Exam 3

Define homophobia

Fear, anxiety, or avoidance of homosexuals. Term is not preferred because it makes it sound like a clinical condition, not a societal issue.

(p. 460-466) What is the difference between 1) agentic and 2) communal traits?

1) (competence) = stereotypically male traits: independent, strong, self-confident. 2) (warmth) = stereotypically female traits: emotional, helpful, kind.

What are the three things that can be done to reduce stereotype threat? What were the main findings of Aronson's study on an "incremental" view of ability?

1) Do not make threatened identities salient before test. 2) Encourage self-affirmation. 3) Emphasize an incremental view of ability. Aronson's study manipulated beliefs about intelligence. Studied 7th graders in Texas. One group was told nothing. Other group told intelligence changes over lifetime (incremental). Results: Gender gap nearly gone in incremental condition.

(p. 541-546) 1) What is stereotype suppression? 2) What is rebound effect?

1) Involves pushing the unwanted thought out of mind. 2) An enhanced return of suppressed thought that follows an attempt to suppress.

(p. 471-478) Define 1) hostile and 2) benevolent sexism. Give an example of each.

1) Negative attitudes and beliefs toward women. Women perceived as seeking to control men through sexuality and feminist ideology. Angry w/ and want to punish non-traditional women. 2) Postive attitudes and beliefs toward women. Women are idealized, put on pedestal to be adored and protected. Treat women as nice but not self-sufficient. Reward traditional women.

1) What is a benign stigma? 2) What is a social stigma?

1) short-lived, temporary (Ex. acne, speech impediment) 2) stable, irreversible (Ex. race, mental illness)

(p. 442) What is stereotype lift?

A negative out-group stereotype increases performance for non-stigmatized group.

(Lecture) What is stereotype embodiment?

Age stereotypes are internalized across the life span. People who hold negative age stereotypes when they are young may be harmed when they grow older.

What is the double standard of aging?

Aging occurs earlier and has more serious consequences for women than men. Women report feeling old at 29. Men report feeling old at 58. Women's estimate seems based on their physical appearance. Men's seem based on their career ending.

What is gender polarization? Give an example.

Assumption that gender-association characteristics are bipolar. What is masculine = not feminine What is feminine = not masculine Ex. women baking, flowers, sewing OR men hunting, fishing, playing sports.

(p. 431-435) Define personal/group discrimination discrepancy (PGDD).

Believe your group is more likely to be discriminated against than you as individual. Readily admit their group has been discriminated against. Deny personal experience of discrimination.

What were the main findings of the Steele & Aronson (1995) stereotype threat studies 1 & 4?

Black and white participants were given difficult problems to solve. Participants were either told that it is related to intelligence or is unrelated to intelligence. There were more correct answers when the test did not measure intelligence.

Describe the multiculuralism perspective.

Citizens encouraged to retain their cultural heritage. Minority members develop two overlapping (not competing) group identities: own ethnic heritage, and national identity.

According to the Fredrickson et al. (1998) swimsuit study, how does self-objectification impact women's math performance?

Coaxes women to view themselves through same objectifying lens. See and treat themselves as objects to be looked at and used. Men and women completed a math test. Half wore sweaters and half wore swimsuits during the test. Results: Women who performed swimsuits performed worse. Later study: Women high in trait self-objectification most likely to show impairment when wearing swimsuit.

(p. 551-559) What are the 4 necessary conditions for the contact hypothesis?

Equal status, cooperation, acquaintance potential, and institutional support.

What two factors discussed in lecture impact whether a person will recognize discrimination when it occurs?

Group identification: Highly identified react to obvious and subtle discrimination. Low identified only react to obvious discrimination. Stigma consciousness: chronic belief that live in a stereotyped world.

Describe the gender differences in heterosexism.

Heterosexual men show greater prejudice than heterosexual women. Men must demonstrate their masculinity by rejecting femininity in themselves and others.

According to the Shen et al. (2004) study, how does threatened masculinity impact heterosexism?

If so, then anti-gay prejudice should increase following masculinity threats. Men completed test masculinity/femininity. Half told scored as "feminine" (close to female average) Half told scored as "masculine" (close to male average). They then rated emotions toward "effeminate gay men" or "masculine gay men". Results: Men whose masculinity were threatened were more hostile towards effeminate gay man.

How does level of prejudice impact the rebound effect?

Low prejudice is less likely to show rebound.

(p. 420-423) What does it mean to belong to a stigmatized group?

Individuals who are in a group that do not share a privileged status

(p. 546-550) What is self-control? What are the two characteristics of self-control, according to the limited resource model?

Inhibition of unwanted responses. Self-Control is a General Resource and Self-Control is Limited Resource.

(p. 498-508) Define ageism

Judgements about someone simply due to their age.

Are overweight people more or less likely to be hired and promoted?

Less likely to be hired, they receive lower salaries, and less likely to be promoted.

(Lecture) According to the DeJong (1980) study, how do attributions influence anti-fat prejudice?

Manipulated attribution of target's weight. Target was obese or healthy weight. Had a thyroid problem (external attribution) or not (internal attribution). Results: person who was obese and had an external attribution was liked more than the person who was obese and had an internal attribution.

What were the main findings of the Adams et al. (1996) erection study.

Measured heterosexism. Men viewed 3 erotic films: heterosexual, 2 women, and 2 men. Results: Only homophobic men showed sexual arousal while watching male homosexual film.

Masculinity Contingency Scale (MCS)

Measures degree that a man derives his self-worth from his sense of masculinity.

According to the Hess et al. (2003) study, do older adults experience stereotype threat?

Men and women completed a memory test. Half were old (mean age = 70). Half were young (mean age = 19). Stereotype threat condition: before test half read article stating older adult's memory skills are worse than younger adults (St threat). Controller condition: Other half read no age differences in memory skills. Results: Older adults only performed worse in stereotype threat conditions.

According to the Gervais et al. (2011) study, how does an objectifying gaze impact women's math performance?

Men and women worked with opposite-sexed "partner". For half, partner gave "objectifying gaze" and wrote comment that their partner "was looking good". Results: Women who received gaze performed worse on math test.

(Lecture) According to the Abrams et al. (2003) study, how do these two types of sexism work together to encourage sexual violence against women?

Men high in hostile sexism more likely to commit rape. Men high in benevolent sexism more likely to say victim deserved it. Two beliefs systems work together to conceal and perpetuate sexual violence. The result found that in the date rape scenario, victim blame was much higher.

How do these two types of sexism work together to "keep women in their place"?

Men high in hostile sexism were more likely to commit rape. Men high in benevolent sexism were more likely to say the victim deserved it. Two belief systems work together to conceal and perpetuate sexual violence.

(Lecture) According to the Stermer & Burkley (2001) video game study, how do video game characters impact men's blame of a rape victim?

Men played a video game with objectifying or non-objectifying female characters. Then read same date rape scenario used by Abrams et al. Men who played objectifying game blamed rape victim more.

What is the sexual orientation hypothesis?

More likely to believe "feminine men are gay" than "masculine women are lesbians". Assume femininity in boys is permanent. But, masculinity in girls in temporary, and will grow out of it.

(p. 531-534) Compared to other stigmatized groups, do overweight people think they are more or less deserving of their prejudice?

Overweight people are more likely to think they are deserving than other stigmatized groups.

Is there a double standard for anti-fat prejudice?

Overweight women are judged more harshly than overweight men.

Describe the motivational explanation for PGDD.

People are motivated to deny or minimize personal discrimination. People also blame themselves for their situation (Ex. obesity). They also want to avoid being seen as a whiner.

How does self-control impact stereotype suppression?

People depleted of self-control resources are more prejudice. Decline in self-control over lifespan explains the increase in prejudice among the elderly. But you can "work out" your self-control muscle.

Describe the cognitive explanation for PGDD.

People may use different comparison standards to judge their own vs. group's discrimination. When judging group experience, compare in-gorup to out-groups. The judging own experience, compare to own in-group members.

(p. 575-578) Describe the color-blind perspective. Given an example.

People should ignore or fail to see race and sex differences.

According to the Gailliot et al. (2007) posture study, how does practicing self-control impact stereotype suppression?

People who practiced self-control for 2 weeks were able to suppress stereotypes without depleting their self-control.

What is projection?

Perceiving one's negative qualities in others.

Perceiver

Person who holds the prejudice

Target

Person who is targeted by the prejudice

(p. 526-531) Describe the what-is-beautiful-is-good stereotype (i.e., how are attractive people stereotyped)? Are attractive people more or less happy than unattractive people? How does this stereotype impact court decisions?

Physically attractive people evaluated more positively. There is no difference in amount of happiness for attractive or unattractive people. The more attractive someone is the less they were punished in court decisions.

How does the attribution-value model relate to anti-fat prejudice

Prejudice depends on whether perceiver believes target is responsible for their negative situation. Internal attributes lead to greater prejudice. Stereotypes of overweight indicate most see overweight people as personally responsible for their situation (internal). Being fat is seen as a choice.

Disidentification

Redefining one's self-concept so that a domain is not longer an area of self-identification.

What are superordinate goals? According to the Robbers Cave study, how do they impact prejudice?

Rigged "problems" that could only be solved by groups coming together. Intergroup cooperation greatly reduced prejudice.

(p. 550-551) What were the main findings of the Shelton (2003) study?

Shelton found that white students who were motivated to avoid acting in a prejudiced manner were better liked by their black interaction partners than were white students who were not so motivated, suggesting the white students' efforts not to appear prejudiced were successful. However, in their efforts to appear unprejudiced, white participants enjoyed the interaction less and felt more anxious.

(p. 479-491) Define heterosexism. How has heterosexism in America changed over time?

Socially based ideology linked to stigmatization and discrimination towards homosexuals.

What is concealability? How does it relate to stigma?

Some stigmas can be hidden. (Ex. Mixed race, social orientation) Concealing stigma does not necessarily reduce the guilt and shame.

(Lecture) What is objectification?

Specific type of sexism. Occurs whenever a women's body, body parts, or sexual functions are separated out from her person. Women treated as objects (just bodies) that exist for pleasure of men.

According to Levy's studies (2002, 2009), how does stereotype embodiment impact physical health in older adults?

Started with a sample of 18-39 year olds and followed them for 38 years. Controlled for family history. Young people with negative age stereotypes were twice as likely to have a heart attack. Also, those with positive perceptions about aging lived 7.3 years longer than those with negative perceptions.

(p. 436-441) Define stereotype threat. Give an example.

Stigmatized group members are afraid that they will confirm negative stereotypes.

(p. 428-430) What is attributional ambiguity? How does it relate to stigma?

Stigmatized members never know if feedback is based on: actual ability and achievement or prejudice.

According to the Macrae et al. (1994) skinhead studies 1 & 2, how does the rebound effect impact stereotyping?

Study 1 results: For the second passage, those who suppressed earlier showed more stereotypes Study 2 results: Those who suppressed earlier sat further away.

(Box 12.1 on p. 464) What is face-ism?

Tendency for media to feature men's faces and women's bodies.

(p. 466-468) What is the women-are-wonderful effect?

The global category "women" is viewed more positively than the global category "men".

How do warmth and competence stereotypes relate to ageism?

The group stereotypes fall on these dimensions.

What factor makes people more likely to experience stereotype threat?

The more you are aware of the prejudice, value your group, and care about your domain, the more you will be affected by stereotype threat. The best students will experience ST not the worst.

What are the common stereotypes associated with overweight people?

They are lazy, unhappy, and powerless.

(Lecture) What happens when boys/men are exposed to objectifying female images?

They are more likely to endorse sexist attitudes and stereotypes. They rate "real-world" women as less attractive. They are less satisfied with current partner.

(Lecture) What happens when girls/women are exposed to objectifying female images?

They have greater body dissatisfaction and shame. They are more preoccupied with losing weight and plastic surgery. They display low self-esteem, eating disorders, and depression. They are more sexually promiscuous and less likely to protect themselves. Also more likely to endorse sexist attitudes and stereotypes.

According to the Richeson & Nussbaum (2004) IAT study, which perspective increases pro-White bias?

Those primed with color-blind showed greater pro-White IAT bias than those primed with multiculturalism.

(p. 424-427) What is tokenism?

When one gender or ethnicity is in the majority and only a few individuals from another gender or ethnicity are represented

(p. 423-424) What is stigma by association? Give an example.

Where a "courtesy stigma" is bestowed upon the majority member who associates with the stigmatized group.

What were the main findings of the Crocker (1991) blinds study?

White and Black students received positive or negative feedback from White peer. Half thought the evaluator could see them (blinds-up) and half thought they couldn't see them (blinds-down). Measured participants' attribution of feedback to discrimination and self-esteem after feedback. Results: Blacks were more likely to attribute negative feedback to prejudice when "seen" by evaluator. Being seen by the evaluator buffered Blacks' self-esteem from negative feedback. But it hurt self-esteem in response to positive feedback.

(Lecture) According to the Apfelbaum et al. (2008) Guess Who study, how do Black observers rate someone who uses the colorblind approach during an interracial interaction?

White observers rated those who did mention race as more prejudiced. Black observers rated those who did not mention race as more prejudiced. Conclusion: Color-blind strategy backfires during interracial interactions.

What were the main findings of the Stone et al. (1999) golf study?

Whites and blacks performed a golf test. The test was either described as a measure of intelligence or athleticism. Blacks performed better in the athletic condition. Whites performed better in the intelligence condition.

(Lecture) What was the main finding of the Cotner & Burkley (2011) fashion study?

Who is more fashionable? Gay or Straight Men? Gay and straight men took a fashion test. Indicated sexual orientation before or after test. Results: Gay men outperformed straight men, but only when they indicated sexual orientation first. (i.e. stereotype was salient)

What is the discrimination-affection paradox?

Women are viewed positively but still experience discrimination.