Final

Select an important concept in a subject that you plan to teach. Describe how you would teach the concept to children in the preoperational and concrete operational stage, and explain how you have included a disequilibrating experience to motivate students to learn at each stage.

- Adding numbers together. Preoperational: contextualize the problems to what they're interests are. Concrete operational: use manipulatives. - Disequilibrating experience: present a strategy different to what they already know

What are the two elements of play that Vygotsky believed are so critical in fostering children's development. (See the Nicolopoulou article.) List potential benefits of the storytelling/story-acting practice developed by Paley and described by Nicolopoulou.

- An imaginary situation - The rules implicit in the imaginary situation - Play allows children to free their thinking from constraints, it paves the way for abstract and internalized thought, and builds self-constraint and self-determination

On the basis of Kohlberg's theory, describe how you could foster children's moral development. Give examples of types of questions that are helpful in developing children's moral reasoning.

- Ask questions that bring students to disequilibrium - Values clarification - Identifying self-awareness - Discuss different perspectives - Discuss values dilemmas

(Piaget) Identify and define the two complementary processes that explain how humans learn, according to Piaget, and give an example of each.

- Assimilation: involves using our current schemes to interpret the external world. Ex: Sees cow, says "doggie" - Accommodation: involves creating new schemes or adjusting old ones when we notice that our current ways of thinking do not capture the environment completely. Ex: Cows say "moo", horses say "neigh".

Compare and contrast Vygotsky's and Piaget's theories. Describe at least two implications for teaching for each theorist.

- Both theories can be viewed as social-constructivist theories. Piaget emphasized that the child was in control of their development. Vygotsky stressed that development came from the "outside in", while Piaget defined that development occurred from the "inside out". Vygotsky said that self-regulation happens after others regulated themselves during a specific task. Piaget said that self-regulation is present from early infancy. - Implications for teaching by Vygotsky's theory: social environment determines cognitive development; children develop based what they see/how other children act - Implications for teaching by Piaget's theory: the child is in control of themselves, and children must be paired with other children on the same psychological level

Describe Piaget's clinical interview method and explain its value to teachers.

- Clinical Interview Method: process of questioning children's reasoning about concepts and problems. - Use open-ended questions, focus on how the student is making sense of the concept, repeat the student's words in a different way, create sociocognitive conflict.

What is constructivism? Briefly explain how knowledge about constructivism should affect the way teachers teach?

- Constructivism: learning is not the result of teaching; rather it is the result of what students do with the new information they are presented with. Students are active-learners who construct their own knowledge; not passive recipients of new information, somewhat like a sponge. - Implication for teachers: understanding where the gaps and misconceptions are is an important predictor in how teachers will proceed with teaching and how students will learn new information.

Strategies according to Mischel that students can use to increase or develop self-control

- Early Elementary-Aged Children: Distraction or Ignore the tempting activity or object - Elementary-Aged Children that can be taught to younger children: (Abstraction): Take a "hot" stimulus (emotionally appealing) like the marshmallow and change it to a cold (emotionally unappealing) stimulus. - Examples: 1. Transform the tempting activity or object to deemphasize its appealing qualities (e.g., think of marshmallows as "fluffy clouds" rather than focusing on their sweetness). 2. Transform one's own appeal or preference (I hate marshmallows).

Bandura (McCabe article) Review the four sources of self-efficacy

- Enactive Mastery (accomplishment): "You were able to..." - Vicarious Experience (modeling): "Watch Oscar as he..." - Verbal Persuasion (attribution): "As a result of...you were able to..." - Physiological/Affective State (feeling): "You must feel proud"

According to Kohlberg, how does moral development occur?

- Exposure to the next higher stage of reasoning. - Exposure to situations posing problems and contradictions for the child's current moral structure, leading to dissatisfaction with his current level. - An atmosphere of interchange and dialogue combining the first two conditions, in which conflicting moral views are compared in an open manner.

According to Sewell, what is the one factor that is most likely to determine whether students learn new information that teachers present to them? Why does Sewell think that one factor is so influential?

- Factor: how they deal with new information, deleting old beliefs and modifying new information. (the "wrong beliefs" that students have to help them make sense of the world). - It is influential because students react to new information and deal with it in four ways: delete the existing wrong beliefs, modifying the pre-existing knowledge so that it fits with the new information, modifying the new information so it fits with what is already known (misconception), and rejecting the new information.

(Dweck) Review fixed and growth mindset

- Fixed mindset: students believe that their intellectual ability is a fixed trait; that they can not change their intelligence. Students may reject an opportunity to learn if they fear they will make a mistake. They do not recover well from setbacks. - Growth mindset: students have confidence that they can improve their intelligence. Students value learning, and effort is a positive thing, they look for new learning strategies These students outperform those with a fixed mindset.

Identify two strategies teachers could use to foster the development of empathy in children and the positive effects it might have on children's development. Be mindful of how you might do this within the context of the students' development.

- Foster Play: encouraging dramatic play promotes empathy. Pretend play with peers predicts greater empathy, sensitivity, and reinforces the understanding of emotions and perspectives. Ex: Play that involves make-believe scenarios and role-play (increases prosocial behavior and self-regulation). - Encourage generosity: nurture children's natural tendency to care for others. This will help build their confidence by showing them that what they do makes a difference. Ex: Encourage a student to leave a positive note for someone who needs encouragement.

What did Piaget believe the goal of education should be? Describe 4 strategies that teachers could use in their classroom to help students achieve that goal?

- Goal: The principal goal of education in the schools should be creating men and women who are capable of doing new things, not simply repeating what other generations have done. - Strategies: 1. create disequilibrium, 2. have debates, 3. engage in fulfilling discussions, 4. ask open-ended questions.

In their confluence theory of creativity, Sternberg and Lubart described six resources necessary for creativity. List those six resources and, after the name of each resource, in your own words, briefly explain how you would teach students in your classroom to use that resource to enhance their creativity. Identify the grade you imagine yourself teaching.

- Intelligence: I would give students a situation, let them think it over, and then tell them to find their own way to solve it. - Knowledge: I would ask them "what background knowledge can you use to draw a picture of a different ending to The Three Little Pigs?" - Intellectual Styles: Read the students a story (Little Red Riding Hood), ask them if they can make a new conflict based off of the story, what they think the characters would do, and implement a solution. - Personality: Present them a situation that isn't clear cut and ask them what they would do based on their convictions. - Motivation: Foster intrinsic motivation by allowing them to be autonomous in the way they solve problems. - Environment: Encourage creativity and reward them with social reinforcements, and allow them to be as autonomous as possible to spark creativity.

According to Vygotsky, why is language so important in human development? What role does social interaction play in Vygotsky's theory of development?

- Language is important in human development because it is the basis of the development of our thinking; comprehending and producing language are processes that transform thinking. - Social interaction is the basis of development. Children develop and learn based on what they observe and who they interact with in their environment.

How does Narvaez's conception of moral development differ from Kohlberg's theory?

- Narvaez has skills for behavior to get them to moral development, talks about emotion unlike Kohlberg. - Kohlberg aligned stages with Piaget. - Child is a moral philosopher and spontaneously formulates moral ideas that form organized patterns of thought - Moral development is largely a process of restructuring universal human tendencies of empathy and justice in more adequate forms

(Ryan and Deci) Major concepts from self-determination theory. How might you approach a student's disruptive behavior using the theory of self-determination?

- Self-determination theory is based on the concept of basic psychological needs. These needs are innate, universal, and essential for health and well being: 1. Competence A student believe they have the necessary tools to complete the task at hand. 2. Relatedness A secure relational base is important for the expression of intrinsic motivation. 3. Autonomy "Action that is chosen; action for which one is responsible."

What can parents and teachers do to foster the development of perspective taking in children? (relate to Piaget's theory and the four causes of development and specifically Selman's stages)

- Teachers and parents can encourage student to see other points of view and use words/concepts outside from their own perspectives. Overall helps them build more rounded perspective. - Reconcile different perspectives through bargaining, explanation, and other persuasive strategies.

Reciprocal Teaching

- Teaching collaboratively with students in learning and practicing four key skills. - Skills: Summarizing Questioning Clarifying Predicting

If teachers would like to use peers to scaffold the learning of other students, what must teachers do to make sure that the scaffolding is effective?

- The peer should be more knowledgeable about the activity - They must use both modeling and verbal instruction

Identify themes from the article and the parallels with Piaget's stages.

- Themes: overgeneralize, think concretely, focuses on outward appearance, engage in episodic thinking, believe in race inconstancy - Parallels: Schema - The child was concerned about physical characteristics and made the over-generalization that parents and their kids look alike or "match." This is what the child knew before. - p. 33 - Misconception: A white preschooler confusing dark skin with dirt p. 36

Define ZPD and scaffolding (mediation in Vygotsky's terms), and give an example of how a teacher might use these in a lesson.

- ZPD: what a child can do with the assistance of a more knowledgeable adult or peer (ex: guided practice on a math lesson) - Scaffolding: the process the more knowledgeable adult or peer uses to assist and support the child through the ZPD. (ex: breaking an article/book into chunks and discussing what the main points of the chunk of reading were).

What is the zone of proximal development? What are its implications for the development of intelligence? How does it relate to Vygotsky's concepts of scaffolding and internalization?

- Zone of Proximal Development: What a child can do/understand with assistance from a more knowledgeable adult or peer. - Implications: Guided practice is key when it comes to development of intelligence. Social interaction with the more knowledgeable adult or peer is essential to intellectual development. - Relation: Scaffolding is used by the more knowledgeable adult or peer to get the student to reach the Zone of Proximal Development. After the student reaches the Zone of Proximal Development, they can internalize the information to make their own meaning of it.

What are the four categories of skills that Narvaez proposed are needed to foster children's moral development?

1. Ethical Sensitivity-personal bias set aside 2. Ethical Judgement-use reasoning 3. Ethical Focus- life centers around ethical goals 4. Ethical action

What are the three skills that school programs targeting behavior should focus increasing in students?

1. Interpreting the behavior of others accurately (understanding other's intentions, "reading" emotional cues properly.) 2. Learning to use non-aggressive problem-solving strategies (thinking of multiple responses to social problems, acquiring non-aggressive or pro-social "scripts"). 3. Believing that aggression is inappropriate and ineffective (viewing aggression as "wrong," expecting that aggression will ultimately result in undesirable outcomes).

Describe the moral thinking of children at each stage of Kohlberg's theory of moral development.

1. Level 1: Pre-conventional - Stage 1: punishment and obedience orientation - Stage 2: exchange of favors 2. Level 2: conventional morality - rule conformity - Stage 3: morality of maintaining good relations "good boy, good girl" - Stage 4: law and order - focus on authority, fixed rules, and maintaining the social order 3. Level 3: postconventional or principled morality - Stage 5: social contract - individual rights and democratically accepted law, maintain social order - Stage 6: universal ethical principles

Identify and define the four processes (i.e., factors) that Piaget believed cause intellectual development, and for each process give an example of how teachers can apply their understanding of the process in their teaching in order to help students develop their intelligence.

1. Maturation: where the brain matures based on experiences, synaptic pruning occurs when neurons are stimulated by the environment 2. Physical and logico-mathematical experience - Physical: the knowledge of an object that can be observed - Logico-mathematical: knowledge of relationships sometimes between objects; knowledge only humans can make 3. Social interaction and transmission: knowledge created by people and learned from interactions with others; includes language, culture, history, and symbol systems 4. Equilibration: self-regulation through the process of assimilation and accommodation; overall process by which learning takes place - Equilibrium: state of balance between internal structures and info and external world - Disequilibrium: an unpleasant state when new info cannot be fitted into existing schemas

What are the types of autonomy?

1. Organizational Autonomy: Control over the environment (developing classroom rules together or determining due dates together). 2. Procedural Autonomy: Control over the form in which the student's work takes place (making a graph or a picture or writing a paper). 3. Cognitive Autonomy: control over learning (asking students to justify or argue for their point).

What are the three types of knowledge, according to Piaget? Describe the type of instruction he believed was appropriate for each type.

1. Physical knowledge - Knowledge about the physical properties of objects - Discovered by actions on objects; objects are the source - Type of instruction: using manipulatives 2. Logical-mathematical knowledge - Abstract knowledge - Invented from actions on objects; actions are the source - Type of instruction: total physical response (?) 3. Social-interaction transmission - Knowledge created by people - Learned from interactions with others; people are the source - Type of instruction: small group/collaborative talk (?)

Identify the four stages of Piaget's theory, the characteristics associated with each stage, and the major outcome of each stage of development.

1. Sensorimotor (0-2) years: infants use senses and movements to explore the world 2. Pre-operational (2-7 years): Development of symbolic and illogical thinking. Language develops and make-believe play occurs. 3. Concrete Operational (7-11 years): Logical and organized thinking with concrete information occurs 4. Formal Operational (11yrs --): Abstract and systemic thinking

Using the major concepts in Vygotsky's theory, describe what parents and teachers should do to foster the development of children's thinking abilities?

Adults should create disequilibrium to motivate children to solve their own problems in their own way.

Which type of autonomy is most likely to result in better learning outcomes for each student?

Cognitive autonomy is most likely to result in better learning outcomes for each student.

Baumeister and Mischel's (Lehrer article) concepts of self-control: Major concepts of self-control?

Depending on a limited energy resource, like a muscle that becomes exhausted when used. It depletes energy, making self-control more difficult. "Self Control is a central function and an important part to success in life. It refers to the capacity for altering one's own responses, especially to bring them into line with standards with standards such as ideals, values, morals, and social expectations, and to support the pursuit of long term goals. It enables a person to restrain or override one response, thereby making a different response possible."

What does Sewell suggest that teachers can do to help students overcome their misconceptions?

Don't add to the misconceptions, understand what you are teaching, seek help from specialists, in service training, and filter the textbooks

Identify the source of perceived self-efficacy that is suggested to be the most powerful way to increase students' confidence in their ability in a specific area.

Enactive Mastery; a student's recognition that he has mastered a task as a result of personal effort provides strong feedback that he possesses the ability to succeed.

What are Selman's stages of perspective taking and what are the negotiation strategies that children are likely to use at each stage?

Negotiation strategies: - Level 0: Child is unable to recognize the other's feelings, intentions and ideas may be different from theirs. Doesn't grasp that other point of views exist. Negotiation strategies are impulsive and physical. Ex: running away, hiding, withdrawing, coercing, grabbing, or yelling. - Level 1: Child understands that others have feelings, intentions, and ideas, but can not consider more than one perspective. Others are viewed as someone to control and command. Ex: bribing, demanding, threatening. - Level 2: Child may explain their reasoning to change another's mind. They see the other as someone to persuade,and tries to get what they want by getting others to agree with them. Ex: Using "we" and "lets" are signs of level 2 engagement. - Level 3: Solutions that aim toward a mutually satisfying agreement. The other is perceived as someone to understand and be understood by.

(Boxer et al article) What is the social-cognitive information processing model?

This model is a contemporary theory on how aggressive behavior begins and sustains itself. It is thought to be a learned behavior affected by environment and social interactions. These aggressive behaviors can become habitual when social experiences produce thought-processes that support their aggressive behavior.

Explain the relationship between scientific (schooled) concepts and spontaneous (unschooled) concepts in the development of children's thinking, as described by Vygotsky.

Unschooled concepts are concepts learned at home for everyday use. Schooled concepts are academic concepts that need to be learned in school. Unschooled concepts are what children already know, academic concepts are taught through scaffolding to reach the ZPD and to eventually get to internalization. Unschooled concepts are the foundation for learning schooled concepts.

Why did Sternberg and Lubart call their theory of creativity a confluence theory?

b/c the elements of creativity work together interactively, not alone.

Define empathy:

the ability to understand and share the feelings of others.