Exam 2 Com Theory
the unknowing emission of feelings
"Emotional leakage" refers to:
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
-Assumes two beliefs are related in a state of either consonance or dissonance. Holding two (or more) contradictory or inconsistent beliefs or ideas will cause psychological discomfort, which MUST be reduced. -Assumes that the more psychological discomfort (dissonance) we feel, the more we are motivated to change something to reduce this dissonance. Assumes that dissonance MUST be reduced; "cognitive law" that governs humans
language
A collection of signs, symbols, codes and rules used to construct messages.
compliance
Changing behavior without changing attitudes
How can you tell whether attitude change (persuasion), compliance, or coercion is involved?
Compliance or coercion are often the reverse of the belief-to-attitude-to behavior model and are not examples of persuasion
emblems
Nonverbal behaviors that are functionally equivalent to words are known as:
behavior that signals feelings of warmth, closeness, and involvement with another person
Nonverbal immediacy is defined as:
Variable Analytic Approach
Numerous experiments were conducted to examine variables (factors) related to: Source (source credibility, sex differences) Message (message structure, message appeals, language used in messages (e.g., intense language) Channel - (written vs. video vs. live messages) Receiver - (sex differences, personality factors associated with audiences such as self-esteem, authoritarianism, dogmatism, persuasibility, etc.
perceived behavioral control
Some people like to think about issues for a long time before making up their minds. The Elaboration Likelihood Model captures this idea in which of its variables?
usually enjoys telling people off
Someone who is high in trait argumentativeness engages in all of the following EXCEPT:
interpersonal conversations small group discussions all of these public speaking
Someone who suffers from high levels of trait communication apprehension would be likely to experience or discomfort in which of the following communication contexts?
systems perspective
This perspective is open, interacts with the environment, and emphasizes interconnectedness.
communi- biological perspective
This perspective suggests 3 neural circuits are the basis for verbal aggressiveness.
persuasion
This persuasive activity consists of attitude change.
social judgment theory
This persuasive theory says that receivers judge persuasive messages in terms of the receivers' current attitudes.
argumentative skill deficiency explanation of verbal aggressiveness
This reason for verbal aggressiveness says that some people become verbally aggressive because they do not know how to argue.
mobilization
This term refers to the ability of media to promote the national interest
proxemics
This term refers to the use of personal space.
Gerbner's Cultivation Theory
This theory asserts that television influences our perception of reality
Rogers' Diffusion Theory of Innovation
This theory explains how media influence people to adopt new ideas or behaviors
communication apprehension?
This theory has been investigated from trait, situational, context-based, and audience-based approaches.
cognitive dissonance theory
This theory is circular because any result supports the theory; it cannot be disproved.
Norton's Communicator Style Theory?
This theory is concerned not with what is said but HOW it is said.
elaboration likelihood model
This theory of persuasion says that messages processed differently in the brain will produce different persuasive results.
constructivist theory of source credibility
This theory of source credibility reflects the human action perspective.
Communication (or Speech) Accommodation Theory
This theory posits that people adjust their style of speaking to each other in order to gain approval
media dependency theory
This theory says that importance of media to individuals rather than number of hours viewed determines media influence
inoculation theory
This theory says that introducing then rebutting weak arguments against an opponent's position is likely to reduce persuasion.
magic bullet (or hypodermic needle) theory
This theory says that mass media messages affect people directly and uniformly
two-step (or multi-step) flow theory
This theory says that media influence us indirectly through opinion leaders
Searle's Speech Act Theory
This theory says that speakers follow both definition and behavior rules.
Searle's Speech Act Theory
This theory says that the same exact words can be used in many different ways
Theory of Planned Behavior
This theory says that we are influenced in persuasion by the norms of others in groups we associate with.
agenda-setting theory
This theory says the media tell us what to think ABOUT.
Noelle-Neumann's Spiral of Silence Theory?
This theory states that people who perceive themselves to be in the minority remain silent about their views
Theory of Planned Behavior
This theory uses a new variable to predict behavior change.
Theory of Planned Behavior
This theory uses the behavioral intention to predict the outcome of persuasion
central processing (in the ELM)
This type of processing results in long-term persuasion
Loftus' Question-Phrasing Theory
This verbal theory says that the way a question is framed can influence the receiver's recall from memory and answer to the question.
Constructivist model
suggests that credibility involves learning what it is about the source that has led the receiver to accept or reject the source's messages, does this by asking questions It rejects the factor approach and argues that there is no overall list of factors or functions that can be applied to examine source credibility in all situations.
Functional Model
suggests that the credibility of a person involves the degree to which a source satisfies the receiver's needs The more needs fulfilled by the source, the more credible the source is
Mobilization
the ability of the media to promote national interests, esp. in times of national crisis
pathos
the ability to lead the audience to experience a particular emotional state; translated: "the speaker's ability to arouse the emotions and feelings of the audience";
Surveillance
the information and news providing function of the media (e.g., reading newspapers, internet sites, Weather Channel, etc.)
agenda setting
the medias extensive and incessant coverage of airplane crashes and disasters is related to which concept from mass communication theory:
diffusion of innovations
the theory which explains how likely people are to adopt a new idea or product is called:
logos
the words and ideas of the speech itself Translated: "the use of well-reasoned arguments"
laws
uses and gratifications theory generally is considered an example of which theory building perspective:
arete
virtues of character prized by the audience; the defining essence of a person or thing (translated as "good character")
What is the difference between attitudes and behavior?
A person can be induced through coercion or compliance to behave in a certain manner that can lead to attitude change.
Parasocial interaction
A relationship that exists between television viewers and remote media communicators
false
A strength of cognitive dissonance theory is that it allows a persuade to predict accurately the kind of dissonance reduction strategy an audience will use.
heavy users
According to Gerbner, they are most influenced by television.
Nonverbal Expectancy Violations Theory
Burgoon developed this theory to explain what happens when others violate social norms.
expectancies, interpretation and evaluation, communicator reward valance
What are three important elements of expectancy violation theory?
ritualized use of television (from Uses & Gratifications Theory)
According to Rubin, watching television as a habit, for diversion.
word all of these answers sentence phrase
According to speech act theory, a speech act may be a:
opposites
According to the argumentativeness model, arguing and verbal aggressiveness are:
intentionally
According to your text, a communication act takes place when a source ______ produces a message.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of each route?
Advantages of the central route are that issue related thinking results in longer-lasting persuasion. Advantages of the peripheral route are that it is easy because the audience doesn't think critically about the message. The disadvantages of the central route are that it is more difficult to persuade someone who is thinking critically about a topic. The disadvantages of the peripheral route are that persuasion wears off quickly.
attitude
An evaluative predisposition toward an issue or topic
variable analytic perspective
Another name for the covering laws perspective
rhetoric
As the study of persuasive speaking, this subject played an integral role in the lives of Greeks and Romans
rhetoric
As the study of persuasive speaking, this subject played an integral role in the lives of Greeks and Romans.
George Gerbner's Cultivation Theory
Asserts that TV influences our view of reality, indeed, a causal relationship is suggested between TV viewing and perceptions of reality -TV is primarily responsible for our perceptions of reality *"Heavy" TV viewers perceive the world as more dangerous than "Light" TV viewers because of repeated exposure to violent TV
verbal aggressiveness
Attacking self-concept instead of or in addition to attacking ideas.
Theory of reasoned action
Attitudes are the Sum of Beliefs Beliefs Contribute to Attitudes Belief Strength Meanings of Beliefs Assumptions of the Theory Behavior is Intentional Normative Component Predicts the Intention to Behave
factor and functional approaches to source credibility
Both of these are covering laws theories of source credibility.
traits
Broad predispositions to behave in a particular manner that cause behavior to be very consistent.
subjective associations people provide to symbols
Connotative meaning refers to:
subjective associations people provide to symbols
Connotative meaning refers to: Question
exposed to the greatest number of consistent messages
Cultivation theory contends that the greatest amount of cultivation effects will be exihibited in audiences that are:
Factor Model
Ethos - the perceived credibility of a speaker Composed of a set of factors by which we judge a speaker: good will, good sense, good moral character (Aristotle's Rhetoric, 322 B.C.E.) More contemporary dimensions include: expertise, dynamism, trustworthiness, charisma Dependable Honest Keeps promises Acting for the good of others more so than for the good of self
subsystems
Every system contains smaller systems called _________.
suprasystem
Every system is itself part of a larger system called a _________.
Uses and Gratifications Theory
Explain how individuals use the media to gratify their needs, what do people do with the media? To discover the underlying motives for individuals' media use To identify the positive and negative consequences of individual media use
Theory of message design logics
Expressive Message Design Logics Conventional Message Design Logics Rhetorical Message Design Logics
Theory of planned behavior
Extension of the Theory of Reasoned Action Behavioral Intention is the Best Predictor of Behavior Factors of Behavioral Intention Attitude Toward the Act Normative Component Perceived Behavioral Control
human action (rules) perspective?
Followers of this perspective believe that the best way to understand why people behave a particular way is to ask them.
covering laws perspective
Followers of this perspective believe that the known is INDEPENDENT of the knower.
true
From the 1930s to the early 1970s, persuasion was probably the most widely researched concept in communication.
control the flow of information
Gatekeepers are individuals who:
factors in Aristotle's theory of source credibility (ethos)
Good sense, good moral character, and goodwill
Eunoia
Good will toward others; wishing the best for them. (translated as "good will")
You could strengthen their attitude toward the belief (by giving them a speech about the importance of quitting smoking), strengthen their normative component (by emphasizing how many of their friends think smoking is bad), or strengthen their perceived behavioral control (by emphasizing how many smokers have successfully quit and convincing them they'll be able to quit too). A positive change in any of the 3 variables will make the behavioral intention more positive, and the behavioral intention is related toward attitude change.
How could you use this theory to persuade an audience? (i.e. how would you manipulate the variables to result in the outcome?)
it is an extension of another theory. It is the only one that predicts behavior change rather than attitude change. The primary variable that predicts behavior change is the behavioral intention.
How is Fishbein and Ajzen's theory of planned behavior different from the other persuasion theories?
Compliance is defined as behavior change without attitude change.
How is compliance-gaining different from other persuasion theories?
It predicts well because variables 1, 2, and 3 above were related to behavior intentions and the behavioral intention is the best predictor of behavior that we have
How well does this theory predict (in advance)? Why?
the stimulus-response view of media influence
How well does this theory predict (in advance)? Why? How well does this theory explain (after media exposure occurs)? Why?
pathos
In Aristotle's theory, arguments designed to stir the audience's emotions.
both the trait and situational factors in the interaction
Interactionists maintain that communication behavior in a given situation depends on
both the trait and situational factors in the interaction
Interactionists maintain that communication behavior in a given situation depends on:
central route
Issue-Related Thinking Cognitive Elaboration of Message Content
body and movement
Kinesics refers to the study of:
Ego involvement/ social judgement theory
Latitude of Acceptance - represents all statements (positions) on an issue which the person finds acceptable, including your favorite position (the anchor position) Latitude of Rejection - represents all statements (positions) on an issue which the person finds objectionable and rejects Latitude of Non-commitment - consists of all statements (positions) the person neither accepts or rejects
openness
Living systems display this property toward their environments.
3 necessary criteria for a good theory?
Logically consistent, consistent with accepted facts, and testable.
"in people, not words"
Meanings are located here
True
One assumption of communication accommodation theory is that our perceptions of another's speech determines how we will evaluate and behave toward that person.
there is a relationship between language and perception
One important point developed by the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is that: Question options:
the more important the media will be to that person
One of the basic tenets of media dependency theory is that the more dependent an individual is on the media to fulfill his or her needs:
Diffusion Theory (*Diffusion of Innovations
Opinion leaders still exert influence on audience Change agents encourage O.L.'s to adopt or reject an innovation (usually have higher status than O.L.'s or followers) Gatekeepers control the flow of information to a group (e.g., editor of news show, newspaper, or the secretary of a department)
Spiral of Silence Theory
People use cues to assess opinion congruity People have a fear of social isolation The dominant view of the media influences opinions
paralanguage
Pitch, rate, volume, articulation, and pronunciation are related to which dimension of nonverbal communication:
parsimony
This describes a theory that has only a few elegant propositions and is logically simple.
Social Judgement theory
Predicts that successful persuasion depends on how the message is related to the person's current beliefs Suggests that assimilation and contrast effects occur in persuasion. Assimilation constitutes persuasion Contrast effects do not produce persuasion We have an anchor position from which we judge any incoming message; thus, we accept assimilated messages, but reject contrasted ones
uses and gratifications
Reasons we use particular media
extroverted
Research suggests that _______________ people are more skilled at portraying emotions nonverbally.
paralanguage (or paralinguistics)
This form of nonverbal communication is present in a telephone call.
falsify
Scientists conducting research actually try to ____ their theories.
both definition and behavior rules
Searle believes that speakers perform speech acts by observing:
Ways to reduce dissonance
Selective exposure - seeking only information which supports your position, or the choice you have already made Derogate the source - e.g., "the American Cancer Society doesn't know what it is talking about. It is biased and used biased research" Reject the message - e.g., "I don't believe that smoking causes cancer" Distort the source's position -"Dr. Proenza really agrees with me; he just can't say so publicly."
peripheral route
Situational Influences Guide Decisions Little Cognitive Elaboration of Message Content
true
Speech act theory suggests that language is rule-governed behavior.
connotative meanings
Subjective associations with words
Five Functions of Mass Communication
Surveillance, Correlation, Cultural Transmission, Entertainment, and Mobilization
teleological
Systems are called this because they are always trying to achieve some goal.
cross-situational consistency issue?
The 3 positions on this issue attempt to explain how consistent or inconsistent behavior is across time and conditions
boomerang effect
This is an example of the contrast effect in social judgment theory, people believe in their anchor beliefs even more.
the state or situationist perspective
The OPPOSITE of the communication trait perspective is:
cultural transmission
The ability to communicate the norms, rules and values of a society refers to which media function:
mobilization
The ability to promote national interests and behaviors during a national crisis refers to which media function:
Hyperpersonal perspective
The claim that CMC relationships are often more intimate than those developed when partners are physically together.
trait position
The communibiological perspective that takes the position that most human behavior is caused by "nature" rather than "nurture" would most likely believe which position best describes human behavior?
impression formation
The composite mental image one person forms of another
cultivation
The fact that New Year's Eve parties on television seem more exciting than the ones we actually attend is an example of what theory?
"describe, explain, predict, and control"?
The four ultimate goals of every theory."describe, explain, predict, and control"?
True
The greater the need for social approval, the greater the tendency for speech convergence.
true
The greater the need for social approval, the greater the tendency for speech convergence.
hierarchy
The levels of a system are part of its _____.
"non-word" communication
The literal meaning of nonverbal communication
agenda setting
The media's extensive and incessant coverage of airplane crashes and disasters is related to which concept from mass communication theory:
rhetorical message design logic
The most sophisticated type of message design logic
communicator reward valence
The nature of the relationship between the communication violator and the observer determines this.
General Systems Theory
The official name of the theory as Ludwig von Bertalanffy created it.
people provide meanings for words
The phrase, "Words don't mean; people mean," suggests:
mainstreaming
The power of television to present uniform images and thus influence culture across physical boundaries.
dialectic
The question-and-answer method of philosophy favored by Socrates & Plato.
proxemics
The study of how people use space to communicate is called:
wisdom
The term "sophists" comes from "sophos," the Greek word meaning ______.
a person's communication behavior remains relatively consistent from one situation to another
The trait explanation for understanding communication behavior suggests that:
fear appeals
The type of persuasion used in concepts such as "scared straight."
nonsummativity principle
The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
paradigms
These are "grand models" or sets of assumptions shared by many different theories.
symbols
These are artificial or conventional signs
(nonverbal) immediacy behaviors
These behaviors signal to others that we are available and interested in communicating
interactions
These indicate why a system is greater than the sum of its parts.
high self-monitors
These people are very aware of the impression they make on others.
trait theorist
They believe behavior is the result of broad, stable predispositions.
interactionist
They believe that behavior is the result of the combination of trait and situational factors.
Interactionists
They believe that behavior results from a combination of traits and situational components.
Situationists
They believe that behavior varies substantially with place and time
sophists
They traveled throughout Greek city-states teaching rhetoric.
communication competence
This communication trait involves communicating appropriately and effectively
resonance
This concept explains why people who experience real life events that they also see on television are most influenced by TV.
motivation to elaborate (from ELM)?
This concept refers to the fact that some people think more deeply about decisions than others.
signals
Thunder, lightning and dark clouds are ____________ of an approaching rainstorm.
encoding
Transforming ideas and information into messages.
Two features of CMC provide a rationale for SIP theory.
Verbal cues: CMC users can create fully formed impressions of others based solely on linguistic content of messages. Extended time: Though the exchange of social information is slower via CMC than face-to-face, over time the relationships formed are not weaker or more fragile.
feedback
Verbal or nonverbal reactions from a receiver to a message.
hypotheses
We form plans of action based on these statements of prediction.
A state of consonance is characterized by consistency. "I like my sorority, and my good friend likes my sorority." A state of dissonance is marked by inconsistency. "I like my sorority, but my friend does not like it."
What are consonance and dissonance?
directly and uniformly
What are the 2 main ideas of the magic bullet theory? (Media influence is ______ and _______.
The receiver's attitude toward the specific act or behavior Our beliefs about what valued others expect (normative component) Perceived behavior control: the degree to which a person believes he/she can control the behavior in question Behavioral intention: A person's intention to perform a specific behavior
What are the 4 major variables in the theory of planned behavior?
Atitutude change theories have a poor track record of predicting behavior. The successful performance of a behavior also depends on one's ability to control factors that either allow or prevent performance of that behavior, so the variable "perceived behavioral control" was added to the old theory of reasoned action to create the theory of planned behavior.
What problem with persuasion theories was the theory of planned behavior created to solve (by extending its predecessor, the theory of reasoned action)?
convergence
When individuals adopt each other's speech styles, we call that:
divergence
When individuals use language and vocalics to underscore DIFFERENCES between communicators, we call that:
attack an opponent's self-concept
When people are verbally aggressive, they:
innoculation theory
When the audience hears the weak argument(s), they will think of refutations for them. These refutations form a defense for attacking arguments which the audience may later become aware of.
psychological noise
When you "miss" an instruction because you were thinking about another class, you are a victim of this.
survelliance
Which function of mass communication is most violated when the news focuses too much on sensational and negative stories:
correlation
Which function of mass communication is usually involved with editorials:
attacking a person's ideas
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of verbal aggression?
Verbal aggressiveness has been found to escalate to physical violence.
Which of the following statements is true?
Elaboration Likelihood Theory and Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Which persuasion theories are receiver-centered, that is they focus on the ways receivers process messages that result in persuasion?
Theory of Reasoned Action and Theory of Planned Behavior
Which persuasion theories combine both sender and receiver perspectives?
high argumentatives are perceived unfavorably
Which statement is FALSE according to research on arguing?
"language influences perception"
Whorf and Sapir's theory of linguistic relativity.
belief
a perception of how two or more things are related.
critiques of sip
argue that the theory falls into the common sociology-pyschological ideology of determinism *if our interpersonal relationship are a product of the # of nonverbal cues afforded by the comm medium, are we free to choose how & w/ whom we develop relationships 2. They argue the theory does not fully account for how group identification structures CMC relationship development *Walther=committed to discovering cause/effect relationships Postmes & Baym=committed to human choice -Walther is an open critic himself i.e. says hyper-personal perspective not a theory (does this because some aspects still under research)
SIP
relationships grow only to the extent that parties first gain information about each other and use that information to form impressions. *SIP is consistent w/ social penetration theory & uncertainty reduction theory
covering laws
cultivation theory is generally considered to fall within which major theory building perspective:
Resosnance
he intensified effect on the audience when what people see on TV is similar to what they have experienced in life. For example, heavy viewers who have experienced physical violence get a double dose of it
attitude
how favorably we evaluate something (i.e., a learned predisposition to respond, favorably or unfavorably, to some object, event, person, etc.)
Correlation
how the media selects, interprets, and criticizes the information they present to the public (editorials on radio, TV, newspapers, magazines), media campaigns (e.g., USA for Africa). This function also confers status on selected individuals
Elaboration Likelihood Theory
information is Processed Differently Based on Two Characteristics Characteristics of the Message Central Route Characteristics of the Situation Peripheral Route
Two-step Flow Theory
information moves from media to opinion leaders, who then pass this information (albeit interpreted and filtered) to others who come to opinion leaders for information.
coercion
involves use of physical and verbal aggression
Entertainment
media helps fill our leisure time by presenting messages filled with comedy, drama, tragedy, play, performance. Relief from boredom, stimulates emotions, keeps us company, allows us to experience situations we would ordinarily not experience
Cultural Transmission
media's ability to communicate norms, rules, values of society, the "teaching function of the media"
value
our enduring conception of the nature of good and bad
Mainstreaming
power of TV to present uniform images, TV blurs economic and political distinctions
phronesis
practical wisdom (translated as "good sense")
parasocial interaction
pseudo-relationship that viewers believe they have with television personas
ethos
refers to the perceived credibility of a speaker (Greek term refers to the folkways of a people -- what a society values) "the most governing form of persuasion" because it affects all the others;
According to SIP, what is the major advantage of face-to-face relationships over online relationships (computer mediated communication or CMC)?
we disclose more quickly through CMC * 4 types of media effects that occur precisely b/c CMC users aren't F2F & don't have full range of nonverbal cues available 1. Sender: Selective Self-Presentation 2. Receiver: Over attribution of Similarity 3. Channel: Communicating on Your Own Time 4. Feedback: Self-fulfilling Prophecy *this method may improve groups w/ history of tension i.e. Jews/Muslims
curvlinear hypothesis
when receivers are either very fearful or very unafraid, little attitude or behavior change results. People tend to block out high fear messages, and low fear messages are to weak to produce the desired effect
surveillance
when you listen to the radio to learn whether or not classes will be canceled because of snow, which function of mass communication are you exemplifying?
mass media and communication, individual and interpersonal communication, public opinon
which three areas does spiral of silence theory concern:
