What, in broad terms, are the situational factors that contribute to a positive work environment?

organizational culture and climate are the key situation factors that promote positive work environments, meaning they are critical to reaping the benefits of POB Organizational Climate consists of employees' shared perceptions of organizational policies, practices, procedures, and routines.108 Simply put, organizational climate reflects employees' beliefs about what they see going on at work and what is happening to them. These perceptions can range from positive and uplifting to negative and debilitating. Positive climates, such as one that supports safety, lead to positive outcomes like fewer accidents at work.109 Supportive climates—those in which employees believe the organization values their contributions, provides support, and cares about their well-being—can serve as a buffer against the demands and stressors in wide range of jobs.110 In contrast, negative climates that condone abusive supervision or fear are associated with negative outcomes, like less cooperation, less citizenship behavior, and lower performance.

What is the recommended feedback system for overcoming the perceptual errors that hinder performance monitoring and evaluation? What does this system entail?

performance evaluation The process of comparing performance at some point in time to a previously established expectation or goal. To do this, you obviously need something to compare, which is why measurement or verification is needed in some form. Rater/evaluator errors (a.k.a. biases) can undermine performance management systems. • Halo (or horn) effect To form an overall impression about a person or object and then use that impression to bias ratings about same. Example: Rating an employee positively across all dimensions of performance because the employee is so likable. Solution: Record examples of positive and negative employee performance throughout the year. Remember employee behavior tends to vary across different dimensions of performance. • Leniency To consistently evaluate other people or objects in an extremely positive fashion. Example: Rating an employee high on all dimensions of performance regardless of actual performance. Solution: Provide specific examples of both good and poor behavior so you can help the employee improve. Remember it does not help employees when they are given positive but inaccurate feedback. Be fair and realistic in evaluations. • Central tendency To avoid all extreme judgments and rate people and objects as average or neutral. Example: Rating an employee as average on all dimensions regardless of actual performance. Solution: Define an accurate profile, with high and low points, so you can help the employee improve. Remember it is normal to provide feedback that contains both positive and negative information. • Recency effects To over-rely on the most recent information. If it is negative, the person or object is evaluated negatively. Example: Rating an employee based only on the last portion of the review period. Solution: Accumulate examples of performance over the entire rating period. Remember to look for trends but accept some variance as normal. • Contrast effects To evaluate people or objects by comparing them with characteristics of recently observed people or objects. Example: Rating an employee as average, from a comparison of the employee's performance with the exceptional performance of a few top performers. Solution: Evaluate employees against a standard, rather than against the performance of your highest-performing employees. Remember that each employee deserves the objectivity in evaluation that a standard can provide. Some bias can be overcome with the use of 360-degree feedback. In 360-degree feedback, individuals compare perceptions of their own performance with behaviorally specific (and usually anonymous) performance information from their manager, subordinates, and peers. Such multi-rater feedback can also come from outsiders, such as customers or suppliers. These participants can help overcome positive or negative biases due to perceptions or manager-employee relationships. Collecting performance information from multiple sources helps the person being evaluated get a broad view of his or her performance, and it also highlights any biases and perceptual errors that might be occurring. Finally, using multiple raters also makes it much more difficult for managers to unfairly favor or punish particular employees. Research on 360-degree feedback, combined with your author's consulting experience, leads us to favor anonymity and also to discourage use of 360-degree feedback for pay and promotion decisions. When it is used for pay and promotions managers often resist and/or try to manipulate the process. However, multi-source feedback can be extremely helpful for training and development purposes.

What are the four recommended areas to consider for improving the measurement and monitoring of goals? Be able to identify these four common measures. Which form of measurement is considered to be a good fit for the behavioral type of goals? (see contingency approach)

performance monitoring Measuring, tracking, or otherwise verifying progress and ultimate outcomes How goals are measured should be consistent with the nature of the goal itself (e.g., behavioral, task oriented). • Managers need to monitor and evaluate both progress toward the final goal and the ultimate achievement of the goal. • Monitoring an opportunity to identify problems and recognize successes; also, an opportunity to enhance performance. Timeliness, quality, quantity and financial metrics are areas to consider when it comes to improving monitoring and measurement Timeliness. Was the work completed on time? Many customer service roles require representatives to answer calls within a certain number of rings, or to respond to customer requests in a certain number of hours or days. Quality. How well was the work done? A behavioral goal that could fit here is greeting customers warmly, personally, and with a smile. Measurement consists of observing and/or reporting that these actually occurred. Quantity. How much? Sales goals are common examples here, such as dollars or number of units sold. Financial metrics. What are the profits, returns, or other relevant accounting/financial outcomes? For instance, some law firms measure the performance of attorneys and the larger firm by calculating profits in dollars per partner. Which form of measurement is considered to be a good fit for the behavioral type of goals? (See contingency approach) Quality

Be able to distinguish between what a formal group vs. as informal group.

we define groups as collections of two or more individuals with low or no task dependency, who are not accountable to each other for their work, and who may or may not assemble for a specified period of time. Teams are collections of two or more individuals whose tasks and responsibilities depend on the other members, are collectively accountable for the performance and outcomes associated with their work, and work together for the time required for task completion. Group Characteristics What is a group? (1) Two or more freely interacting individuals who (2) share norms and (3) goals and (4) have a common identity. A formal group is assigned by an organization or its managers to accomplish specific goals. Such groups often have labels: work group, team, committee, or task force. An informal group exists when the members' overriding purpose in getting together is friendship or a common interest. Formal and informal groups often overlap, for instance, when a team of analysts play tennis after work.

What are the 3Cs of team effectiveness, according to our text? Be able to recognize each of the three and have an understanding of the importance of each.

• Charters and Strategies Both researchers and practitioners urge groups and teams to explicitly plan before tackling their tasks, early in the group development process (the storming stage). These plans should include team charters that describe how the team will operate, for instance, how members will share information, hold members accountable, deal with conflict, and make decisions.58 Team charters were discussed in the Winning at Work feature at the beginning of this chapter, and since charters help team members align, this is reason enough to give them a try.59 Teams should also create and implement team performance strategies, deliberate plans that outline what exactly the team is to do, such as goal setting and defining particular member roles, tasks, and responsibilities.60 • Team Composition Team composition describes the collection of jobs, personalities, knowledge, skills, abilities, and experience levels of team members.63 When we think of it this way, it is no surprise that team composition can and does affect team performance. Team member characteristics should fit the responsibilities of the team if the team is to be effective. Fit facilitates effectiveness and misfit impedes it—you need the right people on your team. • Capacity to Adapt Team adaptive capacity (adaptability) is the ability to make needed changes in response to demands put on the team.68 Like individuals and organizations, teams must adapt in order to thrive (and in some instances survive). It is fostered by team members who are both willing and able to adapt to achieve the team's objectives. Described in this way, team adaptive capacity is a matter of team composition—the characteristics of individual team members. Team researchers explain how effective adaptation often includes recognition of the need to change, reframing team member's skills and approach to the new demands, responding appropriately, and reflecting on the team's adaptive processes and outcomes. Considered together, it is clear that capacity is another critical element of effective teams *10 or less for team size