Final Exams

Thesis Statement

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Noun

Recognize a noun when you see one. George! Jupiter! Ice cream! Courage! Books! Bottles! Godzilla! All of these words are nouns, words that identify the whos, wheres, and whats in language. Nouns name people, places, and things. Read the sentence that follows: George and Godzilla walked to Antonio's to order a large pepperoni pizza. George is a person. Antonio's is a place. Pizza is a thing. Godzilla likes to think he's a person, is as big as a place, but qualifies as another thing. Understand the functions that nouns provide in sentences. Nouns can function as subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, objects of prepositions, and subject complements. Check out these examples: Godzilla ordered a large pepperoni pizza and ate the pie in a single bite. Godzilla = the subject for the verbs ordered and ate. George offered Godzilla a ten-dollar loan to buy a second pizza. Godzilla = the indirect object of offered; loan = the direct object of offered. While eating a piece of pizza, George dripped tomato sauce onto his shirt. Shirt = the object of the preposition onto. In Godzilla's opinion, George is a slob. Slob = subject complement of the linking verb is. Know the different classes of nouns. Nouns have different classes: proper and common, concrete and abstract, count and noncount, and collective. Proper nouns name specific, one-of-a-kind items while common nouns identify the general varieties. Proper nouns always begin with capital letters; common nouns, on the other hand, only require capitalization if they start the sentence or are part of a title. Read these two versions: George and Godzilla dined at Antonio's. George, Godzilla, Antonio's = proper nouns. A boy and his monster dined at a pizza restaurant. Boy, monster, restaurant = common nouns. You classify concrete and abstract nouns by their ability to register on your five senses. If you can see, hear, smell, taste, or feel the item, it's a concrete noun. If, however, you cannot experience the item with any of your senses, it's abstract. Here are two examples: Pizza is Godzilla's favorite food. Pizza = concrete because you can see, hear, smell, feel [though you get your fingers greasy], and thankfully taste it. Godzilla never tips the delivery boy from Antonio's; politeness is not one of Godzilla's strong points. Politeness = abstract [you cannot see politeness, or hear, smell, taste, or touch the quality itself]. Many nouns can be singular or plural; these are count nouns. Noncount nouns, on the other hand, have only a singular form; to make them plural is illogical. Read the sentences that follow: Godzilla ate three pizzas, two delivery boys, and six parked cars. Pizzas, boys, and cars = count nouns. Godzilla didn't have to be such a pig; he could have eaten only one pizza, one delivery boy, and one car. After overindulging at Antonio's, Godzilla got severe indigestion. Indigestion = noncount. You cannot write, "Godzilla got eleven indigestions." Collective nouns name groups. Although the group is a single unit, it has more than one member. Some examples are army, audience, board, cabinet, class, committee, company, corporation, council, department, faculty, family, firm, group, jury, majority, minority, navy, public, school, society, team, and troupe. Collective nouns are especially tricky when you are trying to make verbs and pronouns agree with them. The reason is that collective nouns can be singular or plural, depending on the behavior of the members of the group. For example, if the members are acting as a unit—everyone doing the same thing at the same time—the collective noun is singular and requires singular verbs and pronouns. Read this example: Despite the danger to its new van, the SWAT team pursues the pizza-eating Godzilla through the streets of Miami. In this sentence, the members of the collective noun team are acting in unison; each officer is engaged in the same activity at the same time. Thus, its, a singular pronoun, and pursues, a singular verb, are required. Now read the next example: After getting their butts kicked by Godzilla, the team change into their street clothes and sob in their cars on the way home. Here, the team members are acting individually. They are not putting on one giant set of street clothes that covers them all. They are not in unison pulling on their left socks first, then their right socks second. Instead, each member is dressing as he wishes, driving his own car to his own home. In cases like this, the collective noun is plural and requires plural pronouns [like their] and plural verbs [like change]. Keep in mind that a single noun can fall into more than one class. Here is an example: Godzilla has known five Georges in his life. Georges = proper, concrete, and count.

Adjective

a word that modifies a noun or pronoun: answers questions which one, what kind, how many

Dependent Clauses

A dependent clause (also subordinate clause) is a clause used in conjunction with an independent clause and augments or attributes additional information to it. Dependent clauses cannot stand alone as a sentence; instead, they always modify the independent clause of a sentence. A dependent clause typically contains a predicate and shares a subject with the independent clause that it modifies. Some grammarians use the term subordinate clause as a synonym for dependent clause, but in the majority of grammars, subordinate clause refers only to adverbial dependent clauses. A dependent clause usually begins with a dependent word. One kind of dependent word is a subordinating conjunction. Subordinating conjunctions are used to begin dependent clauses known as adverbial clauses which act like adverbs. In the following examples, the adverbial clauses are bold and the subordinating conjunctions are italicized: Wherever she goes, she leaves a piece of luggage behind. (The adverbial clause wherever she goes modifies the verb leaves.) Bob enjoyed the movie more than I did. (The adverbial clause than I did modifies the adverb more.) Another type of dependent word is also the relative pronoun. Relative pronouns begin dependent clauses known as relative clauses. These can either be adjective clauses, which act like adjectives, or noun clauses, which act like nouns. In the following examples, the dependent clauses are bold and the relative pronouns are italicized: The only one of the seven dwarfs who does not have a beard is Dopey. (The adjective clause who does not have a beard describes the noun one.) No one understands why experience is something you don't get until just after you need it. (The noun clause why experience is something you don't get until just after you need it functions as a direct object.) A noun clause can be used like a noun. It can be a subject, predicate nominative, direct object, appositive, indirect object, or object of the preposition. Some of the words that introduce noun clauses are that, whether, who, why, whom, what, how, when, whoever, where, and whomever. Notice that some of these words also introduce adjective and adverbial clauses. To check whether a clause is a noun clause, try substituting the appropriate pronoun (he, she, it, or they). Examples: I know who said that. (I know it.) Whoever said it is wrong. (He/she is wrong.) Sometimes a noun clause is used without the introductory word. Example: I know that he is here. I know he is here. (without "that") In some cases, use of the introductory word, though grammatically correct, may sound cumbersome in English. Example: I think that it is pretty. (correct, though excessive) I think it is pretty. (standard usage) [edit] Adjective clauseAn adjective clause—also called an adjectival clause—will meet three requirements. First, it will contain a subject and verb. Next, it will begin with a relative pronoun [who, whom, whose, that, or which] or a relative adverb [when, where, or why]. Finally, it will function as an adjective, answering questions such as: What kind? How many? or Which one? The adjective clause will follow one of these two patterns: Relative Pronoun [or Relative Adverb] + Subject + Verb = Dependent Clause Relative Pronoun [Functioning as Subject] + Verb = Dependent Clause Examples include: Whose big, brown eyes pleaded for another cookie Word Class Word Relative Pronoun Whose Subject eyes Verb pleaded Why Fred cannot stand sitting across from his sister Melanie Word Class Word Relative Adverb Why Subject Fred Verb Can stand That bounced onto the kitchen floor Word Class Word Relative Pronoun that Verb Bounced Who hiccuped for seven hours afterward Word Class Word Relative Pronoun Who Verb Hiccuped Fragments In formal English grammar, sentence fragments are typically avoided. Writers who want to avoid sentence fragments must connect each adjective clause to a main clause. In the examples below, notice that the adjective clause follows the word that it describes. Diane felt manipulated by her beagle, Santana, whose big, brown eyes pleaded for another cookie. Chewing with her mouth open is one reason why Fred cannot stand sitting across from his sister Melanie. Growling ferociously, Oreo and Skeeter, my two dogs, competed for the hard-boiled egg that bounced onto the kitchen floor. Laughter erupted from Anna Marie, who hiccuped for seven hours afterward. [edit] Punctuation[edit] English punctuationPunctuating adjective clauses can be problematic. For each sentence, the writer will have to decide if the adjective clause is essential or nonessential and use commas accordingly. Essential clauses do not require commas. An adjective clause is essential when the information it contains is relevant to the overall message. For example: The vegetables that people often leave uneaten are usually the most nutritious. "Vegetables" is nonspecific. To know which ones we are talking about, we must have the information in the adjective clause (in italics). Thus, the adjective clause is essential and requires no commas. However, if we eliminate vegetables and choose a more specific noun instead, the adjective clause becomes nonessential and does require commas to separate it from the rest of the sentence. Read the correct form: Broccoli, which people often leave uneaten, is very nutritious. Some caution is required here, however: one should not assume that commas are not required simply because one has used a more specific noun. The adjective clause may still be essential, depending on the context and the nature of the information that is being given about the specific noun. This is particularly true in the case of comparisons: 'The broccoli which people leave uneaten weighs much more than the broccoli which they have chewed and spat out again.' or when two related points are being made about the specific noun, and the second point is semantically dependent on the first: 'Broccoli which has turned blue may be considered to have gone off.' Adverbial clauseMain article: Adverbial clause "He saw Mary when he was in New York" and "They studied hard because they had a test" both contain adverbial clauses (in italics). Adverbial clauses express when, why, opposition and conditions, and they are dependent clauses. This means that an adverbial clause cannot stand by itself. In other words, "When he was in New York" is not a complete sentence. It needs to be completed by an independent clause. Example: He went to the Guggenheim museum when he was in New York. [edit] Dependent clauses and sentence structureA sentence with an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses is referred to as a complex sentence. One with two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses is referred to as a compound-complex sentence. My sister cried because she scraped her knee. (complex sentence) Subjects: My sister, she Predicates: cried, scraped her knee Subordinating conjunction: because When they told me I won the contest, I cried, but I didn't faint. **(compound-complex sentence) Subjects: they, I, I, I Predicates: told me, won the contest, cried, didn't faint Subordinating conjunctions: When, that (understood) Coordinating conjunction: but The above sentence actually contains two dependent clauses. "When they told me" is one; the other is "(that) I won the contest." The "that" is understood to precede the "I won" and functions as a subordinating conjunction. Non-finite dependent clausesMain article: Balancing and deranking Dependent clauses may be headed by an infinitive or other non-finite verb form, which in linguistics is called deranked. In these cases, the subject of the dependent clause may take a non-nominative form. Examples: I want him to vanish.

Coordinating Conjunctions

And, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet—these are the seven coordinating conjunctions. To remember all seven, you might want to learn one of these acronyms: FANBOYS. F = for A = and N = nor B = but O = or Y = yet S = so Coordinating conjunctions connect words, phrases, and clauses. Look at the examples that follow: The bowl of squid eyeball stew is hot and delicious. The squid eyeball stew is so thick that you can eat it with a fork or spoon. Rocky, my orange tomcat, loves having his head scratched but hates getting his claws trimmed. Rocky terrorizes the poodles next door yet adores the German shepherd across the street. Rocky refuses to eat dry cat food, nor will he touch a saucer of squid eyeball stew. I hate to waste a single drop of squid eyeball stew, for it is expensive and time-consuming to make. Even though I added cream to the squid eyeball stew, Rocky ignored his serving, so I got a spoon and ate it myself. Understand the difference between coordination and subordination. A coordinating conjunction can join two main clauses that a writer wants to emphasize equally. The pattern for coordination looks like this: main Clause + , + coordinating conjunction + main Clause. Subordination, however, emphasizes the idea in the main clause more than the one in the subordinate clause. Generally, the patterns look like these: main clause + Ø + subordinate clause. subordinate Clause + , + main Clause. Read the pairs of sentences that follow. The first version coordinates the two ideas. The second version subordinates one idea to emphasize the other. To survive the fetal pig dissection, Rinalda agreed to make all of the incisions, and Frances promised to remove and label the organs. To survive the fetal pig dissection, Rinalda agreed to make all of the incisions if Frances would promise to remove and label the organs. Diana stared dreamily at the handsome Mr. McKenzie, but Olivia, who hated economics, furiously jiggled her foot, impatient to escape the boring class. While Diana was staring dreamily at the handsome Mr. McKenzie, Olivia furiously jiggled her foot, impatient to escape the boring economics class that she hated. At a red light, Maria jumped out of Gino's car and slammed the door, for she could not tolerate one more minute of the heavy metal music that Gino insisted on blasting from the stereo. At a red light, Maria jumped out of Gino's car and slammed the door because she could not tolerate one more minute of the heavy metal music that Gino insisted on blasting from the stereo. Making an A in Anatomy and Physiology has not helped Sima choose a career. She might decide to make her parents happy and go to medical school, or she might use her knowledge of the human body to become a sculptor. Making an A in Anatomy and Physiology has not helped Sima choose a career. Although she might decide to make her parents happy and go to medical school, she might also use her knowledge of the human body to become a sculptor. Kyle refused to eat the salad served with the meal, nor would he touch any green vegetable put on his plate. After Kyle refused the salad served with the meal, he then would not touch the green vegetables put on his plate. Joe spent seven hours studying calculus at the Mexican diner, so now he can set his math book on fire with his salsa breath. Since Joe spent seven hours studying calculus at Taco Bell, he can now set his math book on fire with his salsa breath. Because she gets seasick, Danielle is dreading the spring break cruise, yet she might enjoy herself once she realizes how many cute guys in skimpy bathing suits parade the decks. Even though Danielle is dreading getting seasick on the spring break cruise, she will probably enjoy herself once she realizes how many cute guys in skimpy bathing suits parade the decks. Punctuate coordinating conjunctions correctly. Three patterns in writing use coordinating conjunctions. Add commas when required. Pattern 1 — Connecting two main clauses When you connect two main clauses with a coordinating conjunction, use a comma. The pattern looks like this: main clause + , + coordinating conjunction + main clause. Here is an example: While I am at work, my dog Floyd sleeps on the bed , and my cat Buster naps in the bathtub. Pattern 2 — Connecting two items You can also use a coordinating conjunction to connect any two items. These items can be any grammatical unit except main clauses. The pattern looks like this: item + Ø + coordinating conjunction + item Here are some examples: My dog Floyd has too many fleas and too much hair. My cat Buster has beautiful blue eyes but a destructive personality. Pattern 3 — Connecting three or more items in a series When you have three or more items in a series, you generally use a comma before the coordinating conjunction. Some handbooks and style guides will tell you that this comma is optional, but my advice is to put it in. The pattern looks like this: item + , + item + , + coordinating conjunction + item Here is an example: Swatting olives off the kitchen counter, dragging toilet paper streamers through the house, and terrorizing Jacques Cousteau, the parakeet, has consumed another of Buster's days. Yes, you can begin a sentence with a coordinating conjunction! Some teachers warn that beginning a sentence with a coordinating conjunction is wrong. Teachers will typically tell you this because they are trying to help you avoid writing fragments. Other times teachers give this advice because their preference is that a sentence not begin with a coordinating conjunction. What you should remember is that you break no grammar rule if you begin a sentence with a coordinating conjunction. Because you might be breaking your instructors' rules, however, you should ask what their preferences are. If you decide to begin a sentence with a coordinating conjunction, keep these three things in mind: ■Be sure that a main clause follows the coordinating conjunction. ■Do not use a coordinating conjunction to begin every sentence. Use this option only when it makes the flow of your ideas more effective. ■Do not use a comma after the coordinating conjunction. Coordinating conjunctions are not transitional expressions like for example or first of all. You will rarely use punctuation after them. Here are some examples: While I was answering the telephone, Buster, my cat, jumped onto the kitchen counter and swatted all of my jalapeño-stuffed olives onto the dirty kitchen floor. So I had to rinse off the cat hair and crumbs sticking to these delicacies before I could add them to the salad. Flying down the bumpy path, Genette hit a rock with the front wheel of her mountain bike, flew over the handlebars, and crashed into a clump of prickly palmetto bushes. Yet even this accident would not deter her from completing the race. Only when an interrupter immediately follows the coordinating conjunction do you need to use commas. Read this example: We hoped that decorating the top of Christine's cupcake with a dead grasshopper would freak her out. But, to our amazement, she just popped the whole thing in her mouth, chewed, and swallowed.

Fragments

A fragment occurs whenever you do these three things: ■You begin a group of words with a capital letter. ■You conclude this group of words with an end mark—either a period [ . ], question mark [ ? ], or exclamation point [ ! ]. ■You neglect to insert a main clause somewhere between the capital letter at the beginning and the end mark concluding the word group. Fragment - A fragment is a group of words used as a sentence, but it lacks a subject, verb, or some other essential element (for example, it could be a subordinate clause). Because of the missing part, the thought is incomplete.

Use of Comma

Rule 1: To avoid confusion, use commas to separate words and word groups with a series of three or more. Example: My $10 million estate is to be split among my husband, daughter, son, and nephew. Omitting the comma after son would indicate that the son and nephew would have to split one-third of the estate. Rule 2. Use a comma to separate two adjectives when the word and can be inserted between them. Examples: He is a strong, healthy man. We stayed at an expensive summer resort. You would not say expensive and summer resort, so no comma. Rule 3. Use a comma when an -ly adjective is used with other adjectives. NOTE: To test whether an -ly word is an adjective, see if it can be used alone with the noun. If it can, use the comma. Examples: Felix was a lonely, young boy. I get headaches in brightly lit rooms. Brightly is not an adjective because it cannot be used alone with rooms; therefore, no comma is used between brightly and lit. Rule 4. Use commas before or surrounding the name or title of a person directly addressed. Examples: Will you, Aisha, do that assignment for me? Yes, Doctor, I will. NOTE: Capitalize a title when directly addressing someone. Rule 5a. Use a comma to separate the day of the month from the year and after the year. Example: Kathleen met her husband on December 5, 2003, in Mill Valley, California. Rule 5b. If any part of the date is omitted, leave out the comma. Example: They met in December 2003 in Mill Valley. Rule 6. Use a comma to separate the city from the state and after the state in a document. If you use the two-letter capitalized form of a state in a document, you do not need a comma after the state. NOTE: With addresses on envelopes mailed via the post office, do not use any punctuation. Example: I lived in San Francisco, California, for 20 years. I lived in San Francisco, CA for 20 years. Rule 7. Use commas to surround degrees or titles used with names. Commas are no longer required around Jr. and Sr. Commas never set off II, III, and so forth. Example: Al Mooney, M.D., knew Sam Sunny Jr. and Charles Starr III. Rule 8. Use commas to set off expressions that interrupt sentence flow. Example: I am, as you have probably noticed, very nervous about this. Rule 9. When starting a sentence with a weak clause, use a comma after it. Conversely, do not use a comma when the sentence starts with a strong clause followed by a weak clause. Examples: If you are not sure about this, let me know now. Let me know now if you are not sure about this. Rule 10. Use a comma after phrases of more than three words that begin a sentence. If the phrase has fewer than three words, the comma is optional. Examples: To apply for this job, you must have previous experience. On February 14 many couples give each other candy or flowers. OR On February 14, many couples give each other candy or flowers. Rule 11. If something or someone is sufficiently identified, the description following it is considered nonessential and should be surrounded by commas. Examples: Freddy, who has a limp, was in an auto accident. Freddy is named, so the description is not essential. The boy who has a limp was in an auto accident. We do not know which boy is being referred to without further description; therefore, no commas are used. Rule 12. Use a comma to separate two strong clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction--and, or, but, for, nor. You can omit the comma if the clauses are both short. Examples: I have painted the entire house, but he is still working on sanding the doors. I paint and he writes. Rule 13. Use the comma to separate two sentences if it will help avoid confusion. Example: I chose the colors red and green, and blue was his first choice. Rule 14. A comma splice is an error caused by joining two strong clauses with only a comma instead of separating the clauses with a conjunction, a semicolon, or a period. A run-on sentence, which is incorrect, is created by joining two strong clauses without any punctuation. Incorrect: Time flies when we are having fun, we are always having fun. (Comma splice) Time flies when we are having fun we are always having fun. (Run-on sentence) Correct: Time flies when we are having fun; we are always having fun. OR Time flies when we are having fun, and we are always having fun. (Comma is optional because both strong clauses are short.) OR Time flies when we are having fun. We are always having fun. Rule 15. If the subject does not appear in front of the second verb, do not use a comma. Example: He thought quickly but still did not answer correctly. Rule 16. Use commas to introduce or interrupt direct quotations shorter than three lines. Examples: He actually said, "I do not care." "Why," I asked, "do you always forget to do it?" Rule 17. Use a comma to separate a statement from a question. Example: I can go, can't I? Rule 18. Use a comma to separate contrasting parts of a sentence. Example: That is my money, not yours. Rule 19. Use a comma when beginning sentences with introductory words such as well, now, or yes. Examples: Yes, I do need that report. Well, I never thought I'd live to see the day . . . Rule 20. Use commas surrounding words such as therefore and however when they are used as interrupters. Examples: I would, therefore, like a response. I would be happy, however, to volunteer for the Red Cross. Rule 21. Use either a comma or a semicolon before introductory words such as namely, that is, i.e., for example, e.g., or for instance when they are followed by a series of items. Use a comma after the introductory word. Examples: You may be required to bring many items, e.g., sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing. OR You may be required to bring many items; e.g., sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing. NOTE: i.e. means that is; e.g. means for example

Independent Clause

The independent clause includes a subject and a verb. The independent clause is the main idea of the sentence. It is not dependent on another clause for meaning and context. An independent clause (or main clause) is a clause that can stand by itself, also known as a simple sentence. An independent clause contains a subject and a predicate; it makes sense by itself. Multiple independent clauses can be joined by using a semicolon or a comma plus a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so). Examples I love penguins. (simple sentence) I drive a bus. (simple sentence) I am a doctor, and my wife is a lawyer. (compound sentence made up of two independent clauses: I am a doctor and my wife is a lawyer) I want to be a nurse, but I need to receive my science degree. (compound sentence made up of two independent clauses:

Compound-Complex Sentences

A compound-complex sentence is comprised of at least two independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. Example: Though Mitchell prefers watching romantic films, he rented the latest spy thriller, and he enjoyed it very much. Example: Laura forgot her friend's birthday, so she sent her a card when she finally remembered. Because compound-complex sentences are normally longer than other sentences, it is very important to punctuate them correctly. Refer to your Commas 101 handout for tips on correct comma usage

Direct Object

A direct object will follow a transitive verb [a type of action verb]. Direct objects can be nouns, pronouns, phrases, or clauses. If you can identify the subject and verb in a sentence, then finding the direct object—if one exists—is easy. Just remember this simple formula: subject + verb + what? or who? = direct object Here are examples of the formula in action: Zippy and Maurice played soccer with a grapefruit pulled from a backyard tree. Zippy, Maurice = subjects; played = verb. Zippy and Maurice played what? Soccer = direct object. Zippy accidentally kicked Maurice in the shin. Zippy = subject; kicked = verb. Zippy kicked who? Maurice = direct object. Sometimes direct objects are single words like soccer and Maurice; other times they are phrases or clauses. The formula nevertheless works the same. Sylina hates biting her fingernails. Sylina = subject; hates = verb. Sylina hates what? Biting her fingernails [a gerund phrase] = direct object. Even worse, Sylina hates when Mom lectures her about hand care. Sylina = subject; hates = verb. Sylina hates what? When Mom lectures her about hand care [a subordinate clause] = direct object. Direct objects can also follow verbals—infinitives, gerunds, and participles. Use this abbreviated version of the formula: verbal + what? or who? = direct object Here are some examples: To see magnified blood cells, Gus squinted into the microscope on the lab table. To see = infinitive. To see what? Blood cells = direct object. Gus bought contact lenses because he wanted to see the beautiful Miranda, his lab partner, more clearly. To see = infinitive. To see who? The beautiful Miranda = direct object. Dragging her seventy-five pound German shepherd through the door is Roseanne's least favorite part of going to the vet. Dragging = gerund. Dragging what? Her seventy-five pound German shepherd = direct object. Heaping his plate with fried chicken, Clyde winked at Delores, the cook. Heaping = participle. Heaping what? His plate = direct object. Don't mistake a direct object for a subject complement. Only action verbs can have direct objects. If the verb is linking, then the word that answers the what? or who? question is a subject complement. The space alien from the planet Zortek accidentally locked his keys in his space ship. Alien = subject; locked = action verb. The space alien locked what? His keys = direct object. The space alien was happy to find a spare key taped under the wing. Alien = subject; was = linking verb. The space alien was what? Happy = subject complement. After I give my dog Oreo a scoop of peanut butter, she always kisses me with her sticky tongue. She = subject; kisses = verb. She kisses who? Me = direct object. Because Jo had skipped Mr. Duncan's class five times in a row, she ducked out of sight whenever she spotted him on campus. She = subject; spotted = verb. She spotted who? Him = direct object. Because David was always eating her food, Theresa sneaked corn chips and candy bars into her room and hid them in the clothes hamper. Theresa = subject; hid = verb. Theresa hid what? Them = direct object.

Gerund Phrase

A gerund phrase will begin with a gerund, an ing word, and might include other modifiers and/or objects. Gerund phrases always function as nouns, so they will be subjects, subject complements, or objects in the sentence. Read these examples: Eating ice cream on a windy day can be a messy experience if you have long, untamed hair. Eating ice cream on a windy day = subject of the verb can be. A more disastrous activity for long-haired people is blowing giant bubble gum bubbles with the car windows down. Blowing giant bubble gum bubbles with the car windows down = subject complement of the verb is. Wild food adventures require getting your hair cut to a short, safe length. Getting your hair cut to a short, safe length = direct object of the verb require. Be careful not to mistake a gerund phrase for a present participle phrase. Gerund and present participle phrases are easy to confuse because they both begin with an ing word. The difference is that a gerund phrase will always function as a noun while a present participle phrase describes another word in the sentence. Check out these examples: Jamming too much clothing into a washing machine will result in disaster. Jamming too much clothing into a washing machine = gerund phrase, the subject of the verb will result. Jamming too much clothing into the washing machine, Aamir saved $1.25 but had to tolerate the curious stares of other laundry patrons as his machine bucked and rumbled with the heavy load. Jamming too much clothing into the washing machine = present participle phrase describing Aamir. Bernard hates buttering toast with a fork. Buttering toast with a fork = gerund phrase, the direct object of the verb hates. Buttering toast with a fork, Bernard vowed that he would finally wash the week's worth of dirty dishes piled in the sink. Buttering toast with a fork = present participle phrase describing Bernard. My dog's most annoying habit is hogging the middle of the bed. Hogging the middle of the bed = gerund phrase, the subject complement of the linking verb is. Last night I had to sleep on the couch because I found my dog Floyd hogging the middle of the bed. Hogging the middle of the bed = present participle phrase describing Floyd.

Subject Complement

A subject complement is the adjective, noun, or pronoun that follows a linking verb. The following verbs are true linking verbs: any form of the verb be [am, is, are, was, were, has been, are being, might have been, etc.], become, and seem. These true linking verbs are always linking verbs. Then you have a list of verbs that can be linking or action: appear, feel, grow, look, prove, remain, smell, sound, taste, and turn. If you can substitute any of the verbs on this second list with an equal sign [=] and the sentence still makes sense, the verb is almost always linking. Read these examples: Brandon is a gifted athlete. Brandon = subject; is = linking verb; athlete = noun as subject complement. It was he who caught the winning touchdown Friday night. It = subject; was = linking verb; he = pronoun as subject complement. Brandon becomes embarrassed when people compliment his skill. Brandon = subject; becomes = linking verb; embarrassed = adjective as subject complement. Brandon's face will turn red. Face = subject; will turn = linking verb; red = adjective as subject complement. [Will turn is linking because if you substitute this verb with an equal sign, the sentence still makes sense.] Don't mistake a subject complement for a direct object. Only linking verbs can have subject complements. If the verb is action, then the word that answers the question what? or who? after the subject + verb is a direct object. When Michelle woke up this morning, she felt sick. She = subject; felt = linking verb; sick = subject complement. [Felt is linking because if you substitute this verb with an equal sign, the sentence still makes sense.] Michelle felt her forehead but did not detect a temperature. Michelle = subject; felt = action verb. She felt what? Forehead = direct object. [Felt is action because if you substitute this felt with an equal sign, the sentence does not make sense.] Use subject pronouns as subject complements. The chart below contains subject and object pronouns. Because a subject complement provides more information about the subject, use the subject form of the pronoun—even when it sounds strange. Subject Pronouns Object Pronouns I we you he, she, it they who me us you him, her, it them whom Check out these sample sentences: Don't blame Gerard. It was I who woke you from a sound sleep. It = subject; was = linking verb; I = subject complement. Don't get mad at me! I didn't pull your ponytail! It was he. It = subject; was = linking verb; he = subject complement. Remember the amazing guitarist I met? This is she. This = subject; is = linking verb; she = subject complement.

Infinitive Phrase

An infinitive phrase will begin with an infinitive [to + simple form of the verb]. It will include objects and/or modifiers. Here are some examples: To smash a spider To kick the ball past the dazed goalie To lick the grease from his shiny fingers despite the disapproving glances of his girlfriend Gloria Infinitive phrases can function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. Look at these examples: To finish her shift without spilling another pizza into a customer's lap is Michelle's only goal tonight. To finish her shift without spilling another pizza into a customer's lap functions as a noun because it is the subject of the sentence. Lakesha hopes to win the approval of her mother by switching her major from fine arts to pre-med. To win the approval of her mother functions as a noun because it is the direct object for the verb hopes. The best way to survive Dr. Peterson's boring history lectures is a sharp pencil to stab in your thigh if you catch yourself drifting off. To survive Dr. Peterson's boring history lectures functions as an adjective because it modifies way. Kelvin, an aspiring comic book artist, is taking Anatomy and Physiology this semester to understand the interplay of muscle and bone in the human body. To understand the interplay of muscle and bone in the human body functions as an adverb because it why Kelvin is taking the class. Punctuate an infinitive phrase correctly. When an infinitive phrase introduces a main clause, separate the two sentence components with a comma. The pattern looks like this: infinitive phrase + , + main clause. Read this example: To avoid burning another bag of popcorn, Brendan pressed his nose against the microwave door, sniffing suspiciously with every breath. When an infinitive phrase breaks the flow of a main clause, use a comma both before and after the interrupter. The pattern looks like this: start of main clause + , + interrupter + , + end of main clause. Here is an example: Those basketball shoes, to be perfectly honest, do not complement the suit you are planning to wear to the interview. When an infinitive phrase concludes a main clause, you need no punctuation to connect the two sentence parts. The pattern looks like this: main Clause + Ø + infinitive phrase. Check out this example: Janice and her friends went to the mall to flirt with the cute guys who congregate at the food court.

Object of the Preposition

Recognize an object of the preposition when you see one. Prepositions often begin prepositional phrases. To complete the phrase, the preposition usually teams up with a noun, pronoun, or gerund, or the object of the preposition. Here are some examples: At noon At = preposition; noon = noun or the object of the preposition. Behind them Behind = preposition; them = pronoun or the object of the preposition. Without sneezing Without = preposition; sneezing = gerund or the object of the preposition. The object of the preposition will often have modifiers that add description: At the kitchen counter At = preposition; the, kitchen = modifiers; counter = noun or the object of the preposition. Between us only Between = preposition; us = pronoun or the object of the preposition; only = modifier. Without completely finishing Without = preposition; completely = modifier; finishing = gerund or the object of the preposition. Infrequently, a clause will be the object of the preposition, as in this example: In class today, we talked about what Mr. Duncan expects in our next research essay. About = preposition; what Mr. Duncan expects in our next research essay = noun clause or the object of the preposition.

Verb

expresses an action or a state of being; Verbs are a necessary component of all sentences. Verbs have two important functions: Some verbs put static objects into motion while other verbs help to clarify the objects in meaningful ways.

Complex Sentences

A complex sentence has an independent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses. A complex sentence always has a subordinator such as because, since, after, although, or when or a relative pronoun such as that, who, or which. In the following complex sentences, subjects are in yellow, verbs are in green, and the subordinators and their commas (when required) are in red. A. When he handed in his homework, he forgot to give the teacher the last page. B. The teacher returned the homework after she noticed the error. C. The students are studying because they have a test tomorrow. D. After they finished studying, Juan and Maria went to the movies. E. Juan and Maria went to the movies after they finished studying. When a complex sentence begins with a subordinator such as sentences A and D, a comma is required at the end of the dependent clause. When the independent clause begins the sentence with subordinators in the middle as in sentences B, C, and E, no comma is required. If a comma is placed before the subordinators in sentences B, C, and E, it is wrong. Note that sentences D and E are the same except sentence D begins with the dependent clause which is followed by a comma, and sentence E begins with the independent clause which contains no comma. The comma after the dependent clause in sentence D is required, and experienced listeners of English will often hear a slight pause there. In sentence E, however, there will be no pause when the independent clause begins the sentence.

Indirect Object

Indirect objects are rare. You can read for pages before you encounter one. For an indirect object to appear, a sentence must first have a direct object. Direct objects follow transitive verbs [a type of action verb]. If you can identify the subject and verb in a sentence, then finding the direct object—if one exists—is easy. Just remember this simple formula: subject + verb + what? or who? = direct object Here are examples of the formula in action: Jim built a sandcastle on the beach. Jim = subject; built = verb. Jim built what? Sandcastle = direct object. Sammy and Maria brought Billie Lou to the party. Sammy, Maria = subject; brought = verb. Sammy and Maria brought who? Billie Lou = direct object. To explain the broken lamp, we told a lie. We = subject; told = verb. We told what? Lie = direct object. When someone [or something] gets the direct object, that word is the indirect object. Look at these new versions of the sentences above: Jim built his granddaughter a sandcastle on the beach. Jim = subject; built = verb. Jim built what? Sandcastle = direct object. Who got the sandcastle? Granddaughter = indirect object. So that Darren would have company at the party, Sammy and Maria brought him a blind date. Sammy, Maria = subjects; brought = verb. Sammy and Maria brought who? Blind date = direct object. Who got the blind date? him = indirect object. To explain the broken lamp, we told Mom a lie. We = subject; told = verb. We told what? lie = direct object. Who got the lie? Mom = indirect object. Sometimes, the indirect object will occur in a prepositional phrase beginning with to or for. Read these two sentences: Tomas paid the mechanic 200 dollars to fix the squeaky brakes. Tomas paid 200 dollars to the mechanic to fix the squeaky brakes. In both versions, the mechanic [the indirect object] gets the 200 dollars [the direct object]. When the indirect object is a pronoun rather than a noun, putting it in a prepositional phrase becomes a necessary modification. The preposition smoothes out the sentence so that it sounds natural. Check out these examples: Leslie didn't have any money for a sandwich, so Smitty purchased her it. Blech! That version sounds awful! Leslie didn't have any money for a sandwich, so Smitty purchased it for her. Locating the indirect object her in a prepositional phrase lets the sentence sound natural! After Michael took generous spoonfuls of stuffing, he passed us it. Ewww! This version sounds awful too! After Michael took generous spoonfuls of stuffing, he passed it to us. But with the indirect object us in a prepositional phrase, we have an improvement!

Prepositional Phrase (Adverb and Adjective)

At the minimum, a prepositional phrase will begin with a preposition and end with a noun, pronoun, gerund, or clause, the "object" of the preposition. The object of the preposition will often have one or more modifiers to describe it. These are the patterns for a prepositional phrase: preposition + noun, pronoun, gerund, or clause preposition + modifier(s) + noun, pronoun, gerund, or clause Here are some examples of the most basic prepositional phrase: At home At = preposition; home = noun. In time In = preposition; time = noun. From Richie From = preposition; Richie = noun. With me With = preposition; me = pronoun. By singing By = preposition; singing = gerund. About what we need About = preposition; what we need = noun clause. Most prepositional phrases are longer, like these: From my grandmother From = preposition; my = modifier; grandmother = noun. Under the warm blanket Under = preposition; the, warm = modifiers; blanket = noun. In the weedy, overgrown garden In = preposition; the, weedy, overgrown = modifiers; garden = noun. Along the busy, six-lane highway Along = preposition; the, busy, six-lane = modifiers; highway = noun. By writing furiously By = preposition; writing = gerund; furiously = modifier. Understand what prepositional phrases do in a sentence. A prepositional phrase will function as an adjective or adverb. As an adjective, the prepositional phrase will answer the question Which one? Read these examples: The book on the bathroom floor is swollen from shower steam. Which book? The one on the bathroom floor! The sweet potatoes in the vegetable bin are green with mold. Which sweet potatoes? The ones forgotten in the vegetable bin! The note from Beverly confessed that she had eaten the leftover pizza. Which note? The one from Beverly! As an adverb, a prepositional phrase will answer questions such as How? When? or Where? Freddy is stiff from yesterday's long football practice. How did Freddy get stiff? From yesterday's long football practice! Before class, Josh begged his friends for a pencil. When did Josh do his begging? Before class! Feeling brave, we tried the Dragon Breath Burritos at Tito's Taco Palace. Where did we eat the spicy food? At Tito's Taco Palace! Remember that a prepositional phrase will never contain the subject of a sentence. Sometimes a noun within the prepositional phrase seems the logical subject of a verb. Don't fall for that trick! You will never find a subject in a prepositional phrase. Look at this example: Neither of these cookbooks contains the recipe for Manhattan-style squid eyeball stew. Cookbooks do indeed contain recipes. In this sentence, however, cookbooks is part of the prepositional phrase of these cookbooks. Neither—whatever a neither is—is the subject for the verb contains. Neither is singular, so you need the singular form of the verb, contains. If you incorrectly identified cookbooks as the subject, you might write contain, the plural form, and thus commit a subject-verb agreement error. Some prepositions—such as along with and in addition to—indicate "more to come." They will make you think that you have a plural subject when in fact you don't. Don't fall for that trick either! Read this example: Tommy, along with the other students, breathed a sigh of relief when Mrs. Markham announced that she was postponing the due date for the research essay. Logically, more than one student is happy with the news. But Tommy is the only subject of the verb breathed. His classmates count in the real world, but in the sentence, they don't matter, locked as they are in the prepositional phrase.

Compound Sentences

A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinator. The coordinators are as follows: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. (Helpful hint: The first letter of each of the coordinators spells FANBOYS.) Except for very short sentences, coordinators are always preceded by a comma. In the following compound sentences, subjects are in yellow, verbs are in green, and the coordinators and the commas that precede them are in red. A. I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English. B. Alejandro played football, so Maria went shopping. C. Alejandro played football, for Maria went shopping. The above three sentences are compound sentences. Each sentence contains two independent clauses, and they are joined by a coordinator with a comma preceding it. Note how the conscious use of coordinators can change the relationship between the clauses. Sentences B and C, for example, are identical except for the coordinators. In sentence B, which action occurred first? Obviously, "Alejandro played football" first, and as a consequence, "Maria went shopping. In sentence C, "Maria went shopping" first. In sentence C, "Alejandro played football" because, possibly, he didn't have anything else to do, for or because "Maria went shopping." How can the use of other coordinators change the relationship between the two clauses? What implications would the use of "yet" or "but" have on the meaning of the sentence?

Pronoun

A pronoun can replace a noun or another pronoun. You use pronouns like "he," "which," "none," and "you" to make your sentences less cumbersome and less repetitive. Personal Pronouns A personal pronoun refers to a specific person or thing and changes its form to indicate person, number, gender, and case. Subjective Personal Pronouns A subjective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as the subject of the sentence. The subjective personal pronouns are "I," "you," "she," "he," "it," "we," "you," "they." Objective Personal Pronouns An objective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as an object of a verb, compound verb, preposition, or infinitive phrase. The objective personal pronouns are: "me," "you," "her," "him," "it," "us," "you," and "them." Possessive Personal Pronouns A possessive pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as a marker of possession and defines who owns a particular object or person. The possessive personal pronouns are "mine," "yours," "hers," "his," "its," "ours," and "theirs." Note that possessive personal pronouns are very similar to possessive adjectives like "my," "her," and "their." Demonstrative Pronouns A demonstrative pronoun points to and identifies a noun or a pronoun. "This" and "these" refer to things that are nearby either in space or in time, while "that" and "those" refer to things that are farther away in space or time. Interrogative Pronouns An interrogative pronoun is used to ask questions. The interrogative pronouns are "who," "whom," "which," "what" and the compounds formed with the suffix "ever" ("whoever," "whomever," "whichever," and "whatever"). Note that either "which" or "what" can also be used as an interrogative adjective, and that "who," "whom," or "which" can also be used as a relative pronoun. Relative Pronouns You can use a relative pronoun is used to link one phrase or clause to another phrase or clause. The relative pronouns are "who," "whom," "that," and "which." The compounds "whoever," "whomever," and "whichever" are also relative pronouns. You can use the relative pronouns "who" and "whoever" to refer to the subject of a clause or sentence, and "whom" and "whomever" to refer to the objects of a verb, a verbal or a preposition. Indefinite Pronouns An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun referring to an identifiable but not specified person or thing. An indefinite pronoun conveys the idea of all, any, none, or some. Reflexive Pronouns You can use a reflexive pronoun to refer back to the subject of the clause or sentence. The reflexive pronouns are "myself," "yourself," "herself," "himself," "itself," "ourselves," "yourselves," and "themselves." Note each of these can also act as an intensive pronoun.

Relative Pronoun

A relative pronoun is a pronoun that introduces a relative clause. It is called a "relative" pronoun because it "relates" to the word that it modifies. Here is an example: •The person who phoned me last night is my teacher. In the above example, "who": •relates to "person", which it modifies •introduces the relative clause "who phoned me last night" There are five relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, that* Who (subject) and whom (object) are generally only for people. Whose is for possession. Which is for things. That can be used for people** and things and as subject and object in defining relative clauses (clauses that are essential to the sentence and do not simply add extra information). Relative pronouns can refer to singular or plural, and there is no difference between male and female.

Run-On

A run-on sentence is two or more sentences capitalized and punctuated as if they were one. There are two types: the comma splice and the fused sentence. Comma Splice - A comma splice is when two independent clauses (sentences) are connected or "spliced" with only a comma. A comma is not enough to combine sentences - it is like joining wires without electrical tape! Fused Sentence - A fused sentence is two (or more) sentences joined without adequate punctuation or a connecting word.

Simple Sentence

A simple sentence, also called an independent clause, contains a subject and a verb, and it expresses a complete thought. In the following simple sentences, subjects are in yellow, and verbs are in green. A. Some students like to study in the mornings. B. Juan and Arturo play football every afternoon. C. Alicia goes to the library and studies every day. The three examples above are all simple sentences. Note that sentence B contains a compound subject, and sentence C contains a compound verb. Simple sentences, therefore, contain a subject and verb and express a complete thought, but they can also contain a compound subjects or verbs.

Transitive Verb

A transitive verb has two characteristics. First, it is an action verb, expressing a doable activity like kick, want, paint, write, eat, clean, etc. Second, it must have a direct object, something or someone who receives the action of the verb. Here are some examples of transitive verbs: Sylvia kicked Juan under the table. KICKED = transitive verb; JUAN = direct object. Joshua wants a smile from Leodine, his beautiful but serious lab partner. Wants = transitive verb; smile = direct object. Cornelius painted the canvas in Jackson Pollock fashion, dribbling bright colors from a heavily soaked brush. Painted = transitive verb; canvas = direct object. Alicia wrote a love poem on a restaurant napkin. Wrote = transitive verb; poem = direct object. Antonio eats lima beans drenched in brown gravy. Eats = transitive verb; lima beans = direct object. Pinky the poodle cleans the dirty supper dishes with his tongue before Grandma loads the "prewashed" items into dishwasher. Cleans, loads = transitive verbs; dishes, items = direct objects. Important note: When no direct object follows an action verb, the verb is intransitive.

Appositive Phrase

An appositive is a noun or noun phrase that renames another noun right beside it. The appositive can be a short or long combination of words. Look at these examples: The insect, a cockroach, is crawling across the kitchen table. The insect, a large cockroach, is crawling across the kitchen table. The insect, a large cockroach with hairy legs, is crawling across the kitchen table. The insect, a large, hairy-legged cockroach that has spied my bowl of oatmeal, is crawling across the kitchen table. Here are more examples: During the dinner conversation, Clifford, the messiest eater at the table, spewed mashed potatoes like an erupting volcano. My 286 computer, a modern-day dinosaur, chews floppy disks as noisily as my brother does peanut brittle. Genette's bedroom desk, the biggest disaster area in the house, is a collection of overdue library books, dirty plates, computer components, old mail, cat hair, and empty potato chip bags. Reliable, Diane's eleven-year-old beagle, chews holes in the living room carpeting as if he were still a puppy. Punctuate the appositive correctly. The important point to remember is that a nonessential appositive is always separated from the rest of the sentence with comma(s). When the appositive begins the sentence, it looks like this: A hot-tempered tennis player, Robbie charged the umpire and tried to crack the poor man's skull with a racket. When the appositive interrupts the sentence, it looks like this: Robbie, a hot-tempered tennis player, charged the umpire and tried to crack the poor man's skull with a racket. And when the appositive ends the sentence, it looks like this: Upset by the bad call, the crowd cheered Robbie, a hot-tempered tennis player who charged the umpire and tried to crack the poor man's skull with a racket.

Intransitive Verb

An intransitive verb has two characteristics. First, it is an action verb, expressing a doable activity like arrive, go, lie, sneeze, sit, die, etc. Second, unlike a transitive verb, it will not have a direct object receiving the action. Here are some examples of intransitive verbs: Huffing and puffing, we arrived at the classroom door with only seven seconds to spare. Arrived = intransitive verb. James went to the campus cafe for a steaming bowl of squid eyeball stew. Went = intransitive verb. To escape the midday sun, the cats lie in the shade under our cars. Lie = intransitive verb. Around fresh ground pepper, Sheryl sneezes with violence. Sneezes = intransitive verb. In the evenings, Glenda sits on the front porch to admire her immaculate lawn. Sits = intransitive verb. Flipped on its back, the beetle that Clara soaked with insecticide dies under the refrigerator. Dies = intransitive verb. Realize that many verbs can be both transitive and intransitive. An action verb with a direct object is transitive while an action verb with no direct object is intransitive. Some verbs, such as arrive, go, lie, sneeze, sit, and die, are always intransitive; it is impossible for a direct object to follow. Other action verbs, however, can be transitive or intransitive, depending on what follows in the sentence. Compare these examples: Because of blood sugar problems, Rosa always eats before leaving for school. Eats = intransitive verb. If there is no leftover pizza, Rosa usually eats whole-grain cereal. Eats = transitive verb; cereal = direct object. During cross-country practice, Damien runs over hills, through fields, across the river, and along the highway. Runs = intransitive verb. In the spring, Damien will run his first marathon. Will run = transitive verb; marathon = direct object.

Linking Verb

Linking verbs do not express action. Instead, they connect the subject of the verb to additional information about the subject. Look at the examples below: Keila is a shopaholic. Ising isn't something that Keila can do. Is connects the subject, Keila, to additional information about her, that she will soon have a huge credit card bill to pay. During the afternoon, my cats are content to nap on the couch. Areing isn't something that cats can do. Are is connecting the subject, cats, to something said about them, that they enjoy sleeping on the furniture. After drinking the old milk, Bladimiro turned green. Turned connects the subject, Bladimiro, to something said about him, that he was needing Pepto Bismol. A ten-item quiz seems impossibly long after a night of no studying. Seems connects the subject, a ten-item quiz, with something said about it, that its difficulty depends on preparation, not length. Irene always feels sleepy after pigging out on pizza from Antonio's. Feels connects the subject, Irene, to her state of being, sleepiness. The following verbs are true linking verbs: any form of the verb be [am, is, are, was, were, has been, are being, might have been, etc.], become, and seem. These true linking verbs are always linking verbs. Then you have a list of verbs with multiple personalities: appear, feel, grow, look, prove, remain, smell, sound, taste, and turn. Sometimes these verbs are linking verbs; sometimes they are action verbs. How do you tell when they are action verbs and when they are linking verbs? If you can substitute am, is, or are and the sentence still sounds logical, you have a linking verb on your hands. If, after the substitution, the sentence makes no sense, you are dealing with an action verb instead. Here are some examples: Sylvia tasted the spicy squid eyeball stew. Sylvia is the stew? I don't think so! Tasted, therefore, is an action verb in this sentence, something Sylvia is doing. The squid eyeball stew tasted good. The stew is good? You bet. Make your own! I smell the delicious aroma of a mushroom and papaya pizza baking in the oven. I am the aroma? No way! Smell, in this sentence, is an action verb, something I am doing. The mushroom and papaya pizza smells heavenly. The pizza is heavenly? Definitely! Try a slice! When my dog Oreo felt the wet grass beneath her paws, she bolted up the stairs and curled up on the couch. Oreo is the wet grass? Of course not! Here, then, felt is an action verb, something Oreo is doing. My dog Oreo feels depressed after seven straight days of rain. Oreo is depressed? Without a doubt! Oreo hates the wet. This substitution will not work for appear. With appear, you have to analyze the function of the verb. Swooping out of the clear blue sky, the blue jay appeared on the branch. Appear is something a blue jay can do—especially when food is near. The blue jay appeared happy to see the bird feeder. Here, appeared is connecting the subject, the blue jay, to its state of mind, happiness.

Prepositions

Prepositions are the words that indicate location. Usually, prepositions show this location in the physical world. Check out the three examples below: The puppy is on the floor. The puppy is in the trashcan. The puppy is beside the phone. On, in, and beside are all prepositions. They are showing where the puppy is. Prepositions can also show location in time. Read the next three examples: At midnight, Jill craved mashed potatoes with grape jelly. In the spring, I always vow to plant tomatoes but end up buying them at the supermarket. During the marathon, Iggy's legs complained with sharp pains shooting up his thighs. At midnight, in the spring, and during the marathon all show location in time. Because there are so many possible locations, there are quite a few prepositions. Below is the complete list. about above according to across after against along along with among apart from around as as for at because of before behind below beneath beside between beyond but* by by means of concerning despite down during except except for excepting for from in in addition to in back of in case of in front of in place of inside in spite of instead of into like near next of off on onto on top of out out of outside over past regarding round since through throughout till to toward under underneath unlike until up upon up to with within without * But is very seldom a preposition. When it is used as a preposition, but means the same as except—Everyone ate frog legs but Jamie. But usually functions as a coordinating conjunction. Understand how to form a prepositional phrase. Prepositions generally introduce prepositional phrases. Prepositional phrases look like this: preposition + optional modifiers + noun, pronoun, or gerund Here are some examples: At school At = preposition; school = noun. According to us According to = preposition; us = pronoun. By chewing By = preposition; chewing = gerund. Under the stove Under = preposition; the = modifier; stove = noun. In the crumb-filled, rumpled sheets In = preposition; the, crumb-filled, rumpled = modifiers; sheets = noun. Realize that some prepositions also function as subordinate conjunctions. Some prepositions also function as subordinate conjunctions. These prepositions are after, as, before, since, and until. A subordinate conjunction will have both a subject and a verb following it, forming a subordinate clause. Look at these examples: After Sam and Esmerelda kissed goodnight After = subordinate conjunction; Sam, Esmerelda = subjects; kissed = verb. As Jerome buckled on the parachute As = subordinate conjunction; Jerome = subject; buckled = verb. Before I eat these frog legs Before = subordinate conjunction; I = subject; eat = verb. Since we have enjoyed the squid eyeball stew Since = subordinate conjunction; we = subject; have enjoyed = verb. Until your hiccups stop Until = subordinate conjunction; hiccups = subject; stop = verb. If you find a noun [with or without modifiers] following one of these five prepositions, then all you have is a prepositional phrase. Look at these examples: After the killer calculus test After = preposition; the, killer, calculus = modifiers; test = noun. As a good parent As = preposition; a, good = modifiers; parent = noun. Before dinner Before = preposition; dinner = noun. Since the breakup Since = preposition; the = modifier; breakup = noun. Until midnight Until = preposition; midnight = noun.

Use of Semi-Colon

Rule 1. Use a semicolon in place of a period to separate two sentences where the conjunction has been left out. Examples: Call me tomorrow; I will give you my answer then. I have paid my dues; therefore, I expect all the privileges listed in the contract. Rule 2. It is preferable to use a semicolon before introductory words such as namely, however, therefore, that is, i.e., for example, e.g., or for instance when they introduce a complete sentence. It is also preferable to use a comma after the introductory word. Examples: You will want to bring many backpacking items; for example, sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing will make the trip better. As we discussed, you will bring two items; i.e., a sleeping bag and a tent are not optional. Rule 3. Use either a semicolon or a comma before introductory words such as namely, however, therefore, that is, i.e., for example, e.g., or for instance when they introduce a list following a complete sentence. Use a comma after the introductory word. Examples: You will want to bring many backpacking items; for example, sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing. You will want to bring many backpacking items, for example, sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing. Rule 4. Use the semicolon to separate units of a series when one or more of the units contain commas. Example: This conference has people who have come from Boise, Idaho; Los Angeles, California; and Nashville, Tennessee. Rule 5. Use the semicolon between two sentences joined by a coordinating conjunction when one or more commas appear in the first sentence. Examples: When I finish here, I will be glad to help you; and that is a promise I will keep. If she can, she will attempt that feat; and if her husband is able, he will be there to see her.

Subordinate Conjunction

Some sentences are complex. Such sentences have two clauses, one main [or independent] and one subordinate [or dependent]. These are the patterns for a complex sentence: main clause + Ø + subordinate clause. subordinate clause + , + main clause. The essential ingredient in a complex sentence is the subordinate conjunction: after although as because before even if even though if in order that once provided that rather than since so that than that though unless until when whenever where whereas wherever whether while why The subordinate conjunction has two jobs. First, it provides a necessary transition between the two ideas in the sentence. This transition will indicate a time, place, or cause and effect relationship. Here are some examples: Louisa will wash the sink full of her dirty dishes once her roommate Shane cleans his stubble and globs of shaving cream from the bathroom sink. We looked on top of the refrigerator, where Jenny will often hide a bag of chocolate chip cookies. Because her teeth were chattering in fear, Lynda clenched her jaw muscle while waiting for her turn to audition. The second job of the subordinate conjunction is to reduce the importance of one clause so that a reader understands which of the two ideas is more important. The more important idea belongs in the main clause, the less important in the clause introduced by a subordinate conjunction. Read these examples: As Samson blew out the birthday candles atop the cake, he burned the tip of his nose on a stubborn flame. Burning his nose > blowing out candles. Ronnie begins to sneeze violently whenever he opens the door to greet a fresh spring day. Sneezing violently > opening the door. Even though Dana persevered at the calculus exam, she was only adding another F beside her name in Dr. Armour's grade book. Adding another F > persevering at the exam.

Participal Phrase

The participial phrase includes the participle and the object of the participle or any words modified by or related to the participle. [In the following examples, the participle is bold and the participial phrase is underlined.] The car sliding out of control toward building will likely hit the window. SLIDING modifies the CAR. The verb is WILL HIT. Cameron spotted his brother throwing rocks at the passing cars. THROWING is not a verb in this sentence. It describes the brother. Without an auxiliary verb, it cannot function as a verb. SPOTTED is the verb for the subject CARMEN. The astronaut chosen to ride the space shuttle to Mars is afraid of heights. CHOSEN describes the ASTRONAUT. Running down the street, Alicia tripped and fell. RUNNING certainly indicates something the subject is doing, but the verbs for the subject are TRIPPED and FELL. Penned in by other runners, Steve was unable to make a break for the finish line. STEVE is the subject. WAS is the verb. PENNED describes STEVE. Mark returned the damaged package to the manufacturer. Follow the steps to find the participle. What is the subject? MARK. What is the verb (i.e. what did Mark do?) RETURNED. And DAMAGED describes PACKAGE. Alex fell down the broken staircase. BROKEN describes STAIRCASE.

Predicate Nominative

The predicate nominative is the noun following a linking verb that restates or stands for the subject. A predicate nominative or predicate noun completes a linking verb and renames the subject. It is a complement or completer because it completes the verb. Predicate nominatives complete only linking verbs. The linking verbs include the following: the helping verbs is, am, are, was, were, be, being, and been; the sense verbs look, taste, smell, feel, and sound; and verbs like become, seem, appear, grow, continue, stay, and turn. For many of us on the team, the fans were an embarrassment. ◦EMBARRASSMENT restates the subject FANS. When the plot is discovered, Andrea will be a suspect. ◦Look for the subject, decide whether the verb indicates a state of being and find out what "state" the subject is in. ◦Before the announcement, they were the favorites to win the contest. ◦Once you identify the verb, ask whether the verb was done to someone or something. For example: Did THEY do something? No, they just were. What they were FAVORITES is the predicate nominative. Predicate nominatives may follow linking verbs that are not the verb TO BE. [In the following examples, the predicate nominative is bold and the subject is underlined.] ◦During the heat wave, dehydration became a threat for active citizens. Nothing really happened here. The subject DEHYDRATION is something A THREAT. ◦Serena's brother remains the leader in sales for this region. ◦To determine whether the subject is being linked to the predicate nominative, replace the verb with the correct form of the verb TO BE. If it works, the verb is linking and if the word it links to the subject is a noun, it is the predicate nominative. ◦The assistant's attitude seems a mystery to everyone involved. ◦Nothing happened. The subject ATTITUDE is something A MYSTERY. The verb in a sentence having a predicate nominative can always be replaced by the word equals. Examples: Mr. Johanson is a teacher. Mr. Johanson equals a teacher. Mr. Johanson is a father. Mr. Johanson equals a father. Mr. Johanson is my neighbor. Mr. Johanson equals my neighbor.