Final Exam Short Answers

You are being briefed on climate policy and someone says, "top-down politics." What are they referring to here?

"Top-down politics" refer to when an executive makes a decision, and it is enforced in all lower levels of that institution. Top-down politics can occur in any institution in which the head of that institution has the power to make decisions without needing the support of other levels. For example, an executive order is a top-down policy, or a mandate from a CEO of a company about company-wide pay decreases.

Describe the three domains of environmental justice.

(1) Distributive- - Distributive refers to both climate vulnerability and climate adaptation. - Which communities will be affected by climate change? And how do those communities receive aid as opposed to others? (2) Procedural- - Procedural justice is ensuring that everyone receives the same opportunity to engage with the policies that are being discussed and passed. - Is there adequate representation and participation in the institutions responsible for policy making? (3) Recognition- - Recognitional justice is the understanding of the needs and preferences of different communities, and ensuring that cultural values play a role in policy making.

Briefly describe the three types of climate institutions

(1) Formal institutions are political bodies that have the power to ban, regulate, and mandate certain behaviors with rules that are brought about by bureaucratic processes. (2) Informal institutions are institutions without the formal power to change behavior, but the capacity to incentivize different behavior and sustain it through repeated interactions and common expectations. (3) Hybrid, polycentric institutions, as described by Elinor Ostrom, utilize both of the previous institutions and other levels of power to encourage multifaceted approaches to common pool and collective action issues.

What is the C40?

- A network of international cities that provide climate policy advice to one another. They work to "drive the conversation around climate action and environmental justice to place these issues front and centre in our local policies and on the international agenda." - The C-40 is a group of 97 cities that encompass 25% of the economy; these cities, when working together, are a powerful force for climate change.

**Do voluntary methods of reducing GHG admission work? Use at least one example from the class (eg. Kyoto Protocol, Rabe & New Jersey)

- Look at short answer questions 22-27 - Look at essay question 18

Name any three advantages of polycentric governance as defined by Elinor Ostrom's "Beyond markets and states- polycentric governance of complex economic systems"?

- More opportunities for learning and experimentation - Broader levels of participation - More connectivity among people - Modular solutions - Potential response diversity - Response diversity and redundancy to reduce errors These components generally result in faster and more efficient problem solving and wider buy-in

Describe the precautionary principle in the context of international climate negotiations.

- parties should take precautionary measures to anticipate, prevent, or minimize the causes of climate change and mitigate its adverse effects - Precautionary principle: absence of evidence of a harm is not evidence of absence of harm - Sometimes critiqued as being anti-scientific (driven by hypothetical conjectures) and self defeating (we wouldn't get out of bed if we were trying to avoid all harms)

Define workforce development and how it is related to climate change.

- training programs that provide existing and potential workers with the skills to complete tasks needed by employers to let the organizations stay competitive in a global marketplace. - Climate change related because need newly trained workers to take up climate related jobs that are one the rise as new green companies rise

Give an example of a common pool resource and explain the difficulties that arise from governing it.

A common pool resource problem occurs when a community has a shared resource that is overused, and there is no framework for how much each member of the community is allowed to consume from that resource. An example of a common pool resource problem would be an aquifer in Central Valley, California; every farmer in California needs to water their crops, and therefore needs to utilize water from the aquifer, but, ultimately, there will not be enough water for everyone and the aquifer will run the risk of going dry.

What is a common-pool resource?

A common pool resource problem occurs when a community has a shared resource that is overused, and there is no framework for how much each member of the community is allowed to consume from that resource. An example of a common pool resource problem would be an aquifer in Central Valley, California; every farmer in California needs to water their crops, and therefore needs to utilize water from the aquifer, but, ultimately, there will not be enough water for everyone and the aquifer will run the risk of going dry.

What is a discount rate?

A discount rate is a tool used in economics and policy writing that allows people to compare the value of something in the future versus the value of something today. For example, if the EPA is trying to do a cost-benefit analysis of an environmental regulation, they might compare the jobs that are gained and lost in the short term if they go through with the regulation versus the jobs that are gained and lost in 30 years if they do not go through with the regulation. How they value the future jobs versus how they value the present jobs is the discount rate.

Ice cream sales leading to gun deaths is an example of a confounding variable of heat, and correlation not causation. List two other commonly overlooked results of climate change and rising temperatures.

A rise in invasive species is commonly overlooked but incredibly harmful; ticks are spreading because winters are not as cold, and along with ticks comes lyme disease. Climate change will also induce more migration, as certain areas of the world will be environmentally uninhabitable. Migration creates massive political tension and strains resources in receiving countries.

Describe adaptation, remediation, and mitigation in a climate perspective and what are some arguments for each of the terms.

Adaptation is adapting to life in a changing climate and involves adjusting to actual or expected future climate. The goal is to reduce our vulnerability to the harmful effects of climate change. Mitigation is reducing climate change and involves reducing the flow of heat-trapping greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, either by reducing sources of these gases (for example, the burning of fossil fuels for electricity, heat or transport) or enhancing the "sinks" that accumulate and store these gases (such as the oceans, forests and soil). The goal of mitigation is to avoid significant human interference with the climate system. Remediation is technologies that are intentionally designed to counteract the climate effects of past greenhouse gas emissions to the atmosphere like geoengineering.

What is adaptive capacity, and what is one factor that might cause one community to have lower adaptive capacity than another?

Adaptive Capacity is a community's ability to change its behavior to prepare for the changing environment. In terms of climate change, adaptive capacity could mean a coastal community preparing for more intense flooding, or California enforcing more intense water usage restrictions. There are five key components to adaptive capacity= - information, knowledge, and understanding - Identifying options - planning - Managing risk - Funding - monitoring Climate vulnerability and adaptive capacity are intrinsically linked because it is the communities that are being made most vulnerable by climate change that need to adapt most. For example. Coastal communities are put at risk from climate change because of the rising sea levels, and therefore must take measures to protect themselves.

Agriculture accounts for what percent of water use by humans?

Agriculture accounts for almost 70% of water usage by humans

How are cities important in setting national climate policies?

Cities can play roles that often, bigger governments cannot. These functions include information sharing with other cities, coordinating bidding over investments, and collective lobbying/coordination to increase government commitments and ensure their implementation. For example, the C-40 is a group of 97 cities that encompass 25% of the economy; these cities, when working together, are a powerful force for climate change.

What are some of the important functions that cities have in regards to climate policy?

Cities can play roles that often, bigger governments cannot. These functions include information sharing with other cities, coordinating bidding over investments, and collective lobbying/coordination to increase government commitments and ensure their implementation. For example, the C-40 is a group of 97 cities that encompass 25% of the economy; these cities, when working together, are a powerful force for climate change.

Why might climate mitigation be more effective than climate adaptation?

Climate mitigation is more effective than climate adaptation because it would prevent more climate disasters from occurring, rather than trying to prevent damage from climate disasters that may be unpredictable and therefore difficult to prepare for.

How do environmental harms and costs play into people's perceptions of renewable energy and nuclear energy?

Climate policy is unfair because specific communities either are shouldering high costs or are not benefiting sufficiently from decarbonization or adaptation. Uneven distribution of costs imposed by mitigation and adaptation policies like carbon taxes hurt the poor, who spend a higher percentage of their household income on energy. Energy preferences are primarily about the products themselves, rather than ideological and energy choices and policy choices are seen through similar lenses. But Environmental harm (air and water pollution and toxic wastes) matter more to energy preferences than to costs or global warming because people see starker differences across energy choices in terms of the environment. People essentially want to embrace solar and wind, keep natural gas the same, decrease coal, and nuclear is polarizing.

Why does collective action apply more to mitigation efforts than adaptation?

Collective action applies more to mitigation because, to prevent climate change from occurring to the greatest extent possible, a large scale of group action is required. For example, to significantly reduce carbon emissions (a major goal of mitigation efforts), almost every single country must reduce their carbon emissions. Conversely, adaptation to climate change occurs on hyper-local levels, rather than international. Adaptation strategies might include hurricane preparedness for coastal communities on the Atlantic seaboard, or introducing water allocation measures in California. These are actions that do not require widespread collaboration.

How is carbon-driven climate change a collective action problem?

Collective action problems are problems that require deep levels of cooperation from every involved actor. Climate change, then, is the biggest collective action problem because everyone is an involved actor- everyone will be impacted by climate change. Carbon makes it even more difficult to cooperate because it is difficult to discern who is creating the most negative externalities, which creates a free-rider issue. Free rider issues occur when some individuals take action to make positive externalities, and others benefit from those externalities without adding any value themselves. So, for example, if the United States and China entered an agreement to cut its carbon emissions by 50%, the rest of the world would benefit greatly from that, as it would reduce the effects of climate change significantly. However, the US and Chinese economy would suffer; if either country chose to only cut its carbon emissions by 10%, they would be free-riding on the positive externalities produced by the other nation, while also maintaining the economic benefits of using carbon. This is why carbon-driven climate change requires action from all parties involved.

What do Malhotra et al., argue in their piece "Does Private Regulation Preempt Public Regulation?"

Companies can reduce support for environmental regulations by voluntarily doing more than the status quo and/OR Companies can reduce support for environmental regulations by voluntarily doing less than what people might demand in the absence of self-regulation.

What is distributive conflict, and how does it apply to climate change policies?

Distributive conflict is a conflict that creates new economic winners and losers. In terms of climate change, it is especially relevant because of the special interest control of the policy making process (ie, close ties between carbon intensive economic sectors and government policy makers), and the links between climate policy outcomes and the balance of power between policy opponents and proponents Distributive conflict is a conflict that creates new economic winners and losers.

What is an example of a free-rider problem in relation to this course and why are they so difficult to solve?

Free rider problems are collective action issues, with some individuals creating negative externalities and others creating positive externalities, but where everyone bears the same costs of the issue. For example, if someone has six roommates and they all share a kitchen, every roommate has to use the sink. If one roommate never cleans their dishes, and waits for another roommate to clean the dishes for them, that roommate is free riding on the positive externalities that the rest of the roommates are creating. In terms of climate change, and especially carbon emissions, these problems are difficult to solve because it is tricky to discern who is responsible for which emissions, and therefore who should be paying the costs of carbon.

Are subsidies a permanent solution to ensuring climate justice?

In almost every historical example, subsidies inadvertently create monopolies, which only serves to heighten injustice. Therefore, if considering policies from an environmental justice perspective, subsidies should not be used as a permanent solution.

How do international institutions like the United Nations help solve collective action problems like carbon-driven climate change?

International institutions play several critical roles in solving collective action issues. Firstly, they use the convening function to encourage repeated interactions between actors, which also increases the sense of responsibility. Secondly, they can use the treaty function to ensure that actors are committed to solving the collective problems. Finally, they use the enforcement function to force the actors to honor their commitments. An example of these actions is the Paris Agreement: almost every single country in the world ratified this treaty and made goals for emissions reduction, and the enforcement mechanism of naming and shaming.

Which state was the first to adopt a renewable portfolio strategy, and the current leader in renewable energy per GDP?

Iowa was the first state to introduce an RPS; today, about half of its electricity and a third of its energy comes from renewable sources.

Why isn't cutting greenhouse gas emissions enough to stop climate change from happening?

It stops emissions from being added into the atmosphere but it does not take it out of the atmosphere. It remains there until we find a way to remove it, so the temperatures will keep rising and climate change will keep happening because we only stopped adding more into the air, and we didn't actually get rid of the problem.

What are some pros and cons of urbanization in regards to climate change and the environment?

Look at essay question 37

What was a major takeaway from the in class simulation? And what role did you think had the greatest impact?

Missing people/ groups can completely change the outcomes. Many different negotiations go on at the same time, and many people leave with their goals unaddressed. Hard to make compromises with countries also. Biggest impact will differ between simulations but wealthy developed countries had the largest impact.

What is an example of Naming and Shaming?

Naming and Shaming is the strategy adopted by the Paris Climate Agreement to enforce each country's commitment. So, for example, if the UK committed to 25% reduction in carbon emissions by 2025 but failed to reach it, another actor, like the United States, would publicly denounce the UK for their failure.

What strategies can be used to address the problem of the commons?

Polycentric governance is one method that can effectively address common pool resource issues because it encourages buy-in from a larger amount of stakeholders by utilizing multiple levels of institutions. Also, it creates more opportunities for critical and creative thinking to overcome issues. - others??

What is (good) governance and its two categories?

Processes and institutions produce results that meet needs of society while making best use of resources (1.) Process based (inclusivity, participatory, transparent) and (2.) outcome based (efficient, responsive, accountable).

From Barry Rabe's "Statehouse and Greenhouse" reading, describe what the informal titles "Mr.Climate Change" and "Ms. Climate Change" mean.

Refers to the leading climate expert in states with strong climate change policies.

What is solar geoengineering and why is it relevant to modern discussions of climate change?

Solar geoengineering is a process in which materials are sprayed into the atmosphere for the purpose of reflecting sunlight and cooling the planet. It is a deeply controversial method of slowing climate change because it is one of the cheaper options, but also much less reliable, as in, there has not been as much research put into it. There could be unintended consequences, and it also may be seen by many as a solution to climate change- which it is not. It is only a short term tool.

What is the difference between carbon removal and solar geoengineering? What are the pros and cons of each?

Solar geoengineering is a process in which materials are sprayed into the atmosphere for the purpose of reflecting sunlight and cooling the planet. It is a deeply controversial method of slowing climate change because it is one of the cheaper options, but also much less reliable, as in, there has not been as much research put into it. There could be unintended consequences, and it also may be seen by many as a solution to climate change- which it is not. It is only a short term tool. Carbon sequestration is an incredibly expensive, but significantly less risky, option. It essentially removes carbon from the air and stored underground; the process requires a pipeline, however, which is also unpopular, due to NIMBYism.

Why might the leader of a democratic nation have an advantage in negotiations vis-à-vis the leader of an autocratic nation?

Sometimes negotiations take place over a very long period of time between the same actors, which means democratic leaders could have an advantage due to the connectivity of the nation vs. an autocratic leader who someone is always trying to overthrow and could change into someone different at any moment

What is the "California Effect" and to what extent does it influence environmental policy?

The "California effect" is the shift of consumer, environmental and other regulations in the direction of political jurisdictions with stricter regulatory standards.[1] The name is derived from the spread of some advanced environmental regulatory standards that were originally adopted by the U.S. state of California and eventually adopted in other states. This spread is supported by large corporations, which stand to gain as they have the resources necessary to deal with the regulations, unlike their smaller competitors. This process is the opposite of the Delaware effect; this is simply the race to the bottom in which different countries (or states in the case of Delaware) are simply reducing their regulatory burden to attract more of the businesses into their jurisdiction. - The California effect refers to the fact that California alone has one of the world's largest economies, and therefore the policy decisions that the state government makes has a massive impact on the way the rest of the world functions. The California effect is, in fact, so substantial that the Trump Administration sued California over it.

Describe the 3C model proposed in "Steering Urban Growth- Governance, Policy, and Finance.

The 3C model includes these three pillars: Compact, Connected, and Coordinated. Compact urban growth should encourage high population density with the redevelopment of brownfields and functionally and socially mixed neighborhoods. Connected development necessitates effective public transport through investment in innovative urban infrastructure and technology. Coordinated governance should exist through multiple levels of institutions that effectively plan for land usage changes and community impacts.

What is the idea behind the C40 cities?

The C40 cities initially began as a group of 40 cities that has now expanded to 97 cities that wanted to address climate change. "C40's mission is to halve the emissions of its member cities within a decade, while improving equity, building resilience, and creating the conditions for everyone, everywhere to thrive." It "employs a science-based and collaborative approach to help the world limit global heating to 1.5°C and build healthy, equitable and resilient communities."

Discuss the context and impacts of the Clean Water Act (1972).

The Clean Water Act was passed shortly after the Cuyahoga River caught fire for the third time in 1969. The river was so polluted that the fire spread atop the water, and caused massive structural damage to the city of Pittsburgh. The Clean Water Act extended many of the Clean Air Act (1970)'s structures to the water. For example, it expands the EPA's power to protect and enforce water standards.

What is the IPCC?

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change is a United Nations organization meant to help policymakers by assessing scientific information. While it does not conduct its own research, the IPCC assesses research that has already been published and provides a summary of drivers of climate change, risks, future implications and adaptation/ mitigation strategies.

Compare and contrast the treaty designs of the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement. Which was more successful and why?

The Kyoto protocol was much more ambitious and binding, which discouraged many countries from signing it. The Paris agreement was fundamentally different because it made use of Nationally Determined Contributions; in this, each country decides on its own how it would like to reduce climate change. Also, the Paris Agreement uses a Naming and Shaming strategy for enforcement of those NDC's, rather than economic penalties like in Kyoto. The compliance mechanisms were roughly the same in both treaties. Paris agreement requires that all countries (both developed and developing) do their part, instead of the top down approach taken by the Kyoto Protocol. The Paris agreement was meant to build on and replace Kyoto.

What were the key differences between the Montreal Protocol and the Kyoto Protocol?

The Kyoto protocol was much more ambitious and binding, which discouraged many countries from signing it. The Paris agreement was fundamentally different because it made use of Nationally Determined Contributions; in this, each country decides on its own how it would like to reduce climate change. Also, the Paris Agreement uses a Naming and Shaming strategy for enforcement of those NDC's, rather than economic penalties like in Kyoto. The compliance mechanisms were roughly the same in both treaties. While the Montreal Protocol was established to phase out substances that deplete ozone, the Kyoto Protocol was set in place to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gasses, with the exception of ozone depleting substances.

Briefly describe the Kyoto Protocol- who are the stakeholders and what are some of the terms of the agreement?

The Kyoto treaty was one of the first climate agreements; however, few countries ratified the treaty because it was too strict. Its monetary enforcement methods and mandatory top-down reductions were a discouraging factor that ultimately led to the United States backing away from the agreement and Canada leaving. The treaty mostly targeted developed countries, but again, was unsuccessful in many instances.

What is the median voter theorem?

The Median Voter Theorem is the theory that people have preferences along a spectrum, and by satisfying the median voter, you will reach the most people. Policies often converge to the median voter point for the purpose of gaining a majority.

How is the Paris Agreement enforced?

The Paris Agreement is enforced by a Naming and Shaming protocol in which one involved actor denounces another for failing to meet their obligations (those obligations being Nationally Determined Contributions).

What is the Paris Agreement and why is it significant?

The Paris Climate Agreement was signed in December of 2015. It is a treaty which most nations of the world have ratified for the purpose of slowing climate change and committing- to some degree- to reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

When and why was the Paris Climate Agreement signed?

The Paris Climate Agreement was signed in December of 2015. It is a treaty which most nations of the world have ratified for the purpose of slowing climate change and committing- to some degree- to reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

What is the resource curse?

The resource curse, which commonly occurs in autocratic countries rich with natural resources, is when a population becomes complacent with their government because they have a successful economy due to the natural resources available to them. The resource curse often leads to harmful political activity.When countries with high amounts of natural resources have less economic growth, less democracy, or worse development outcomes than countries with few natural resources. Also known as the "paradox of plenty"

How does water allocation lead to political tension and disputes?

There are a couple ways this happens. But the main one is that sometimes there is one main river where people access water, and it's a shared river but some people might consume more of the resource than the other, while one pollutes it further than another. These water wars are the result- can also be due to the stream direction of water and the places rivers cut through.

What are two different health impacts of climate change? What aspect of climate change results in these health issues?

There are many health impacts of climate change but two specific ones are respiratory issues and mental health issues. Respiratory issues can come from many things like smog and pollution and mold that developed after flooding occurs in the house. Mental health issues can come up with concerns for the deteriorating earth and animals whole not being able to do anything about it.

What is the Rawisian (Maxi-Min) normative framework?

This normative framework seeks to maximize the person that is worst off. For example, in terms of climate change, a Rawlsian policy would prioritize helping those that are most at risk.

What is an example of a cross-pressured population?

cross pressure= having multiple different positions and points of views; example is a moderate or a physically vulnerable citizen living in a fossil-fuel- producing region - From lecture 3/3: Populations that are going to be negatively affected by policy and negatively impacted if policy is not enacted Working population in fossil fuel: policy will reduce their job opportunities but without this policy, sea level rise and climate change will take over

What is "policy vulnerability" according to Nikhar Gaikwad, Federica Genovese, and Dustin Tingley?

individuals who may be sensitive to the material costs of addressing climate change (one cost is central: employment related costs associated with the implementation of decarbonization policies)

What is the difference between coordination and cooperation, and how do they relate to climate change?

look at essay question 1

What role can transnational actors play in international climate governance?

look at short answrrs 16-19 and 22-27