Feedback and Performance Management

Gabriel et al. (2014)

- FES is not good for everyone. - FES can increase employee empowerment (meaning, competence, and self-determination), but only when FO is high. - When FO is low, FES to meaning is weaker and FES to competence and self-determination is negative.

Zingoni & Byron (2017)

- Feedback can be perceived as valuable and/or threatening as a function of IPT and standard (relative/absolute). - Relative FB is more valuable/threatening for entitists. - Incrementalists see absolute, negative FB as more valuable. - The relationship btw IPT and effort/learning is explained by value. - IPT is malleable thru self-persuasion Heslin et al., 2005.

Heslin et al. (2006)

- IPT is malleable and has implications for managers' coaching and subordinate development. - Managers are less willing to coach and develop if they have a fixed mindset. - Incrementalism/Growth mindset can be induced using self-persuasion techniques that leverage cognitive dissonance.

Borden et al., (2017)

- Leader arrogance (engaging in behaviors that convey superiority) is a poison. - With arrogant leaders, EEs report less favorable FE with subsequent lower levels of morale (JS/AC), FBS, and higher burnout. - FE mediates the relationship between arrogant leadership and outcomes. - The follow-on effects on morale and FBS are stronger for those high in FO and weaker for those who are low.

Dimotakis et al. (2017)

- More positive feedback relates to higher improvement S-E with carry-on effects for FBS and promotion. - Negative feedback reduced S-E, but social support for development (more support) and IPT (incrementalist) buffered this effect.

Kraimer et al. (2011)

- Org. support for development only relates positively to perf and negatively to turnover when perceived career opportunities are also high. - Participation in training classes, LMX, and career mentoring are positively related to org. support for development.

Anseel & Lievens (2007)

FES is related to job satisfaction through LMX. - Time-lagged design, dutch sample. Better for inferring that FES precedes LMX and JS (Diefendorff et al. 2021)

Rasheed et al., (2015)

FO relates to performance thru satisfaction, a reaction. Understanding how individual differences and reactions is important to understanding a FB episode.

Gong et al. (2020)

The feedback environment is even more important for those who don't fit in... - FBS (inq, mon) related to career adaptability through FES. - The FBS to FES relationship was more positive for individuals with poor P-O fit. - Adaptability is an individuals' ability to ready themselves for predicted tasks, adjust to their work role, and anticipate changes in work conditions.

Dahling et al. (2012)

The relationship between FO and LMX, Supe-rated perf is explained by FBS (Inquiry). - Controlled for self-reported EI and FES.

Karakowsky et al. (2020)

• A leaders' displays of humor can influence FBS. Leader humor increases FBS. This occurs by increasing perceptions of affective and cognitive trust in the leader which respectively, and in turn, reduces the perceived cost/risk while increasing the value of FBS

Heslin et al. (2012)

• A model of discrimination in the workplace proposing that discrimination can lead to minorities experiencing a harder time finding work (access discrimination) and a harder time keeping work (treatment discrimination), these experiences, along with witnessing role models go through similar experiences can lead people to become discouraged workers (due to decreased job search self-efficacy, learned helplessness, and minority socialization and stigmatized minority identity)

Bear et al (2017)

• A theory paper advancing a model whereby gender moderates the relationship between power retention conditions (e.g., cultural norms) and power retention mechanisms (e.g., FB delivery, FB reactions) with downstream effects on leadership outcomes (e.g., selection as leader, leadership opportunity seeking)

Spence & Keeping (2011)

• A theory paper suggesting that regulatory focus theory may impact rater accuracy as promotion-focused individuals will rate to strengthen relationships / get positive outcomes., while prevention-focused individuals will rate to ensure they do not jeopardize relationships / avoid negative outcomes. • In PA raters are motivated to... o achieve/maintain positive relationships w/ subordinates o achieve/maintain positive image of themselves and their workgroup o achieving maintaining behavior that is aligned with org norms/goals

Motro & Ellis (2017)

• Acting in a manner that is incongruent with your role can be damaging. When men cry, they are labeled as atypical, which has consequences for how others evaluate them at work, leading to lower performance evaluations, assessments of leadership capability, and a more negative tone in letters of recommendation. • Congruent with role congruity theory. Men are supposed to be agentic and act in a dominant manner

Linderbaum, & Levy (2010)

• Advances the feedback orientation scale which measures an individual's receptivity to feedback. • FOS positively associated with increased role clarity, more favorable FE, increased FBS, and higher job involvement. • Positively associated with self-efficacy, learning goal orientation, and positive affect. • Four dimensions - utility, accountability, social awareness, and feedback self-efficacy. • Can be used diagnostically

Heilman & Chen (2005)

• Altruistic behavior (OCBs) is seen as more mandatory for women than it is for men, due to sex stereotypes (women needing to be supportive and communal) therefore women are expected to do altruistic OCBs, and when they perform them - they are not rewarded (in perf ratings), while men are, and when they don't do them, they are penalized, while men are not

Gong et al. (2017)

• An extension of Gabriel et al. (2014) to a sample of Chinese police officers. • SFE is negatively related to burnout through psychological empowerment, but only for those with High FO

Ilgen et al. (1993)

• Appraisal (performance) is a specific case of social cognition where behavior is observed, organized/stored, and recalled/evaluated. o Looking at the rating process alone is insufficient. o Raters evaluate as they observe and evals impact what they observe, neutral observation is impossible. o Errors are not necessarily inaccuracy (true halo) o Rater expectations and rating purpose affects ratings o Process research isn't enough, you must focus on social influences

Adler et al. (2016)

• Arguments for and against getting rid of performance ratings. Authors argue we should keep them while acknowledging they need improvement. In short, artificial tradeoffs are driving companies to abandon ratings, so we need to do a better job of addressing the issues at play

Gregory & Levy (2015) - FB Delivery

• Be selective about the medium (face-to-face is preferred), provide feedback as quickly and timely as possible, wait until feedback can be delivered privately (unless the feedback pertains to a group or team more broadly), and try to provide frequent (just-in-time), informal, process-oriented feedback when possible

Five basic arguments of FIT (Kluger & DeNisi, 1996)

• Behavior is regulated by comparisons of feedback to goals or standards. • Goals or standards are organized hierarchically • Attention is limited and therefore only feedback-standard gaps that receive attention actively participate in behavior regulation • Attention is normally directed to a moderate level of the goal hierarchy (not too hard, not too easy) • FIs change the locus of attention for individuals, this driving behavioral change" (p. 259)

Koopman et al. (2016)

• Both sides of the OCB coin. OCBs are positively related to positive affect, but also negatively related to perceptions of work goal progress. Generally, OCBs improve job satisfaction and affective commitment via positive affect, but they also increase emotional exhaustion and deteriorate job satisfaction and affective commitment via perceptions of work goal progress. • Regulatory focus plays a role too. Being promotion focused enhances the positive relationship between OCBs and positive affect. Having a prevention focus enhances the negative relationship between OCB and perceptions of work goal progress

Ashford et al. (2017)

• CEO feedback seeking (inquiry) and vision articulation are associated with improved top mamagement team potency and firm performance. Leaders who have difficulty communicating clear visions would benefit from high feedback seeking behavior

Speer et al. (2019)

• Calibration meetings are shown to increase rater accuracy (in the perf domain) by increasing the raters' information, perceived sense of accountability, and frame of reference. • These work because they require raters to justify their decisions. • These meetings are different from frame of reference meetings because they are o (1) they are done close to ratings o (2) concern actual ratings o (3) allow for the sharing of current rater information with other sources

Peterson (2002)

• Coaching Review • Coaching used to be used for "fixing bad employees." Now, it's primarily used to improve leaders who have a motivation to improve. Many coaches don't have behavioral science training, this could be a problem

Ely et al. (2010)

• Coaching review. o Self-reported changes in clients' leadership behaviors are the most frequently assessed coaching outcome, then clients' perceptions of the effectiveness of coaching. o Measurement issues (1) different outcomes matter to different stakeholders (2) too leader centric to date o Three areas of future research (1) collection of multi-source data (2) consideration of multi-level effects (3) formative evaluations of the client, coach, client-coach relationship, and coaching process

Dahling et al. (2016)

• Coaching skill and frequency matter. We don't need more bad coaching. • When skill is low, frequency is negatively related to performance (sales goal attainment). • Wen skill is high, coaching lead to increased performance (sales), partially explained by greater team-level role clarity

Levy et al. (1995)

• Context (public/private setting) and individual trait differences (public self-consciousness, social anxiety, self-esteem) interact in (1) people's intentions to seek FB, (2) how often they modify intentions and (3) how often they actually seek feedback. • 3 motives involved in FBS o (1) Desire for feedback - reducing uncertainty. o (2) Desire to protect ego - self esteem preservation. o (3) Desire to manage impressions - positive self-presentation. • To increase FBS: choose a private setting. This is especially true for those with high self-esteem • Self-conscious, anxious people are more likely to seek feedback

He et al. (2021)

• Contrary to prevalent thinking that pay for performance negatively impacts OCBs. PFP was found to lead to supervisor-rated helping behaviors when performance was subjectively rated. This occurred because workers had an explicit belief that there was a link between helping behavior and individual performance appraisal outcome (i.e., expectancy). By contrast, PFP was unrelated to OCBs when performance was NOT subjective

Gregory & Levy (2015) - Theory underlying FB

• Control theory (big citation is Carver & Scheier, 1998) = "the basic premise of control theory is that people attempt to regulate their performance on a task by actively monitoring their behavior relative to some standard."

Herkman at al. (2017)

• Diversity valuing behavior (i.e., promoting demographic equality) has downsides for women and people of color. The relationship between DVB and performance is mediated by perceived competence and this relationship is moderated by race/sex on the "a" path. • Specifically, women and POC who engage in DV behavior received lower ratings of competence which had follow-on effects including decreased performance ratings. This chain of events is thought to occur because DV behavior makes EEs' association w/ lower status groups more salient - which seems to trigger stereotypes

Donia et al. (2016)

• Empirical research supporting Halbesleben (2010) that found supervisors made accurate attributions of their subordinate's motives, effectively distinguishing between selfless and self-serving motives. • These findings suggest that the quality of the overall contributions of employees may in fact differ

Gregory & Levy (2011)

• Employee coaching (manager as coach) is coaching that takes place between an employee and his or her direct manager, wherein the manager fills the coaching role. • Supervisors can help nurture high quality coaching relationships by leading with individual consideration, creating a positive feedback environment, building trust, and demonstrating empathy

Dachner et al. (2019)

• Employee development has traditionally been seen as an organizational responsibility, but has more recently morphed into something employees take responsibility for. This new proactive approach adheres to four principles: anticipating skill needs, identifying options for learning, creating opportunities for growth, and recognizing the benefits

Bolino et al. (2015)

• Engaging in citizenship behaviors demands resources from people and thus can cause a person to feel worn out/fatigued, and they are subsequently less likely to engage in OCBs. The relationship between OCB and subsequent fatigue was weaker when POS and Team-Member Exchange were high and stronger when citizenship pressure high

Speer (2020)

• Even though managers are motivated by social and environmental factors when making ratings, ability (GMA) still matters. GMA has an established, positive relationship with rating quality. Operational PA judgments take place in inherently complex environments (e.g., long periods of time between observations), and being able to process information accurately in those contexts benefits from high GMA

Sheldon et al. (2014)

• Expands the Dunning-Kruger effect to Emotional Intelligence abilities as well as how people respond to negative performance feedback on those abilities. Generally, people overestimate their own aptitude and that intention to self-improve is positively associated with performance ability. Those who received negative feedback about their own abilities tended to deflect this feedback by questioning the accuracy of the measure or the relevance of the skill to their work

Gregory & Levy (2015) - FB Context

• FB NEVER occurs in a vacuum. Source, message, and recipient are important. • Favorable FB environments are characterized by credible source, high quality FB, effective FB delivery, mix of +/- FB, available source, FBS. • Favorable FB outcomes are Org Commit, Job Satis, Helping Behaviors, Higher performance, Employee morale, less org. politics, role clarity, more FBS, better LMX, greater personal control, reduced depression/helplessness, lower TI.

Gregory & Levy (2015) - FB Sign and Type

• FB paradox: negative FB is the most valuable, but least desired and most likely to be dismissed. • To fix • Educate people on it before providing it • Focus feedback on specific behaviors and actions relevant to a process, not the person/self.

Anseel et al. (2015)

• FBS Meta-Analysis • The instrumental motive for FBS may be stronger than ego or image. • The relationship between uncertainty and FBS is negative (blow to uncertainty reduction theory) • Only FB inquiry and not FB monitoring is associated with performance o Not equivalent indicators, best to separate them. • Support for a cost value framework of FBS as value (but not cost) perceptions are positively related to FBS. • Negative: Tenure and age. • Positive: FO, SE, Transformational leadership, Relationship quality, Job satisfaction, negative and positive FB

Dahling et al. (2015)

• FBS motives matter. The SFE relates to feedback seeking (inquiry) through the instrumental motives for FBS. This has downstream effects for supervisor-rated task performance, but only for those with low image enhancement motives

Katz et al. (2021)

• FE Meta Analysis. FE has important relationships with individual differences, job attitudes, well-being, feedback- and work-related perceptions, and performance and work behaviors. Additionally, FE adds predictive validity to LMX and FO for burnout, feedback seeking, job satisfaction, OCB, performance, and role clarity. • FE was most strongly related to feedback orientation. • Relationships between feedback environment and job attitudes were moderately strong (JS is strongest). • FE moderately related to well-being constructs (positive relationship -- empowerment and a negative - burnout). • FE strongly associated with work-related perceptions, especially those tied to dyadic perceptions (i.e., trust, LMX, and coaching behaviors). • FE is positively related to supervisor-rated job performance, supervisor-rated contextual performance (i.e., OCB), and feedback seeking behaviors. • Coworker-source feedback is less studied. • CWFE has weaker positive relationships with measures of performance than supervisor-source feedback environment. • CWFE was more strongly related to coworker-source feedback seeking as compared to the supervisor- source feedback environment. o Feedback relationships between coworkers may drive feedback seeking from coworkers. • CWFE strongly related to FO and POS • FE was the dominant predictor (over LMX and FO) in predicting burnout, and to a lesser extent, OCBs

Sparr & Sonnentag (2008)

• FE has implications for well-being and it positively related to job satisfaction & negatively related to job depression, turnover intentions, and anxiety. Helplessness shown to be a stronger mediator of the relationship between FE and wellness outcomes. Both quality and quantity of FE are important for well-being at work

Wang et al., (2014)

• FO Utility and social awareness may change over time. • Age differences in how older and younger workers react to and process performance FB. Based on SST (Carstensen, 1991) • Older workers had higher levels of FO-social awareness, but lower levels of FO- utility than younger workers. • Positive associations between aspects of the FE (favorability / delivery) and FB reactions were stronger for older workers than for younger workers. • Positive association between FB quality and FB reactions was stronger for younger workers than for older workers

Chawla et al. (2016)

• Focus on 3 ways to leverage research on FB receptivity to improve PM: 1) cultivate supportive feedback environments 2) integrate employee coaching into PM systems 3) attend to the characteristics of FB recipients to understand how they process FB (i.e., pay attention to individual differences)

Ahmad et al. (2020)

• Follower behavior too can influence leaders' behavior. Leaders claim moral credit for their followers' OCBs, which frees them to act unethically. When followers perform OCBs, leaders are more likely to grant themselves moral credit to behave unethically. This is an especially strong relationship when leader narcissism is high or when they identify with their followers

Halbesleben et al. (2010)

• Following an attribution model of motives (event-attribution-perceived motive-emotional response-behavioral response). • As supervisors observe OCBs they evaluating several factors o locus of control- is it internally trait driven or driven by the situation o controllability - are they selecting this OCB based on the idea that it will get them something o stability - do they generally engage in OCBs or is it out of the ordinary • This evaluation leads to attributing a motive - either impression management, organizational concern, or prosocial • Motives create an emotional reaction (impression management = anger, org concern & prosocial = happiness). Anger leads to more negative performance reviews, while happiness leads to more positive performance reviews

Zhao et al. (2020)

• For 360 FB measures, it matters how well you know the person... Members occupying core (vs. peripheral) network positions will provide different assessments of their peers' performance because they have more (or less) available information about the ratee. Not all peer-ratings are equal as core and peripheral members provide differential (and potentially noninterchangeable) ratings of the same ratee. Core member ratings are more valid predictors of job performance than ratings provided by peripheral members

Heilman et al. (2019)

• Gender-stereotyping exists and can have implications for performance this is especially true in environments where one gender dominates (numerically) and when individual performance changes. • In these settings, the minority gender will realize less benefits from performance improvements than the majority gender and will realize more detrimental effects from performance decreases than the majority gender. • This is thought to occur because of the ambiguity that accompanies performance changes. In this space stereo-type laden inferences influence which performance information is accepted or rejected

Gong et al. (2017)

• Goal orientation influences the types of feedback sought and certain types have specific relationships with job performance. • There are four types neg/positive self/other. • Self-Negative, and Other-Positive were positively correlated with job performance • Self-Positive was negatively correlated with job performance. • Learning orientation: self-negative, other-positive, and self-positive. • Approach: self-positive and other-negative. • Avoid: not significantly related

Park et al. (2007)

• Goal orientations affect FBS as they (mastery/prove/avoid) have different relationships with categories of cost/values perceptions of seeking feedback (ego cost, self- presentation cost, appraisal value, expectancy value) as well as preferred FB type. • Mastery relates to expectancy/appraisal value and diagnostic/normative/assurance FB. • Prove relates to expectancy/appraisal/ego cost and diagnostic/normative/assurance FB. • Avoid relates to ego/self-presentation costs and assurance/no feedback

Qian et al. (2020)

• Humility begets FBS, especially so for those with high job insecurity. Leader humility has a positive indirect effect on supervisor rated FBS through increasing psychological safety. The effect of leader humility on employees' feedback-seeking behavior is marginally stronger for employees with higher levels of job insecurity

Heslin et al. (2005)

• IPT is a motivational variable that predicts the extent to which managers acknowledge changes in employee behaviors (i.e., good/bad performance). Entitists are more affected by first impressions as compared to incrementalists. • IPT is somewhat malleable as a 6-week intervention resulted in greater recognition of EE performance improvement. Entitist shift towards Incrementalism

Peng & Lin (2016)

• In a sample of Taiwanese workers found that FES was positively related to OCBs, negatively related to WDB. LMX mediates the relationship

Dahling & O'Malley (2011)

• In response to Pulakos & O'leary (2011). To mend broken PM systems, look to the FE. Informal feedback exchanges between managers and employees can enhance the effectiveness of performance management. Beyond this, the context in which feedback is shared (FE) is incredibly important. Help managers develop a more positive FE to overcome the communication barriers that often derail formal performance management interventions

Koch et al. (2015)

• It is important to consider gender stereotypes and workplace gender composition when examining gender bias. • Male ratees received higher ratings in male dominated jobs. • Male raters exhibited a larger pro-male bias. • In female-dominated jobs, males and females exhibit a pro-male bias. • Pro-male bias decreases with more individuating information. • Motivated raters reduce bias in male dominated jobs. • In female dominated jobs, experienced raters had larger pro-male bias... opposite of other jobs where experience reduced bias. • The greater the incongruence between stereotypical gender traits and the gender stereotype of a job, the greater the gender bias, particularly for masculine jobs

Dahling & Whitaker (2016)

• It's important to exhibit social competence when attempting to manage impressions at work. FBS is motivated by a desire to enhance one's image. As this motive increases, so does supervisor perceived FBS (inquiry), but only when the seeker's social skills are high (political skill). This potential increase in FBS has carryover effects for task performance

Chun et al. (2018)

• LMX had a positive relationship to perceptions of leader effectiveness through leader's negative feedback seeking. This relationship was stronger for subordinates with less expertise. • Leaders tend to seek out feedback from those they perceive to be less experienced subordinates - seems as though impression management (rather than instrumentality) is the main motive behind the negative FB seeking. Anseel et al. (2017): • How people deal with feedback depends on a complicated interplay of competing self-motives, with performance improvement resulting only when self-improvement motives outperform self-enhancement motives. • Future Work Selves: representations of the self in the future that encapsulate individually significant hopes and aspirations in relation to work. • When FWS are salient people are negative FB is less likely to be interpreted in relation to the current self (avoiding self-enhancement motives)

Chen et al. (2007)

• LMX is positively related to performance through seeking negative feedback (sub-sup). The LMX to negative FB is strongest for those with low personal empowerment. Personal empowerment is influenced by the empowerment climate. Therefore, it's important for employers to provide safe feedback spaces to ensure all employees can safely seek feedback

Yam et al. (2014)

• Larks and Owls. Supervisor chronotype interacts with employee start time to affect perceptions of conscientiousness and job performance ratings. If your boss is a lark and you show up at a relatively later start time, this will negatively affect her perceptions of your conscientiousness with follow on effects on her ratings of your job performance. This has implications for flexible work practices

Ladegard & Gjerde (2014)

• Leaders who increased role efficacy (leader's general feeling of mastery of his/her role) had confidence in ability of subordinates to master tasks. Coaching leads to higher trust in subordinates and related to lower turnover

Huang et al. (2013)

• Liking and attributions, which are non-performance data, can affect performance ratings. Engaging in impression-management tactics proactively can reduce affective job insecurity, but only when your supervisor likes you. IM can also affect your performance ratings positively when the supervisor perceives your impression-management as being altruistic

Kim et al. (2016)

• MSF affects organization level outcomes. Multi-source FB (MSF) is positively related to group-level workforce productivity. That relationship is partially explained by MSF's positive relationship with individual employee ability and organization level knowledge sharing (mediation). Further, using MSF for development and administrative purposes strengthens the relationship between MSF and knowledge sharing

Heslin & Vandewalle (2011)

• Manager IPT (incrementalist) is positively related to employee perceived procedural justice with downstream effects on OC and OCBs (partially through OC)

Steelman & Wolfield (2016)

• Managers who value feedback for themselves (high feedback orientation) were viewed as better coaches as assessed through employee perceptions of coaching behaviors, the coaching relationship, and the feedback environment. • Manager feedback orientation was also positively related to subordinate feedback orientation, and this relationship was mediated by the coaching effectiveness indicators. • Behaviors: listening, analysis, interviewing, observation, communication and giving feedback, and setting clear expectations (Joo et al. 2012)

Hunt (N.D.)

• Many companies use performance ratings in different ways and define them differently • Even orgs that claim to remove ratings still rate performance in other ways under different names • Many companies have horrible systems that need to be fixed or replaced but not removed • Ratings are a challenging but necessary process, especially important for making business/legal decisions • Should not eliminate ratings but find what types/methods work best "

Speer (2017)

• Narrative-derived performance scores are another way to capture performance related variance. This method of collection has been shown to be reliable across years, converge with traditional numeric ratings, explained additional variance in future perf outcomes (perf ratings, involuntary turnover, promotions, and pay increases). • Automatic coding now makes this approach more feasible

Meinecke, Lehmann-Willenbrock, & Kauffeld (2017)

• Need to consider EEs as active members in PM interview. Relation-oriented statements (e.g., providing interpersonal encouragement) are more effective than task-oriented statements at engaging with and encouraging participation from EEs. Beyond more active participation, these statements result in higher perceptions of interview success for both supervisors and employees. • Employee disagreement also appears to be a critical form of active employee participation during appraisal interviews. The tone of the disagreement is more important than the content. Not what you say, but how you say it.

Simon et al. (2021)

• Negative FB can impact leaders too, especially those who are more empathetic. After providing negative FB, leaders higher in trait empathy report feeling less attentive and more distressed. This had follow-on effects that included decreased perceived leader effectiveness and transformational leader behavior. By contrast, those leaders with lower trait empathy had the opposite effect. Further, for higher trait empathy leaders, FB recipients' negative reactions to FB were associated with deficits in executive functioning, problem-solving, and planning ability. No such finding for lower trait empathy leaders

Kim & Kim (2020)

• Negative FB does not uniformly affect creativity because the FB can be perceived threatening based on a variety of factors (i.e., power difference). Accordingly, it was found that bottom-up negative feedback (sub to sup) FB positively related to creativity by increasing the recipients' focus on task processes. Conversely lateral (peer-peer) and top-down (sup to sub) negative FB related negatively to creatively because of an increased focus on meta-processes which signified an increased recipient perception of the FB's threat

Motro et al. (2020)

• Negative feedback can trigger negative emotional responses. Negative FB found to trigger sadness which subsequently decreases task performance. FB self-efficacy and grit moderate this impact as the negative sadness - perf link is weaker for those with high FBSE (ability to interpret and respond to FB constructively) and Grit (possessing passion and perseverance to achieve goals)

Vandenberghe et al. (2019)

• Newcomers may seek less FB as they gain mastery, but this can have detrimental effects on OC and turnover. Managers need to continue to promote FBS beyond mastery. • In a longitudinal study FBS (inquiry) declined over the first year of employment which resulted in lower organizational commitment, higher turnover intentions, and increased turnover. OC was the mediator. • Some evidence supporting a reciprocal relationship between FBS and Org. Commitment

Organ (1997)

• OCB Review article. • Behaviors that don't support the technical core of the organization, more so the broader org, socio, and psych environment surrounding the core. • Previously considered discretionary, but that has changed as work became more interdependent and team-based. • Not necessarily discretionary, but less likely to be linked to rewards or as part of the job description. • OCBs rose to importance when researchers found that perf was not strongly correlated with satis. • Five dimensions: altruism, courtesy, conscientiousness, civic virtue, and sportsmanship

LePine et al. (2002)

• OCB dimensions (other than sportsmanship) correlate strongly (at the rate of reliability levels) and relate similarly to correlated outcomes, supporting the notion that OCB is a latent construct (set of reflective indicators). • The most common definition of OCBs is of a contextual performance which is an aggregate construct. For aggregate constructs, each dimension adds something and we'd need to look at each individually. • Important to clearly define OCBs and pick measures that align with the construct's conceptualization. • Perhaps the OCB construct should be redefined as a general tendency to be cooperative and helpful in org. settings

Kim et al. (2013)

• OCB motives (impression mgmt., prosocial values, org. concern) are related to OCB behaviors through role cognition, and this relationship between motives and cognitions depended on coworker support. In weak situations, where coworker support is low, prosocial and impression mgmt predicted helping cognitions. When the situation was strong organizational support motives predicted voice role cognitions

Hoffman et al. (2007)

• OCBI and OCBO are highly correlated and load onto one factor of OCB which supports view that OCB is a latent construct. • OCB is empirically distinct from task performance, but also highly correlated. • OCBs are more strongly related to attitudinal measures than task performance, most likely contextual performance does not require specific KSAs and is primarily motivational

Podsakoff et al. (2009)

• OCBs have beneficial effects at individual and until levels. • Meta-Analysis finding that OCB-Is relate negatively to intent to turnover, actual turnover, and absenteeism. • Also related to perf, reward recommendations, and rewards. • At the unit level, OCB-Is relate positively to org effectiveness measures and negatively to cost and unit level turnover

Rapp et al. (2013)

• OCBs relate positively, and monotonically to task performance, but only for those with excellent time management abilities. For those with low time management ability, the relationship is curvilinear such that helping too little or too much can be detrimental to workers' task performance

Lam et al. (2016)

• OCBs, meaning, vigor, ambiguity, and in-role perf. • Supervisor-rated daily OCB were positively associated with employees' vigor at the end of the workday. Meaningfulness of work explained this relationship which was also moderated by role ambiguity such that the OCB meaningfulness relationship was stronger for those with greater role ambiguity. • If you don't know what to do, doing OCBs can help EEs feel meaning and subsequently, vigor. • Also are relationship with in-role performance. The OCB - meaning relationship was also stronger for those with higher levels of in-role performance

Schleicher et al. (2018)

• PM "is a continuous process of identifying, measuring, and developing the performance of individuals and teams and aligning performance with the strategic goals of the organization." • Proposes as systems-based model of performance management that conceptually describes how individual characteristics (rater/rater), formal, and informal processes interact with inputs, outputs, and 7 key performance management tasks. o Set performance expectations o Observe employee performance o Integrating performance information o Render formal summative performance evaluation o Generate & deliver performance FB o Formal performance review meeting o Performance coaching

Thompson et al. (2020)

• POS, OCBs, and Gender. Generally, POS elicits employees' feelings of obligation, and they reciprocate by performing OCBs. This is different for women because of the effect of gender roles. Because women are expected to be more helpful than men, they may feel more obligated to engage in OCBs even at low levels of POS. Alternatively men may only perform OCBs when they experience relatively elevated levels of POS. • Felt obligation explains the relationship between POS and OCB for men, but NOT women

Anseel & Lievens (2007)

• People are motivated to seek FB for uncertainty reduction and self-verification (feeling of control and stability) reasons. Sometimes they can be motivated by both. • There is a curvilinear relationship between uncertainty and FBS. When uncertainty is low, the primary motive is to verify one's perceptions, when uncertainty is high, the motive shifts to reducing uncertainty

Skarlicki & Turner (2014)

• People tend to undervalue (hiring desirability) others who have experienced organizational injustice ( victim derogation) and this is moderated by a belief in a just world - such that high BJW leads to more derogation (decreased hiring desirability) and lower ratings for victims. Additionally, moral identity can be primed to help limit the amount of victim derogation - such that when people have a salient moral identity their circle of moral regard expands and they treat others in fairer, kinder ways - limiting the amount they blame the victim for their circumstances

Landy & Farr (1980)

• Performance rating review. Proposes an updated process model of performance describing how content, PA format, PA process, and roles interact to influence results. To increase validity of the PA process, we must learn understand observing, encoding, story, retrieving, and recording performance. • Rater and ratee characteristics impact scores, as do contexts. • Rating = true score + bias + error • Performance and ability have the strongest impact on rating. • Format: nothing better than a graphic ratings scale and behavioral anchors are helpful. • Rater training is effective in reducing errors

Dahling et al., (2017)

• Person-centered approach to FE that resolved into 3 profiles. • (1) 50.7% moderate quality FE - all facets slightly above average, credibility was highest while favorable FB delivery was lowest. • (2) 37.68% High FE - all facets high, lowest was delivery of unfavorable FB. • (3) 11.62% unfavorable FE - high unfavorable FB from supervisor, all other facets were below average

Best practices in coaching

• Peterson (2002) • Customized • learning is just-in-time • significant results • confidential

Characteristics of good coaching relationship

• Peterson (2002) • forge a partnership • inspire commitment • build skills • promote persistence • shape the environment

Characteristics of great coaches

• Peterson (2002) • goal oriented • know when to listen/interrupt • adaptable • learners • know about individual learning

Common coaching outcomes

• Peterson (2002) • interpersonal skills • communication • leadership skills • cognitive skills • self-management

Dunning Kruger effect

• Poor performers in intellectual abilities usually also lack the self-awareness to perceive themselves as poor performers, and therefore overestimate their own aptitude. Kruger & Dunning (1999)

Evans & Dobrosielska (2019)

• Positive feedback significantly predicts task performance but is moderated by feedback seeking, such that Positive FB has a stronger positive relationship with task performance when FBS is high. So, positive FB can be really impactful, especially when org culture is congruent with the actions of its workforce

Levy et al. (2017)

• Practice and research has converged (i.e., agreed on the importance) on 1) FB processes, 2) accountability in the rating system, and 3) alignment of PM systems with organizational strategy. Practice has outpaced research on 1) technology, 2) strategic alignment, 3) peer-to-peer accountability

Sherf & Morrison (2020)

• Previously, S-E was thought to increase FBS by decreasing ego/image costs. In this study, S-E has a negative effect on FBS (inquiry) by leading people to discount the value of feedback. This negative effect manifests in those who are high in S-E and low in perspective taking. Increasing perspective taking and reinforcing the value of FB can mitigate or reverse this negative effect

Kluger & DeNisi (1996)

• Proposes FB intervention theory. • Feedback interventions are effective with a moderate (r = .41) effect on performance. • Intervention's effectiveness decreases if directed and individual's character or personality and is only effective if directed towards the task. • In 1/3rd of interventions, FIs actually reduce performance and the mode for effect sizes is ZERO meaning that FIs have a high likelihood of not doing anything at all

Tseng & Levy (2019)

• Proposes an integrated, multilevel leadership process arguing that such a system can elucidate the mechanisms that allow performance management systems to operate. • Source of leadership impacts targets of leaders at the individual/team/organizational level, yielding outcomes at each level. o Source mgr traits, cognitions, affect, behaviors o Target of leadership o EE same as mgr o Team states Cohesion, cooperation o Org context FE, PM policies • Emphasizes the influential role of leaders/managers in PM systems

Steelman, Levy, Snell (2004)

• Proposes the FB environment scale with two referents (supervisor, coworker) and 7 factors: credibility, quality, delivery, favorable, unfavorable, source availability, promotes FBS

Levy er al. (2015)

• RESPONSE TO Pulakos et al. (2015). Fixing PM requires more active contributions from both sides of the gap

Stauffer & Buckley (2005)

• Racial bias in ratings is both statistically and practically significant. • Black and White supervisors reported higher mean group performance for Whites than they did Blacks. • Evidence of racial bias in performance rating: white supervisors give higher ratings to white workers as compared to black workers than did Black supervisors. Standardized differences up to .333 SDs! • Unknown if this is because white supervisors are underestimating black performance, black supervisors are overstating it, or if it is a combination thereof. • Does not address prejudice, you need data on racial attitudes to do that. • Perhaps a manifestation of the "similar to me" bias

Spence & Keeping (2010)

• Raters aren't always motivated by accuracy and purposefully distort rating for reasons (individual and contextual) that are unrelated to performance. • Contextual cues influence rater motivation to rate accurately because they give them clues to the consequences of their ratings. • Being confronted about (having to justify) ratings decreases ratings. • Org norms for leniency and association with self-rewards lead to increased ratings. • More experienced raters are less prone to inflating ratings based on non-performance cues

Schaerer et al. (2018)

• Rating inflation can be intentional, but also unintentional as in the case with FB accuracy. • For example, managers overestimate how accurately employees understood their feedback (i.e., illusion of transparency), and this overestimation was more pronounced when the feedback is negative. • This illusion of transparency was reduced with intra (prompt saying your past experience tells u people don't understand feedback well) and inter-personal accountability (email from sub asking for accurate feedback). • When the FB source has financial incentives linked towards accurate ratings, illusion of transparency goes down - through more direct communication

Anseel et al. (2009)

• Reflection (such as an after-event review) combined with feedback enhanced performance improvement better than feedback alone. • Depth of information processing is though to underlie this phenomenon. • This was less effective for individuals low in learning goal orientation, need for cognition, personal importance (importance of task to person) as they engaged in less reflection (i.e., shallower IP). • Reflection only enhanced performance in combination with external feedback

Gregory & Levy (2015) - Recipient Perception

• Regardless of the feedback content or the source's intentions, the perception and interpretation of the event from the recipient's perspective is really what matters and is "the major variable" (Ilgen et al., 1979. p. 356) that impacts the effectiveness of a feedback event

Gabriel et al. (2017)

• Regulatory focus has an impact on the level of depletion that a person feels after engaging in OCBs. Those who take a prevention focus will experience a greater depletion after engaging in OCBs than those with a promotion focus. Additionally, this depletion will lead to less future helping acts and a greater number of self-serving, political acts. This is aligned with the Koopman et al. (2016) article

Levy & Williams (2004)

• Review article. The social context surrounding performance appraisals are immensely important. Distal variables (e.g., org culture, climate, values, unemployment, HR strategies) will impact rater/ratee behaviors (e.g., ABC reactions, justice perceptions, ratings) thru proximal process (e.g., LMX, FE, unit culture, OC, task characteristics) and structural (e.g., appraisal goals, perf standards, PA frequency, PA system features) variables. • Appraisal effectiveness is a result of reducing errors and biases (e.g., recency, similar to me, halo, central tendency), increasing rating accuracy, and improving appraisal reactions

Smither & Walker (2004)

• Sign, amount, and focus of feedback affect recipient reactions. In an upward FB (subordinate rated) program, managers who received a small number of behavior/task focused, unfavorable feedback improved their upward FB ratings the most. Those who received a large amount of the same declined the most. Supports Kluger and Denisi's (1996) FIT that extremely negative FB can be discouraging and decrease the effectiveness of interventions

Lance et al. (2008)

• Some critics assert that MSF is flawed due to highly correlated ratings. This is wrong-headed and based on a normative accuracy model of judging ratings. Using the more appropriate ecological perspective, one can see that the differences in ratings represent each rater's individual perspectives which add valid performance variance

Anderson et al. (2015)

• Source monitoring and structured free recall were more effective than error management strategy in reducing rater bias toward women leaders. • Best interventions worked when people had low implicit bias

Williams et al. (1995)

• Source supportiveness and perceived value of feedback affect FBS frequency. When the source is supportive and peer reactions are positive the negative influence of a public context on FBS is diminished

Oc et al. (2015)

• Subordinate feedback can be powerful. We subordinates provide candid (vs. compliant) FB to powerholders, the powerholders subsequently act in a less self-interested manner. Compliant FB had the opposite effect. Guilt partially explains this relationship as candid (i.e. negative) feedback engendered feelings of guilt in the powerholders and ultimately changed behavior

Pulakos & Oleary (2011)

• Take the position that PM is broken. • PM systems have become increasingly bureaucratic and disconnected from the day-to-day activities they were initially designed to promote, such as communicating clear expectations, setting objectives, and providing quality feedback. • PM should focus less on formal aspects and implementing preplanned steps, more on the communication process and relationships. • IDs common bad practices such as cascading org goals, setting SMART goals, rating competencies, and using 360s to make decisions

Rosen, Levy, Hall (2006)

• The coworker and supervisor FE have a negative relationship with employee perceptions of organizational politics and knock-on effects for morale and performance. - Morale conceptualized as OC/SATIS - Perf was OCB-I/O and Task perf.

Smith et al. (2016)

• The dark triad, regulatory focus, and performance ratings. Managers rate narcissistic and psychopathic employees as having poorer task performance and psychopathic employees as engaging in fewer helping behaviors as compared to employees low in those traits. These negative relationships were stronger for promotion-focused employees because their behaviors were more available to and salient for the supervisors. These relationships were not found with Machiavellianism

Mero et al. (2014)

• The doer does what the checker checks. • Manager monitoring behavior serves as a situational cue for what is important, and it affects both task and OCB performance through perceived accountability. • Monitoring behavior - Perceived accountability - Performance

Employee Development

• The expansion of an individual's capacity to function effectively in his or her present or future job and work organization. Dachner et al. (2019)

Gregory & Levy (2015) - Components of FB

• The four key elements of FB • Feedback source • Feedback message • Feedback recipient • Context or environment surrounding the feedback exchanges

Derue & Wellman (2009)

• The relationship between the degree of developmental challenge and leadership skill development shows a pattern of diminishing returns, but feedback availability can offset the diminishing returns that come with high-levels of challenge. • Experience is the best form of leadership development and engineering developmental challenges can promote skill development up to a certain point. At this point of diminishing returns, individuals can become overwhelmed and divert attention away from the task and towards the self. Feedback interrupts this diversion by enhancing self-awareness, reducing individuals' uncertainties regarding performance and success, and helping reduce the stress associated with challenging work experiences—all of which enable individuals to focus their efforts on the task and learning. • Five types of developmental challenges: unfamiliar responsibilities, creating change, high levels of responsibilities, working across boundaries, managing diversity

Gorman et al. (2017)

• The science-practitioner gap may not be as wide as we thought. Many orgs already adopt many perf management practices recommended in literature, but continue practices despite lack of evidence. • PM systems are likely to be more effective if they are perceived as fair

Yam et al. (2017)

• The source of the motivation for OCBs is important as it can relate subsequent deviant behavior. For employees who feel compelled by their organizations to do OCBs (externally motivated), doing those OCBs creates a sense of psychological entitlement, which serves as moral credentials which excuse engaging in subsequent interpersonal and organizational deviance

Bowler et al. (2019)

• The strength of the LMX relationship has implications for perceptions in the context of OCB performance. In high LMX relationships coworkers will attribute impression management (brownnosing motives) to OCB motives. In low LMX relationships supervisors will attribute impression management motives to employees

Smither et al. (2005)

• There is a small, positive relationship between multi-source feedback and performance improvement. Performance improvements (moderation) are more likely for those who... o Have high FO o Perceived a need to change. o Have positive FB reactions. o Believe change is feasible (expectancy) o Set appropriate goals and regulate behavior. o Take actions that lead to skill and performance improvement

Schleicher et al. (2019)

• Up to date review paper. • Model PM system components impact unit-level enablers (culture, trust) and outcomes (productivity, turnover, sales) and enablers directly and through individual (EE and manager) reactions (affective, cognitive, utility, satis), learning, and transfer. • Reactions are a big deal as there are strong positive relationships between reactions, learning, and transfer. o That said, positive reactions are NOT a requirement for learning. o Different types of reactions have different relationships with outcomes (Utility - Performance, Cognitive - turnover)

Lin et al. (2019)

• When employees helped coworkers because of higher autonomous motivation in a helping episode, they experienced higher positive affect, had stronger helping intentions and helped subsequently coworkers more. The opposite was true for controlled motivation. • Citizenship pressure moderated the relationship between autonomous motivation and positive affect, such that this positive relationship was stronger among helpers who perceived higher citizenship pressure. • When the contextual expectation for OCBs is high, more autonomously motivated individuals felt more positive affect. When autonomous motivation was low, by contrast, workers who perceived higher citizenship pressure felt much less positive affect

Baltes et al. (2007)

• When raters hold a negative bias towards black men, black men are rated lower than white men. One can reduce the influence of racial biases in the rating process by introducing a structured free recall intervention that leads to less biased recall and less biased performance ratings. • Structured free recall involves being prompted to recall positive and negative behaviors. Those behaviors then form the basis of ratings

Grundmann et al. (2021)

• Why do people dismiss negative feedback? Proposes the model of motivated feedback disengagement. FB induced negative affect may render a hedonic goal more salient than an instrumental improvement goal. This, in turn, may motivate emotion regulation in negative-feedback contexts. Subsequently, people may choose to engage (reappraisal, feedback focus) or disengage (distract, dismiss) which has bearing on feedback processing and affective outcomes. With a salient hedonic goal, people will be more likely to reappraise, distract, or dismiss

Brown et al. (2019)

• Workload, cynicism, and coworker support. • When managers are cynical about the PA process, they are more likely to contemplate leaving and are rated as less effective leaders. Coworker support decreases managers' PA cynicism, especially for managers with a large number of direct reports