final longer summary questions

What are the two opposing approaches to controlling wildfires?

reate safety zones around home - Remove debris from gutters -Fire breaks --> areas of cleared/ reduced vegetation that are designed to help slow/ stop spread of fires - Prescribed burns - Early evacuation

How does ENSO affect the frequency of hurricanes in the Atlantic?

that El Niño conditions reduce hurricane activity in the North Atlantic basin. There are numerous characteristics of El Niño conditions that Gray attributed to the suppression of tropical cyclone activity. reduce activity bc it can suppress the formation of hurricanes in the Atlantic. The main way that happens is by wind shear. Wind patterns produced by El Nino align to cut off a tropical storm's source of power - warm water and air.

In what ways are wildfires beneficial to the environment?

Wildfires are a part of ecological cycle - Some species adapted to growth after fire - Enriches soils (carbon-rich ash) - Farming technique (biomass burning) - Kills microorganisms - Reduces competition - Reduces excessive fuel

Describe how topography and weather affect wildfires.

Also affected by fire environment such as --> Fuel ( Leaves, twigs, grass, shrubs, debris, trees, peat) --> Weather (Temperature, precipitation, relative humidity, winds) --> Topography (Amount of sunlight, air circulation) Fuel accumulation: Topography can affect the accumulation of fuel for wildfires. Areas with steep terrain or deep canyons can trap dead vegetation and other fuels, creating areas with higher fuel loads that are more prone to wildfires. Fire behavior: The shape and orientation of slopes can also affect the behavior of wildfires. On steep slopes, fires tend to burn uphill more quickly, while on gentle slopes fires tend to burn more slowly and in a more controlled manner. Fire suppression: Topography can also make it more difficult to suppress wildfires. Areas with steep or rugged terrain can be difficult for firefighters to access, while canyons or valleys can create conditions that allow fires to quickly spread and become more intense

Where do lightning strikes occur most frequently? Over the oceans or the lands?

land

Describe two typical effects of El Niño on the winter climate conditions of the US.

- Warmer and wetter conditions in the southern US: During an El Niño event, the southern US, particularly the Gulf Coast states, can experience warmer and wetter weather conditions. This can lead to increased precipitation, including heavy rain and flooding in some areas. Warmer temperatures can also lead to milder winter weather, reducing the likelihood of snow and ice storms. - Colder and wetter conditions in the northern US: In contrast to the southern US, El Niño can bring colder and wetter conditions to parts of the northern US, including the Pacific Northwest and the upper Midwest. This can result in increased snowfall, as well as below-average temperatures. The colder temperatures and increased snowfall can have significant impacts on transportation and other infrastructure, leading to delays and disruptions.

List a few different types of thunderstorms.

- quall line -mesoscale convective complex (MCC) -supercell - Derechos

How does charge separation occur inside thunderstorm clouds?

Charge separation occurs inside thunderstorm clouds due to the movement of water and ice particles within the cloud. Thunderstorm clouds contain both positively and negatively charged particles, and the separation of these charges is what leads to the buildup of electrical potential and the eventual discharge of lightning. The process of charge separation begins with the movement of water droplets and ice particles within the cloud. As these particles collide, they can transfer electrons between each other, leading to a separation of charge. The lighter, positively charged particles tend to move to the top of the cloud, while the heavier, negatively charged particles sink to the bottom of the cloud. As this charge separation continues, a large electrical potential can build up between the top and bottom of the cloud, as well as between the cloud and the ground. When the electrical potential becomes large enough, a discharge of lightning occurs, which is the equalization of charge between the cloud and the ground, or between different parts of the cloud. The lightning discharge occurs as a sudden, intense flow of electrical current, which ionizes the air and creates a bright flash of light and a loud thunderclap.

How do we measure the strength of a tornado?

Enhanced Fujita Scale which assesses damage

Why does tornado alley spawn so many tornadoes?

One of the primary factors is the geography of the region. Tornado alley is characterized by a broad, flat plain that extends from Texas to the Dakotas, with very few natural barriers to slow down or disrupt the flow of air masses. This allows for the easy movement of moist air from the Gulf of Mexico to the north and west, and dry, cooler air from the north to the south. When these air masses collide, they can create the instability in the atmosphere that is necessary for the formation of thunderstorms and tornadoes. Another key factor is the presence of a strong jet stream in the region. The jet stream is a fast-moving ribbon of air that flows high in the atmosphere, and it plays a major role in shaping weather patterns across the United States. In tornado alley, the jet stream often creates wind shear, which is a change in wind direction and/or speed with height. Wind shear is critical for the formation of tornadoes, as it helps to create the rotation in the atmosphere that is necessary for a tornado to form. Finally, tornado alley is also located in an area of the United States that experiences frequent changes in weather patterns. This can lead to large temperature and moisture gradients across the region, which can create the instability and wind shear that are necessary for the formation of tornadoes. Overall, tornado alley spawns so many tornadoes because of the combination of its geography, the presence of a strong jet stream, and frequent weather pattern changes that create the necessary atmospheric conditions for tornado formation.

Distinguish three types of wildfires.

Surface fire - move along surface and varies in tensity ground fire - creep below surface: smoldering crown fire - flaming combustion through canopies of trees (aided by strong winds and slopes)

In which year(s) during the last four decades did strongest El Niños occur?

The strongest El Niño events during the last four decades occurred in 1982-1983, 1997-1998, and 2015-2016. The 1982-1983 El Niño event is considered one of the strongest on record, with sea surface temperatures in the eastern Pacific Ocean reaching over 3°C above average. This event had significant impacts on global weather patterns, including droughts, floods, and wildfires in various parts of the world. The 1997-1998 El Niño was also a particularly strong event, with sea surface temperatures in the eastern Pacific Ocean peaking at nearly 2.8°C above average. This event had significant impacts on global weather patterns as well, including causing severe flooding and landslides in some areas and droughts in others. The 2015-2016 El Niño was the most recent significant event, with sea surface temperatures in the eastern Pacific Ocean peaking at around 2.3°C above average. This event had significant impacts on weather patterns around the world, including droughts in parts of Asia, flooding in South America, and increased hurricane activity in the Pacific Ocean.

What is the energy source for the tectonic cycle?

earths interior

What are the typical ignition mechanisms for wildfires?

lightning, volcanic eruption, sparks from rockfalls, and spontaneous combustion. Lightning - Human action - Faulty power line - Volcanic eruption - Meteor/asteroid - Ember showers (secondary) often can take more than one ignition to star a large scale fire

Can ENSO occur without the atmosphere? Without the ocean?

no, they rely on each other as the oceans are

What two horizontal forces balance in a tornado?

pressure gradient (that drives air from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas. In the case of a tornado, the pressure gradient force is created by the low-pressure area at the center of the tornado, which draws air inward.) and centrifugal force (created by the rotation of the tornado, which causes the air to spiral inward toward the center of the tornado.)

A lightning was spotted and three seconds later a thunder was heard. How far was the lightning?

A three-second count, then, would place the lightning strike about 1,020 m away, or roughly 1 km.

What factors affect the geographical distribution of wildfires?

Climate: Wildfires tend to occur in regions with warm and dry climates, as high temperatures and low humidity can dry out vegetation and increase the risk of ignition. In addition, areas with a history of drought are often more prone to wildfires. Vegetation: The type and amount of vegetation in an area can also affect the risk of wildfires. For example, areas with dense forests or grasslands may be more prone to wildfires than areas with sparse vegetation. Topography: The shape and orientation of the land can affect the risk of wildfires. Areas with steep slopes or canyons can create conditions that allow fires to spread more quickly and become more intense. Human activity: Human activity, such as campfires, fireworks, and arson, can contribute to the ignition of wildfires. In addition, areas with a high population density or urban development may have more human-caused fires. Lightning: Lightning strikes are a natural cause of wildfires, and areas with frequent thunderstorms may have a higher risk of fires caused by lightning. Fire management practices: The use of prescribed burns, forest thinning, and other fire management practices can affect the distribution and severity of wildfires. Areas that have not been subject to fire management practices may have a higher risk of large, intense wildfires.

How does the El Niño condition differ from the normal condition?

El Niño is a climate pattern that occurs when the waters of the eastern Pacific Ocean become unusually warm, causing significant changes in global weather patterns. In contrast, normal conditions in the Pacific Ocean involve cooler waters in the eastern Pacific and warmer waters in the western Pacific. During an El Niño event, the trade winds weaken, and warm water from the western Pacific flows eastward toward the coast of South America. This warm water can cause changes in atmospheric pressure and wind patterns, leading to altered weather conditions across the globe. Some of the effects of El Niño can include increased rainfall and flooding in some regions, drought and wildfires in others, and changes in temperature patterns. These impacts can have significant social and economic consequences, affecting everything from crop yields to global food prices. In contrast, during normal conditions, the cooler waters of the eastern Pacific tend to create stable weather patterns, with the trade winds blowing from east to west across the ocean. This generally leads to more predictable weather patterns, although some regions may still experience extreme weather events such as hurricanes or typhoons.

How do heat waves, droughts and wildfires affect society?

Health effects: Heat waves can cause heat exhaustion, heat stroke, and other heat-related illnesses, particularly in vulnerable populations such as the elderly, young children, and those with pre-existing medical conditions. Droughts can lead to shortages of clean water, which can cause dehydration and other health problems. Wildfires can cause respiratory problems and other health issues due to the smoke and air pollution they create. Economic impacts: Heat waves, droughts, and wildfires can all have significant economic impacts. Heat waves can cause power outages, which can disrupt businesses and result in lost productivity. Droughts can cause crop failures and shortages of food, which can drive up prices and harm the agricultural industry. Wildfires can damage or destroy homes and businesses, leading to significant property losses. Environmental impacts: Heat waves, droughts, and wildfires can all have significant environmental impacts. Heat waves can exacerbate air pollution and contribute to the formation of smog. Droughts can lead to reduced water levels in rivers and lakes, which can harm fish and other wildlife. Wildfires can destroy habitats and lead to soil erosion and other ecological problems. Social impacts: Heat waves, droughts, and wildfires can all have social impacts, particularly on vulnerable populations such as the elderly, young children, and low-income communities. Heat waves and droughts can exacerbate existing social inequalities and disparities, while wildfires can displace individuals and communities and lead to social disruption. Overall, heat waves, droughts, and wildfires can all have significant impacts on society, and it is important for individuals and communities to take steps to prepare for and mitigate the effects of these events. This includes measures such as implementing heat wave and drought response plans, investing in wildfire prevention and firefighting measures, and supporting vulnerable populations during times of crisis.

What are the causes of drought?

Lack of precipitation: Drought can occur when an area experiences a prolonged period of little or no precipitation. This can be due to a number of factors, such as changes in atmospheric circulation patterns, changes in ocean temperatures, or changes in land use patterns. Changes in weather patterns: Drought can also be caused by changes in weather patterns, such as a shift in the location or intensity of high-pressure systems or changes in the jet stream. These changes can lead to a reduction in rainfall and an increase in evaporation, which can exacerbate drought conditions. Human activities: Human activities such as deforestation, urbanization, and agriculture can also contribute to drought conditions by altering the natural water cycle. For example, deforestation can reduce the amount of moisture that is released into the atmosphere through transpiration, while agriculture can increase the demand for water. Climate change: Climate change is also thought to be contributing to drought conditions in some regions, as rising temperatures can increase evaporation rates and reduce soil moisture. In addition, changes in weather patterns and ocean temperatures associated with climate change can also lead to changes in precipitation patterns. Natural factors: Natural factors such as volcanic activity and changes in the Earth's orbit can also contribute to drought conditions. For example, volcanic activity can release large amounts of dust and ash into the atmosphere, which can block sunlight and reduce rainfall, while changes in the Earth's orbit can alter the amount of solar radiation that reaches the Earth's surface.

What are the four types droughts and how do they differ from each other?

Meteorological - Precipitation deficit and the length of the dry period, defined with respect to the regional climatology. A meteorological drought often precedes other types of drought. Agricultural - A condition created by meteorological and hydrological drought that causes adverse crop responses. Shortage of soil moisture and dry atmosphere cause plant stress, reduced biomass and yield. Since the demand for water varies among plant types and their growing stages, the definition of agricultural drought incorporates these factors. Hydrologic - Shortages of water resources, characterized by reduced streamflow and water levels of lakes, ponds and reservoirs, and diminished wetlands and wildlife habitats. Socioeconomic - Demand for economic goods such as water, forage, food grains, and hydroelectric power exceeds the supply due to the other types of drought

What are the favorable conditions for thunderstorms?

Moisture: Thunderstorms require a source of moisture, which can come from humid air, bodies of water, or other sources. Moisture is needed to provide the necessary fuel for cloud formation and precipitation. Instability: Thunderstorms form when there is instability in the atmosphere, meaning that the air near the ground is warmer than the air higher up. This causes the warm air to rise and cool, which can lead to the formation of thunderstorm clouds. Lift: Thunderstorms require a lifting mechanism to help the warm, moist air rise into the atmosphere. This can be provided by a number of factors, including fronts, mountains, or other areas of rising air. Wind Shear: Wind shear is a change in wind speed and/or direction with height. Thunderstorms require wind shear to help organize and sustain the storm. Wind shear helps to separate the warm, moist air rising into the thunderstorm from the cooler, drier air around it, which helps to maintain the storm's circulation. When these four factors come together, they can create the necessary conditions for thunderstorms to form and potentially become severe with heavy rain, lightning, strong winds, and hail cold and dry air above, warm and moist air below - wind shear is large - changes in wind speed - vertical sheer can help thunderstorms grow stronger --> only lasts a few hours and does better at night - scales of atmospheric variability --> directly proportional and its larger scale the longer it lasts

What are the Santa Ana Winds and how are they generated? How do they affect wildfires?

The Santa Ana Winds are a type of warm, dry wind that blows through southern California and parts of northern Baja California. These winds are known for their hot and dry conditions, low relative humidity, and high wind speeds, and they can create dangerous fire weather conditions. The Santa Ana Winds are generated by a combination of atmospheric and topographic factors. They occur when high pressure builds up in the Great Basin region of the western United States, causing air to flow from the inland areas towards the coast. As this air descends from higher elevations to lower elevations, it warms up and dries out, creating the hot and dry conditions associated with the Santa Ana Winds. The Santa Ana Winds can have a significant impact on wildfires in southern California. The dry and windy conditions can cause fires to spread rapidly and unpredictably, making them difficult to control. The high winds can also cause embers to be carried long distances, igniting new fires far from the original source. In addition, the Santa Ana Winds can create challenging conditions for firefighters, as the high winds can make it difficult to contain fires and can pose risks to firefighter safety. The combination of the Santa Ana Winds and other factors, such as low humidity and high temperatures, can create extreme fire weather conditions. When these conditions occur, it is important for residents in affected areas to be prepared for potential evacuations and to follow the instructions of local authorities. Firefighters also take extra precautions during Santa Ana Wind events, such as pre-positioning resources and deploying air support, to try to contain fires as quickly as possible.

What are the three necessary ingredients for fire?

high temp -oxygen - fuel (dead trees...)