Flashcards for Assignment 2: The Industrial Revolution and its Consequences in Global Perspective (1750-late 18th Century)

The Taiping Rebellion

(1850-1864)- The Taiping Rebellion was started when a man named Hong Xiuquan (1814-1864) was inspired by Christian missionary teachings and claimed he had a revelation about expelling Chinese corruption and immorality to create a utopian Chinese society. Xiuquan believed he was on a mission sent by the Christian God and went around converting people under the name God-Worshippers; he found particular success in converting people in poor, rural farming areas. The God-Worshippers provided community and protection, and the Chinese government was threatened by this group, so they tried to dismantle and suppress them. This technique backfired, and the God-Worshippers rebelled, attracting increasing amounts of followers that could fight in their military as they claimed more Chinese cities. The God-Worshippers supported a religion which was a mix of Christianity, Confucianism, and local traditions which aspired to create a communist world in which everyone worked and fought for a common goal.

The Nian Rebellion

(1851-1868)- The Nian Rebellion was a rebellion in which a many bandit groups living in a desperate conditions banded together under the leader Zhang Luoxing to create a full on rebellion against the Chinese government. This rebellion was caused by the governmental oppression and desperation causing taxes and unfair laws in addition to the desperate environmental conditions of the country caused by overfarming and the lack of land.

The Divisions of Labor

Adam Smith Context Adam Smith (1723-1790) was an Enlightenment thinker who study the economy. In this book The Wealth of Nations, Smith argued for a free economy without any governmental influence and explains the division of labor system-- manufacturing system in which one person does a single step of the process. Content Smith argues that the division of labor increases productivity because people work better together. With the division of labor, workers can get good at their simple tasks that they do every day, there is no wasted transition time between steps, and machines can also play a part in the division of labor. Even with unqualified, unskilled workers, they can all do small, easy, mindless jobs that together make up the whole job. Smith provides an example which drastically shows the increase in productivity when people divide the labor. Significance ***Smith's argument of division of labor and cooperative work reflects Confucian values of working together which helped lead to the Japanese Industrial Revolution. These ideas show a shift in thought away from the usefulness of an individual man and thinking more in terms of mass production. **Arguably, the Industrial Revolution decreased the necessary intelligence of the masses (middle/lower classes) and increased that of the wealthy/powerful because of the division of labor system.

The Opium War

As Britain and other Western nations wanted more access to Chinese markets in free trade and Chinese recognition and respect, tensions increased between China and the West. The West wanted China to modernize in order to increase trade and revenue for both sides, but arrogance on both sides led to be unable to compromise. Chinese destruction of illegal British opium in China led to the declaration of the Opium War. The Opium War was fought for three years on and off, but because of the superior technology and military of the West, China was forced into modernization and trade after they lost the Opium War.

"Empire of Cotton: A Global History"

Beckert states that the cotton industry, in combination with cultural phenomena, explains the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution was not necessarily a democratic phenomena, seen in Imperial Britain. War capitalism both in the European colonies and domestically. War capitalism led to an increase in economic and political knowledge and money which led to the Industrial Revolution. The war capitalist history in European developed into an aggressive, selfish industrial capitalism in Europe. The cotton industry became a four continental system in which Europe instituted a new economic system in which they would go into Asia, Africa, or America and: Conquer the area and set up a colony Take away property from inhabitants Set up slavery and plantations ****Europe, and specifically Britain, took over the cotton empire through war capitalism which led to the Great Divergence (separating the ways of life into European vs. not European) and the Industrial Revolution (colonies, trade, consumers, shift away from the Old Regime because of this new capitalism needs its new economy as well).

"What was the Great Divergence"

But, in the years after 1800, Europe and the U.S. took off in an economic boom and the rest of the world fell into poverty-- Great Divergence. Some argue that it was because of cultural reasons that the Great Divergence happened.

Capitalism

Capitalism is an economic system in which a country's trade and commerce is not controlled by the government, but rather by the people in the form of independent companies and investors. The rise of capitalism was connected closely with the Industrial Revolution in which there was an emphasis on creating corporations and factories.

Cash Crops

Cash crops were crops that are produced to be exported rather than for local consumption. Cash crops included cotton and sugar. Many developing countries tried to industrialize by planting cash crops, but they remained largely reliant on Western banks and trade for their economies to thrive-- not true industrialization.

The British Company Rule in India

Causes Britain chartered the East India Company (EIC) to gain economic control over India while leaving some Indian political power and independence in order to gain a textile and cotton monopoly. By getting rid of Indian textile production, Britain was able to gain a monopoly over the textile industry by having only raw materials produced in India and having all industrialization of textiles in Britain. Opium also developed as a major commodity for Britain which redefined Triangular Trade. Components Britain built railroads, established control over Indian daily life, and made India into a British colony producing only raw materials. Europeans were concentrated into wealthy cities while Indians remained in slums-- residential segregation. Although, there was not complete, explicit British rule over India until the EIC was abolished. Orientalist vs. Utilitarian debate about preserving India culture vs. Westernizing society. Consequences Indian industry declined as Britain gained economic, social, and political control over India. India became economically dependent on Britain as they controlled all advanced aspects of Indian society including railroads, politics, and trade. Indian traditional culture, although there was a movement to preserve it, declined due to the Western teachings. The EIC was abolished as Britain wanted complete control and to abolish the EIC monopoly so more British people could make money.

The Triangular Trade: Silver, Opium, and Tea

Causes Britain previously paid silver which they got from the New World colonies to China in order to receive tea. Britain was able to maintain this global trade due to their industrialism and the colonies which would purchase their products, but the majority of their silver was deposited to China. Britain wanted to discover a new way to change this Triangular Trade to benefit them and use their new Indian colony to their advantage. Components With the British colony of India, Britain could take opium from India and trade it with China for tea and silver which would go to Britain who would reinvest in India and other colonies. The silver and money shifted from going into China to leaving China to Britain. Consequences Opium became a global keystone species in which it defined the Triangular Trade involving Britain, India, and China which lasted the majority of the 19th century. China, due to its lack of industrialism and reliance on opium, had a weakening economy and an increasing reliance on Britain for trade and money. China was no longer the elitist and isolationist dynasty that it was before, no matter how hard Qianlong tried to preserve this traditional Chinese culture.

The British Industrial Revolution (Why Britain?)

Causes Glorious Revolution instituted William and Mary onto the English monarchy which showed a shift towards parliamentary focus and a decrease in the power of the monarchy. More incentive for people to work harder as they new because of a parliamentary government that their money would not be stolen by the monarchy-- more property rights Colonization established colonies in America which allowed importation of natural resources for industrial production in Britain and a place to export British products. Technological Advancements including new machines such as the steam engine, railroads, and factories advanced industrialism. Immunity- There was a large population immune to diseases which led to a large healthier population. Domesticable plants and animals- larger population (food) and larger industry (from animal products) Natural Resources COAL-- natural resources of coal close to the surface led to the creation of the steam engine which led to the railroads which produced a need for more steam engines, more coal, and more steel/iron-- very profitable, hired many people in society So there were less people going into agriculture which led to a decrease in land-focus agriculture and work which led to urbanization-- industrialization WATER-- irrigation (such as canals), helped farming, communication, trade, water wheels for cotton production, England surrounded by ocean→ more trade routes Geography- more access to trading-- connected to water, relatively temperate climate for crop and animal growth Global Trade- Britain was open to trade and material gain with other nations and different religions within the country Components Britain industrialized to become a nation of trade, exploitation, and industrialism. The economy boomed, the wealthy became wealthier, and the poor were exploited in factory and mining systems. There was a shift towards secular, urban lifestyle away from religious, agrarian lifestyle. Decrease in education as children were forced to work. Rise in labor laws. Consequences Britain became a land of war capitalism in which they would violently exploit other nations and areas so that they could prosper. Communism developed as a reform effort for the oppression that the proletarians (lower class) was facing due to the system of industrialism. Other Western countries and Russia began to shift towards industrial revolution as well. Britain became the center of global trade and globalism.

The Opium Wars (1st)

Causes Lin Zexu destroyed opium storages which was within Chinese jurisdiction, but the British were very upset that their commodity was being destroyed. China denounced opium usage as it consumed its country and became upset that they were no longer the elite, independent nation they once were; instead, they were falling into British control-- tension and anger. Britain reacted with declaring war to Zexu's actions which was the catalyst for all the rising tensions. Components Britain used their Indian colony to send ships to China to fight in the First Opium War. Britain's strong navy, advanced technology due to industrialization, and unity aided them in defeating China. China had an opium-addicted army which was weak and undisciplined, no navy, limited food due to a limiting agrarian society, and no advanced technology due to their elitism and lack of industrialism. Consequences Britain defeated China in the First Opium War, leading to the Treaty of Nanjing which was the first of the unequal treaties. In the Treaty of Nanjing, China had to give up territory, money, and power to the British. This treaty and the subsequent ones effectively ended Chinese elitism, isolationism, and political dominance.

The Great Divergence

Causes The rise of industrialism in the West led to the exploitation of other nations. The colonies that the Western countries had control over were limited to farming communities producing raw materials without any industrialism. Components The West gained a political, economical, social, technological, and industrial advantage over the rest of the world because it was the first to adopt industrialization and push towards modernity. Also, the system of war capitalism which these countries implemented kept other nations from threatening their global dominance. Consequences The Great Divergence led to the idea of Eurocentrism and American exceptionalism being born in which Western nations see themselves superior to developing countries. Pushed other countries behind the West, causing them to try to desperately catch up in the following centuries-- more power to the West. Ideal Western model of society. **Societies like China did not industrialize because of their rights in which they allowed peasants to define their own work, so they continued with their agrarian culture instead of having greedy businessmen (who were looked down upon by Chinese culture) exploit them to further the economy.

Internal Chinese Rebellions

Causes The warmer climate during the Qing dynasty led to a population increase and increase in urbanization. There was an increase in New World commercial crops due to the Chinese shift towards urbanization and industrialization which led to a further increase in population, urbanization, and trade. With such an increase in population, there was not enough land for every person to maintain an agrarian lifestyle, so people migrated into periphery areas in China. This migration led to deforestation which led to loss of wildlife, floods, and bad soil which led to a decrease in crops. Pushing Chinese boundaries also brought new groups of people into Chinese territory. Competition for lacking resources increased tensions as well. Mongolian nomads were lacking space to roam because of the increase in agriculture, so they became frustrated with the Chinese. It was the Chinese Muslims that ended up rebelling because they were discriminated against in Chinese taxes and laws. Unfair taxes and the high price of silver due to the lack of it due to China's reliance on opium led to further oppression of peasants. Corrupt officials also discriminated against certain groups and oppressed the peasants more. Unfair judicial action led to the discrimination against peasants who were charging corrupt officials with crimes. Components These increased tensions led to multiple rebellions of different groups, the most notable and influential being the Taiping Rebellion. The Taiping Rebellion consisted of a group of converts to the God-Worshipper religion which practiced a mix of Christianity (missionaries), Confucianism, and local Chinese cultural traditions. The God-Worshippers rebelled against corrupted Chinese society and were attempting to create a cleansed society which would lead to a communist, utopian society. Consequences These rebellions destabilized the Qing dynasty which was facing environmental issues, internal rebellions, and external wars including the Opium Wars. With such conflict and threats to the Qing society, it was necessary that the Chinese government worked to reform society to reflect modern society, even if that meant giving up some of its traditional Confucian values and adopting Western industrial practices.

The Birth and Rise of Marxist Communism

Causes With the severe oppression of the proletarians by the bourgeoisie, there were many reform efforts taken upon by European politicians and philosophers. Utopian socialism developed in which there were absolutely free communities founded upon idealized and unrealistic principles. Karl Marx and Engels took an economic and historical approach to reform in which they created Scientific Socialism, a form of communism in which there are clear steps to abolish classes which will abolish all inequality in society. Components Utopian Socialism is a type of socialism that focuses on turning away from the structure society and trying to achieve an absolute equal society and form of life that focuses on communal sharing and lifestyle. It was viewed as unrealistic by many politicians and did not have a clear process in which one could ultimately achieve freedom. Scientific Socialism is the form of communism that Marx developed. It was more realistic than Utopian in which it was grounded in discovering historical trends towards a progressive society. Marx wanted to destroy the class system and institute a society which eventually is self-sufficient and completely communist. Consequences Marx's communism had a very large impact on society as certain political groups were drawn to the utopian society that it posed. The inevitability of communism, its equal ideals, and Marx's clear steps to achieve communism made the philosophy seem trustworthy and accurate. Many countries adopted communism as their main form of government in the coming years.

Ghost Acres

Colonies producing for European empires, providing natural resources. Britain did not have to focus on land because they had colonial land, so that they could urbanize.

Company Rule

Company rule is the EIC reign over India in which there is colonial influence on all aspects of daily life. Although there may be some semblance of native political independence, there is widespread cultural, economic, political, and social influence of the British over India. There were segregated cities and areas within India in which there were designated slums for Indians called "black towns". Europeans lived in wealthy areas isolated.

"The People's Charter"

Context "The People's Charter" is a document created in 1838 in which workers argued for the right to protest and be politically represented. These workers wanted to be able to show their views on society and get political representation. Ultimately, the workers wanted to be able to have laws that would protect their rights and regulate labor. Content This source describes voting procedures in which they state that every man over 21 who is not insane or a criminal can vote for a representative. **The voting process is anonymous, the voters receive money while they vote for the work they are missing, people do need to own property, there is an equal number of voters for everyone, and there are annual payments to voters to avoid bribery of voters. This ensures that politicians are not buying their votes from people, but they are earning them. Significance This source shows how the working class is beginning to demand more rights because of their oppression which goes against the rhetoric of Britain and the Enlightenment. Through demanding no property requirements and equal votes for everyone, the workers are trying to make sure that the rich are not getting unfairly represented over the poor-- power of the people, popular sovereignty.

"Women Factory Workers: A Letter to the Editor"

Context A British newspaper printed an article arguing to get rid of children and women in the factories in 1832. Female factory workers then wrote back to the editor of the paper, arguing that they need to be able to work in the factories. Content The female factory workers in Todmorden state that they rely on their factory work to survive and buy food for themselves. Most of the female factory workers are single women who do not have a man to support them and do not have any alternative ways to make money. Despite the hardships of the factory jobs, single women rely on them, and without them, they would have to desperately search for a man to marry. Significance This letter is showing how the Mines Act and limiting female jobs is essential not allowing women to live independently without a man. **This may be the point of the letter-- try to create a society in which women are completely reliant on men and do not have the opportunity to speak out without sacrificing their way of living. **This may be a form of social control and to limit the voices of the women.

"Britain's Industrial Advantages and the Factory System"

Context A large population, natural resources, and governmental investment led to the Industrial Revolution; in addition the large middle class and colonial inhabitants could buy British exports. Colonies provided raw materials for Britain, and with the Scientific Revolution, there was an emphasis on invention and science. Baines (1800-1890) wrote about the British cotton industry and the role of factories. Content Natural resources that drove England into industrial revolution: water, fuel, iron, coal. Environmental aspects that drove England into industrial revolution: island, seas, waterways. Man-made aspects that drove England into industrial revolution: water channels, man-made railroads, and freedom in the lands. The creation of factories unified manufacturing as everyone works in one place with uniform supervision and there is no travel time in between stations. Significance This source discusses the idea that environment was an influential, and possible, the catalytic, aspect of society which drove England into industrialism. In addition, other industrial buildings and system which were created helped to further industrialism.

"The Treaty of Nanjing" (1842)

Context After the Chinese loss to Britain during the Opium War (1839-1842), the British government drafted this treaty for the Chinese to sign. Content In this treaty, there would be established peace between the two nations and free immigration for citizens into each other's countries. Five cities were given to Britain in which British merchants and their families could live freely without discrimination. Hong Kong would be given to Britain over which they would have full control and power. A total $21 million would be given to Britain from China because of Chinese merchant debts. Finally, there would be an established 5% tariff tax on imports and exports of Britain into China. Significance This treaty is clearly benefiting Britain heavily as they are given multiple territories and establish free trade within China. Overall, it seems the main goal of the treaty was to destroy the isolationism within China and modernize the nation in order to increase trade which would benefit European nations. Finally, Britain is trying to set up a colonial power in China by gaining access to certain areas, but China's superiority complex keeps them from becoming a full colony of Britain.

"Workers, Your Condition... Is Miserable and Distressing"

Context Although Tristan did not see the Workers Revolution of 1848, her speeches and writings provided the rhetoric and motivation the workers needed to revolt. Tristan argued for workers to form unions to protect their rights. Tristan was also a feminist. Content Tristan stated that the workers living in terrible situations must ban together to form a union in which they can create laws which will help them arise from poverty. Tristan believed that if women were educated, the children would be educated as well. Additionally, if women are treated as equal to men, the men will not develop a master-slave relationship with their wives and begin to dread spending time with their families-- turn to alcohol. These educated women would break the family free of poverty, but the workers must first form into unions, and the men must declare women as equal in order for this to happen. Significance Tristan's argument cleverly provides a solution to poverty and the terrible downward lives of workers which relies on educating women. **Tristan does not see poverty and the lack of female education as separate entities but sees how they cause one another by spreading ignorance which leads to poverty in a never ending cycle.

"Edict on Trade with Great Britain"

Context British forces led by Lord Macartney were sent to China from 1792-1793 to talk to the Chinese emperor Qianlong about English trade and regulations in China. Qianlong rejected every single proposal of the British in this edict which he sent to King George II. This displays the declining relationship between China and England which ultimately ended in the Opium War. Content England wants to be able to trade freely and openly with China without any limitations on their movements or trading, but the Qianlong emperor clearly expresses the fact that these requests go against Chinese cultural and principles. The Qianlong emperor denounces England's insensitivity and ignorance about Chinese cultural and trade, stating that he hopes that other European countries do not follow England's bad example which may be because of their isolation, ignorance, or naivete. The Qianlong emperor will not submit to English demands and simply be a colony; instead, he states that China does not want any Western influence penetrating Chinese culture, religion, and values exemplified in Confucianism. Ultimately, the Qianlong emperor threatens Britain, saying that if they do not submit and step down, they will be faced with violence. Significance Britain wanted to create China into a strong trading colony in which they could ultimately gain control and industrial power over like India. But, because China is so strong in its isolationism, morals, and exceptionalism, China refuses to let any Western influence into its borders other than small amounts of controlled trade. China denounces Britain as a land of barbarians and savages who are ignorant to the civilized ways of China-- similar to the way that European countries traditionally treat their colonies, with emphasis on exceptionalism and condescendence.

"The Testimony of Young Mine Workers"

Context Child labor was called into question in British society, and the government passed laws to limit the ages and hours that children could work. In order to support these laws, the government urged workers to tell stories about the effects of child labor and the sexual interactions these children would have. This source is a series of excerpts from miners about these issues. Content Mr. Payne: young children in the mines should be learning, not working. Ann Eggley: the labor in the mines is too difficult for her. They work 12+ hours in the mines with limited food and water without any moral or religious education. There are many children as well as young as 8 years old. She has been working since she was 9 and is now 18. Patrice Kershaw: This woman works to support her mother and siblings because her father is dead. She does not have any education, works 12 hours a day with limited food and water, and she is often beaten and raped by the naked men and boys in the mines. Isabel Wilson: This woman is a mother of 7 children who goes down into the mines to support her family. She broke her cheekbone in the mines. Significance This source is illuminating the horrifying truths of the mines through chilling personal statements of these mine workers. The conditions for these women and children are terrible as they are not getting educated, have to work long hours with limited food and water, and the women are also raped by the men. These excerpts support the Mine Act, but they also show how terrible the conditions are for men as well.

"Letter to Queen Victoria" (1839)

Context Chinese imperial commissioner, Lin Zexu, sent a letter to Queen Victoria arguing against the opium trade in 1839. Content China is described by Lin as a nation which only helps nations and hints at the fact that Britain should praise China if they do not do so already. Evil barbarians from Britain come into China and spread the evil opium drug because they are merchants who will get money through exploiting China. China will not tolerate this evil exploitation as it is a nation which provides the purest commodities to other countries which are used to keep other people alive and well. Additionally, China does not need the rest of the world as it is self-sustaining and independent. Finally, Lin states that opium is not necessary because of Western industry, and the West should respect the Golden Rule. Significance In this letter to England, there are visible Confucian references seen in the Golden Rule, self-sustaining China, and the moral exceptionalism that China believes it has which other countries lack. Lin takes a very threatening and condescending tone on behalf of China as he states that other nations should respect China as superior and not dare to break their laws. Overall, this letter is not effective as it threatens the West with a military might that China lacks.

"Hard Times"

Context Dickens (1812-1870), a British writer, described the effects of industrialization on society in terms of dirt and poverty, factory labor abuse, and the hypocrisy of Christianity. Dickens believed that industrialism destroyed culture and creativity, forcing people into mindless labor. He also articulated the class tensions of the middle and lower classes because they did not receive any recognition by the elitist government. Content Dickens describes an industrial town as if it is Hell filled with people living the same boring day over and over. Nature is locked out of the town as people are valued for nothing more than their hands with which they can do labor. Industrial towns spread into their neighboring towns, but there would be a peaceful world without industrialization with nature and joy in a simple life. Significance Dickens is displaying the cost of that the Industrial Revolution had on society in which it destroyed man to nature relationships and reduced the role of nature in society. Dickens believes that factory work is destroying the creativity and joy that humans can feel in a peaceful world without the interruption caused by machines.

"The Condition of the Working Class in England"

Context Engels (1820-1895), a German intellect and manufacturer, was horrified by the misery, dehumanization, and alienation caused by industrialism in cities and towns. He longed for the pre-industrial life that he had in Germany before the Industrial Revolution in which he was connected to nature. Engles was also a close friend to Karl Marx. Content Engels believed that humanity's morals and ethical behavior were sacrificed in an effort to create industrialization. Creativity was suppressed and devalued in society to have industrialism reign. **An egotistic, selfish, individualistic view of life of people, especially living in cities, developed during the Industrial Revolution due to the competitive nature of jobs and capitalism. This individual view on life led to the wealthy oppressing the poor without any qualms, leading to immense poverty. The poor lived in filth which led to disease, stench, and depression. Significance **Engels believed that it was not the abusive factory work that dehumanized people, but that if was rather the selfish egotism of people that grew from the inherent competitiveness of an industrial, capitalist society. *Engels viewed industrialization as progress in economic terms, but a great step backwards for the overall moral and ethical standards of humanity as a whole.

"The Economic Results of Free Trade and Railroad Extension"

Context Indian railroads were produced as a results of British colonialism and they helped British cotton manufacturers to ship their goods, British suppliers of the railroad materials, colonial officials who could easily transport troops, and Indian commuters. Some believed that the railroads helped India's economy, but others thought that it was not justified and hurt India's economy. G.V. Joshi (1851-1911), an Indian economist and teacher, wrote an essay criticizing the railroads. Content The Indian economy was not developed naturally, but Britain enforced American speed advancement onto the country which will ultimately lead to poverty because the entire economy of India relies on foreign capital, not native work, which endangers the political and economic climate. Britain established railroads so that they could be benefited at the price of Indian exploitation and well-being. India's economy and industry is useless because of the development of machines and global competition which has been increased by Britain-- Indian industry is declining and their imports are up, leaving the nation in the hands of Britain. There are no native industries, but the whole economy is controlled by British leaders. The railroads are so bad for the Indian economy because although they help with transportation and trade, the native Indians have not been taught how to run the railroads; the railroads only function with the British influence. Significance Joshi is highlighting all the ways the Indian economy and people are only barely surviving because of European rule and control over every aspect of the too rapidly industrialized society. Joshi's speculations on the poverty that will follow the absence of European rule becomes a reality when India gains independence in 1947 then falls into economic and social poverty and despair. India has still not recovered from the perilous economic situation that the British put the country in as it is still impoverished and only recently developed education as the people in the nation are only trying to provide for themselves and their family on a day to day basis-- food and shelter (short term, not long term living).

"Factory Rules"

Context Poor factory workers were not well accustomed to working machines and following strict rules set up by the factory owners. Thus, in order to create a sense of uniformity and structure in factories, the Foundry and Engineering Works of the Royal oVerseas Trading Company in Germany issued a series of rules on the moral and behavior conduct that factory workers were expected to uphold. Content This list of rules clearly outlines the expectations of the factory workers and the punishments that they will face if they do not abide by the rules and standards of the factory. In order to have order and harmony, which are described as the keys to success, there must be punctuality and uniformity of the arrival, break, and departure times of the workers. Additionally, the workers cannot speak to anyone other than their overseers-- the workers must show complete obedience and deference to their overseers and take their word as law. Finally, the workers will be given money to turn in their fellow workers for dishonest acts, and the workers are not allowed to protest in large groups. Significance This list of rules is showing how the factories are trying to create a system of absolute order to increase efficiency, but they do so by creating a system which relates to slavery in terms of the deference and attitudes that the workers are expected to have-- like slaves. Additionally, the list of rules is attempting to prevent unity and bonds from occurring between factory workers in order to keep down any rebellious urges from arising in the form of a group protest or riot. This is the first sign of the corporate fear of labor unions and protests.

"Letter to Lord Amherst" (1823)

Context Rammohun Roy was born into a wealthy native Indian family and became well educated in Western culture and languages. Roy worked for the EIC, founded newspapers and schools, and created the Society of God which was a teaching which combined Christianity and Hinduism. Roy opposed orientalism, arguing for utilitarianism and the Western education of Indians. Content Roy is letting the British know about issues and problems in their system which they could not possibly have understood because they are foreigner rulers. Roy states that the gift of British education must be Western subjects as they are more advanced and will civilize India into a strong nation. Teaching Indians Indian religion, culture, and languages are useless because they are outdated and irrelevant in the modern world which will keep Indians unenlightened in the dark. Indians would be blessed, according to Roy, to have English teachings and Western education; they do not want to learn about their past as it is not relevant in the modern world. Significance Roy displays a very unique view Indian view of the British in which he praises their colonization and argues for them to try to completely integrate their culture in place of Indian culture. Roy generalizes the Indian feelings towards the British as many poorer Indians feel that they are being exploited and their culture decimated by Westernization. Roy is biased because he comes from a position of privilege and power by being a wealthy man, but he does not account for many other Indian perspectives in which they may value their Indian culture and roots.

"A New View of Society"

Context Robert Owen believed that man's character was preordained by the environment he lived in. Thus, to change the environment would mean to change human nature. Owen describes his socialist views in his book A New View of Society. Content Owen described how men do not form their own character, but it is formed for them, thus the principles of society must be changed to reflect this truth. Owen also stated how industrial capitalism thrives on the oppression of many and the happiness of a few-- Owen believes there is a for for everyone to be happy without hurting people. Owen also states that poor people are criminals because of where they were born in society and their lack of education. Owen argues that men are more effective than machines to try to give people more jobs. Owen renounces child labor because he believes it sets young kids on a path towards crime and sin because of their ignorance. Children can be molded very easily, so they can be taught morals which they can be spread around their communities-- reach all the poor through the kids. Owen states that his plan should be submitted to those that see the darkness in society and want a change, not those that benefit from industrial capitalism. Significance Owen is arguing on behalf of the poor people to try to get them more rights and privileges in society which they lack. Owen is an idealist in which he believes there is a world where everyone can be happy. Owen is clearly a communist because he values the greater happiness over the individual happiness. **This can be dangerous because if one begins to lose sight of the individual, then the individual human life can be devalued which devalues the whole as the community is made up of individuals.

"The Constitution of the Brook Farm Association"

Context The Brook Farm Association is a community which tried to develop the mind, body, and soul of people in the society to avoid getting swept up in the materialistic storm of the Industrial Revolution. Although this society failed, it was an interesting microcosm of Fourier's phalanx idea. This source is the town's constitution. Content The people of the town are trying to purify human culture to create a harmonious, united, stable society which gives all people support and returns to a simple lifestyle. The freedom of religion and speech were maintained in the document (sort of) and there was no sense of individual identity except in punishment Jobs would be assigned based on ability, the necessities of life were supplied for free by the government, there were no taxes, and everyone ten and older had to work. There was a four branch system of government with regularly re-elected officials. Significance This constitution is showing the idea of a phalanx in which there is a small, self-governing community with many workers who all contribute to the general welfare of the town. This society failed because the system relies on the phalanxes being able to trade with one another, but this was one of the only phalanxes in America. This society shows how socialist ideas were considered and integrated into some communities. Nature vs Nurture == NURTURE (Owen).

"Azamgarh Proclamation" (1857)

Context The Revolt of 1857 was when Indian soldiers rebelled and took over Delhi in response to their anger and fear towards the British. Britain ultimately defeated the rebellious Indians, abolished the EIC, and put Indian under direct British control. The Azamgarh Proclamation was a document issued by the grandson of the emperor of India which listed the grievances of the Indian people. Content The grandson of the emperor of India argues that the Indians must free themselves from oppressive British yoke in order to create a better world from themselves. In order to have an organized rebellion, the grandson created this proclamation to unify the rebels and state their morals/values and grievances against the British. The Indian landholders have been crushed by British taxes which will be removed in place for light taxes in the new Indian government. The Indian merchants who have been bankrupted by British monopolized trade will be successful under the free trade of the new Indian government. Indians will not be discriminated against when working the government and receive equal treatment when working for the new Indian government. Artisans will not be destroyed by British industrialism and will be given jobs by the rich and royalty in the new Indian government. Finally, religious Hindus and Muslims will not be persecuted but treated with respect in the new Indian government. If Indians side with the new Indian government, they will receive freedom and heaven; if they do not, they will be killed when the new Indian government gains control. Significance The grandson of the emperor of India uses many techniques to convince the Indians to fight for the new Indian government including religious motivation of heaven, material motivation of wealthy, and moral motivation of freedom. Also, the grandson uses fear, stating that Indians should fight for the new Indian government, but if they do not, they will be killed. This proclamation shows the hatred towards English culture and how British industrialism\ and monopolies have driven many Indians out of work into poverty which has caused civil and social unrest which caused the revolution.

"The Taiping on the Principle of the Heavenly Nature"

Context The Taiping society was radically different than previous Chinese society because it introduced a new set of values and morals. The Taiping message was one of one family under the Christian God, all united. Taiping also advocated for separating sexes, although they did increase women's rights in some cases. Content The Taiping principles discuss how there is one united family under God, and how sexes must be separated in order to maintain the ideals of Heaven. Until their is social cleansing in society of Chinese corruption, husbands and wives cannot relate. The public good must also be put above the private good. Significance There are communist principles visible in this document in which the public must come before the private interest, and there is only one community. The mingling of sexes is seen as dangerous and counterproductive before Chinese society is cleansed from corruption. The cleansing of Chinese society was done by killing or forcefully removing the corrupted people from China.

"Factory System Testimonies-- Documents A-D"

Context These are a series of sources written by different authors with different backgrounds: Dr. Ward: doctor in Manchester who worked there for 30 years and treated factory workers (children), and he was interviewed by the House of Lord's Committee about child labor in factories Dr. Holme: doctor in Manchester who was interviewed by the House of Lord's Committee about child labor in factories John Birley: orphan factory worker who worked since he was 5 years old Edward Baines: a member of Parliament who was against slavery, worker's rights, and factory regulations Content Dr. Ward argued that the children are working long hours in terrible conditions with awful air quality, and 50% of the children working there have injuries of some sort from the machinery; cotton factories destroy health and the soul according to Ward. Dr. Holme was paid by Mr. Pooley, the owner of the factory, to say that the kids are treated fantastically and are in great health. John Birley states that the children have to work 17+ hour shifts with bad food and abusive overseers, and when people come to inspect the factories, the kids are cleaned up and forced to lie about their conditions. Edward Baines states that the factory workers are living great lives in healthy, cool, calm work environments that are better than some other jobs. Significance This source is showing the people that tell the truth about the factories are the workers and the doctors who see what these places are doing to innocent adults and children. Dr. Holme and Baines are two people who were probably paid off to lie about the slavery-like work environments in the factories. Lastly, Baines also may have been trying to cover up for the factories because he knew how much they helped Britain economically and provided the nation with exports to trade.

"Memorandum to Emperor Xianfeng"

Context Zeng Guofan (1811-1872) was a farmer who passed the highest civil service exam and became and Qing military leader. Guofan established the Xiang Army which was influential in defeating the Taiping Rebellion. Guofan writes a memorandum for the Emperor of China assessing Chinese societal, cultural, political, and militaristic issues. Content Zeng Guofan's first issue he highlights in Chinese society is the high price of silver which leads to unreasonable high taxes on farmers. These taxes lead to bankrupted peasants who are beaten by desperate officials to collect taxes if they cannot pay them because the officials are also threatened by punishment. The second issue is bandits who ravaged territory but are not captured by the military because they do not have any sense of order or discipline. The military will often enter after the bandits have left, force the victim to pay, burn houses in the area to demonstrate their power, accept bribes from any captured bandits and release them, and blackmail villagers for money. The third grievance is the false punishment of innocent men in Chinese courts in which government officials always win the cases against normal men because of the bias of judges and the corrupt courts. Guofan states that these issues must be resolved rapidly in order to ensure peace and a lasting dynasty. Significance This memorandum highlights that large amount of corruption which occurs among the governmental officials and judiciary branches of government. Peasants are being oppressed on multiple fronts-- economically, socially, and politically-- thus it is no wonder why they are rebelling when they are treated terribly by a visibly corrupt government. Guofan states that the dynasty is in perilous shape and that it will fall unless corruption is abolished and the peasants are no longer oppressed.

"A Report for Tsar Nicholas II"

Context Russia was viewed as backwards because it had a oppressive monarchical government, it was a country of recently freed peasants from serfdom, and it was behind in production. Sergei Witte (1849-1915) wrote a report to Tsar Nicholas II in 1899 expressing his views on the necessity of industrialization with communist undertones in Russia. Witte wanted to institute a high tariff on imports which upset nobility as they did not want European tariffs on Russian exports. Witte believed that industrialization would be hard for Russians to adjust to, but it would ultimately be extremely beneficial. Content Russia is described as an agricultural nation which acts as a colony towards its ruler Europe because it provides natural resources and buys Western products, but it is not a colony and needs to produce its own products from its abundant natural resources and its ready working force to have an Industrial Revolution. Creating thriving industries which are protected by tariffs will increase the economy, and capital, knowledge, and enterprise will add to the growth of industry. By establishing industry, there will be capital which will lead to enterprise which will lead to learning which will lead to more industry in a cycle of natural growth. Russia will be modeled after the U.S. in an industrialization which relies on industry and agriculture. The investment of foreign capital will bring industrial power to Russia. Significance This source is describing the road to industrialization which relies on using the natural resources available and breaking free of European economic reliance. Industry creates natural and continuous economic growth which will make Russia into a global superpower. These views on industrialization do not accommodate for the czar system of government which foreshadows the eventual shift to communism in Russia. Finally, it is ironic that Russia is once again relying on European investment to jumpstart their economy.

Emperor Qianlong

Emperor Qianlong was a Chinese emperor who lived between the years 1711-1799 who ruled over the Qing Dynasty. Qianlong attempted to keep China from Westernizing and maintain Chinese culture to fight colonial forces ant the expense of industrialism, global trade, and economic progress into modernity.

"The Origins of the Modern World: A Global and Ecological Narrative"

England started the Industrial Revolution because they created a system in which they could manufacture cotton through steam power machines. Indian cotton and textiles were in a great demand in England. With the biological old regime in place, because India had a high per acre food yields which led to cheaper food which led to less wages which led to an advantage in industry. Britain, on the other hand, had lower per acre food yields, so their food cost lots of money so their wages had to be high so they had a disadvantage in industry.

Phalanx

Fourier wanted there to be small towns called phalanxes which would be self-functioning and have community goods and properties. These phalanxes would all trade with each other to receive a variety of goods and people would do different jobs. Phalanxes, although they were unsuccessful, show the shift towards communal, socialist thinking in many European philosophers during the Industrial Revolution.

Marriage

Free love is the idea in communism that because of the infidelity of married couples, there will be no marriage contract/relationship in the communist society. This will decrease the hypocrisy that existed in industrial society (and all previous ages) that sprung from the ideas of marriage and eternal companionship which contrasted with the infidelity and prostitution which the husbands were committing. Marx's free love is a system which openly accepts the idea of communal wives and no longer exploits women and marriage. (How will they enforce the idea of no exploitation of women without any law?).

Free Trade

Free trade was the trade ideology implemented in Britain which was all about unrestricted trade with other nations. Free trade took the place of mercantilism in which the government controls the economy which shows a shift in thought away from governmental control and towards a corporation driven economy.

Globalization

Globalization is defined as the creation, intensification, and expansion of social networks and relationships. Globalization also redefines individual thinking and personal experience as well as affecting community on a global scale. Globalization helps connect local communities as well, thus there is an emphasis on localization spreading and sharing through globalization. Globalization was created with the rise of modern technology and transportation which allowed ideas to be shared instantaneously.

Sex-Segregated Factories

In an attempt to limit the sexual interactions between men and women so as to reduce the population of illegitimate children, the British government instituted sex-segregated factories which would keep men and women separate. Additionally, this shows the gender segregation at the time because men were paid significantly more than the women.

Industrial Capitalism

Industrial Capitalism is a form of capitalism which focuses on strong governments with immense military, administrative, judicial, and infrastructural power through which industries could be supported.

"Global Consequences of the Industrial Revolution"

Industrial Revolution: Why Europe? Global trade: money, marketing, sharing ideas Consumerism was increasing in Europe Increasing population: more consumers and laborers Enlightenment: secularism-- new views on science and technology-- industrialization Why Britain? Resources (coal and iron) and acceptance of innovative technology

Industrialization

Industrialization is defined as an increase in manufacturing and the need for manufacturing driven by the need from the people. Industrialization changed aspects of daily life in the Western World, changing both the economy and culture.

Property

It is private property which causes these class divisions. If there is no private property, there will be no end goal for the people, so they will not exploit one another in their climb to the top of the social hierarchy. Without the drive to get property, people will work according to their abilities and receive based on their needs and live their lives with the purpose of finding happiness, not accumulating wealth to buy property and develop massive areas.

"The Origins of the Modern World"

It was the steam engine, coal production, and iron and steel production which ultimately catalyzed the Industrial Revolution. Two traditional explanations for why the Industrial Revolution occurred in Europe are population control, free market growth, and property rights. With less people in a population, there becomes a surplus of money in society which can be invested into agricultural or industrial investments. . China was able to grow within the context of the Biological Old Regime, but it could not break free into an Industrial Revolution because of the specialization, market exchanges, and transportation. The specialization of certain people allowed for trade within the context of families and workers on a local scale. Market exchanges which were enhanced by transportation also led to economic growth within China, but not beyond it. Thus, with the increasing population, China did not break free of the Industrial Revolution because of the cottage industries in rural areas but simply increased manual labor. Coal, Iron, and Steam in Britain Slavery, colonialism, and cotton production in the American South contributed to the Industrial Revolution in England as it provided cheap resources for cotton from America and a need for cotton in their colonies.

Lin Zexu

Lin Zexu was an imperial Chinese commissioner in 1839 who was tasked with stopping the illegal opium trade in China. He sent a letter to Queen Victoria on behalf of the country, denouncing British opium merchants and British industrialism and exploitation of other countries.

Revolt of 1857

Many Indian troops were angry that they were forced to fight for British causes and the fact that the British completely disregarded their culture of Hinduism and vegetarianism. Thus, select Indian regiments rebelled, killed their British officers, and went around India trying to expel Western influence. Britain was able to regain complete control in 1858, but the rebellion sparked increased tensions between the British and Indians, in addition to creating a stricter British occupation and dictatorship in India.

Markets

Markets in economic terms are the exchange of goods in trade and commerce. In the Biological Old Regime, most people were making their own food and providing for themselves, but with the population increase in China, it was necessary for people to take on other professions and trade for their needs. In the Industrial Revolution, trade and markets defined society as it was not a mainly agricultural society.

Four Necessities of Life

Marks defines the four necessities of life as food, shelter, clothing, and fuel. In the Biological Old Regime, all four necessities came from the land; whereas in the Industrial Revolution, the four necessities came from markets and trade.

Historical Materialism

Marx believed that capitalism devalued human labor which led to misery for laborers who would eventually revolt and lead to the downfall of capitalism. Marx stated that it was not ideas that determined culture, but that every part of society was determined by the mode of production which determined the economy which determined the political/legal/spiritual/social/etc aspects of society. Marx thought that there were four states of production: the Asiatic, the ancient, the feudal, and the modern bourgeois. Marx also thought that class tensions resulted from the wealthy exploiting the poor in economic terms which shows his view on historical materialism.

Education

Marx believed that education in the Industrial Era was controlled by the bourgeois because it was only the proletariats teaching their children the knowledge they learned from their parents. The bourgeois determine what knowledge the proletariats receive because they are the ones with power as they are the ruling class. Therefore, the bourgeois maintained their sense of power over the proletariats by limiting their education and keeping them in poverty. Marx's communism would have social, free public education which could equally teach the values of society to all children (no child labor) without the control or censorship of the upper class. Without class tensions, there would be no unequal teachings or exploitation through education.

Nations/Nationalism

Marx believed that since the proletarians and bourgeois were a universal system of oppression, if all the proletariats rebelled, there could be one body of people which was always in peace. Marx thought that proletarians could reform society faster if they rebelled on a large scale, not divided by national lines.The proletariats also do not have national identity according to Marx as they are not represented in government and do not have any voice. Because of the development of trade and uniform societies because of the spread of industrial capitalism through the West, nations are fairly similar to each other and have no reason for national divisions. Without the class tensions in society, there will be no cause of national tensions because everyone will be in uniform communism at peace.

Scientific Socialism: Marx

Marx viewed Utopianism was unrealistic, thus he turned towards studying historical, economic, political, and philosophical trends to try to discover the road to progress. Marx's scientific synthesis of Scientific Socialism drew from relevant economic, philosophical, and scientific ideas at the time much like Enlightenment thinkers. Marx was a Jewish, liberal, journalist who viewed the working class as an international phenomena, which contrasted with the British nationalistic sentiment.

Mine Act of 1842

No women were allowed to mine, no boys under 10 years of age were allowed to work in mines Sexual assault from men, terrible conditions, and health issues prompted the Mine Act Prohibiting women and children from working-- no $ for them and their families which makes men the leaders of the family, creates need for and reliance on men by women-- no inpendence

Orientalism

One British sect that believed that it was necessary to teach Indians according to their own cultural, religious, and moral traditions in order to create an orderly, moral society. Orientalists saw Hinduism as a very influential and moral religion for Indians. This form of thought was not extremely popular among the British but showed that some British respected Indian culture.

"Opium, Empire and the Global Political Economy"

Opium developed into a capitalist commodity which helped the West gain global dominance and create a system of global trade.

Opium

Opium is a drug that is used to make heroin that was industrialized in India by the English Indian Company and used a commodity to get tea from China. Opium is credited with the rise of the West and the downfall of China and other Asian countries because many people became addicted to it. Additionally, opium replaced silver in China's economy, causing its economy and currency to weaken and the country to fall behind the West.

Pilot Projects

Pilot projects were instances where Western nations would try to institute an Industrial Revolution in other nations around the world by creating factories, machinery, and modes of production that replicated those in Europe. These pilot projects helped to spread the Industrial Revolution to places such as Russia that were late to join this new era, and it shows the ideas of Eurocentrism which ruled society.

Cottage Industry

Preindustrial working household, women were involved in cottage industry with men. With the shift towards industrialism, women were increasingly excluded from the workspace because they were forced to take care of the children while the men worked.

Rammohun Roy

Rammohun Roy was born into a wealthy native Indian family and became well educated in Western culture and languages. Roy worked for the EIC, founded newspapers and schools, and created the Society of God which was a teaching which combined Christianity and Hinduism. Roy opposed orientalism, arguing for utilitarianism and the Western education of Indians because he believed that the Westernization of India was necessary to make it into a strong, independent nation.

Sepoys

Sepoys were Indian soldiers who were fighting on behalf of the British because they were drafted into the army. Many sepoys resented the British for controlling them and being disrespectful towards their culture. The sepoys rebelled in the Revolt of 1857 because of their build-up resentment towards the British.

Serfdom

Serfdom was the societal practice used in Russia which kept laborers bound to their agricultural estates. This limited the freedom of laborers and prevented the Industrial Revolution from spreading to Russia because there was a lack of a free working force.

Separate Spheres

Sex-segregated work based on gender-- men work while women stay at home This developed because of issues with mixed sex work environment leading to 1. Illegitimate pregnancies 2. Assault/harassment 3. Lack of familial supervision

Socialism

Socialism is a form of political or economic thought which integrates the idea that the common people are in control of food, goods, production, and housing. Everything is supposed to be shared equally in socialism. Socialism was created in reaction to the Industrial Revolution as a form of reform in society back to strong morals. Two types of socialism are utopian and Marxists.

Great Divergence

Starting in 1800, Europe and the U.S. began on a drastic economic influx while the rest of the world declined into poverty. The causes for the Great Divergence are a combination of cultural (religion and cultural imitation), environmental (domesticability and immunity, killing off the poor), scientific (spread of ideas), and political (destruction of the monarchy in the Glorious Revolution, more incentive for people to work hard) effects.

Azamgarh Proclamation

The Azamgarh Proclamation was a document issued by the grandson of the emperor of India which listed the grievances of the Indian people who were rebelling during the Revolt of 1857. This proclamation displays the heightened tensions between the two opposing countries, and the overall sentiment of Indian soldiers and peasants towards the British.

Biological Old Regime

The Biological Old Regime was a system in which 80% of the population were peasant farmers whose main jobs were to get food for themselves and sell some of their food to other in the world. The Biological Old Regime relied on the environment and did not have much upward mobility. The Industrial Revolution was a shift away from this regime and towards industry and manufacturing.

The Charter Act of 1833

The Charter Act was created when the EIC was abolished and the British needed a new code of law to enact. The Charter Act stated that Indians could not be discriminated against in jobs and must be respected and represented in laws and government. Although this act was not always followed due to discrimination and bias, it shows a British effort to try to keep Indians happy so as to consolidate their power.

Communist League

The Communist League started as a group of German intellectuals and workers; the intellectuals were tired of being censored and threatened because of their radical views. The workers in the group also were hindered by the Industrial Revolution as they were usually craftsmen. The Communist League became the communist party in Europe and provided representation and argued on behalf of the lower class. They commissioned Marx and Engel to write The Communist Manifesto. Shows the ultimate development of Marxist communism in an ideological and practical form.

Crimean War

The Crimean War was a war between the British and France against the Russians. When the Russians lost this war, they realized that it was necessary for them to industrial sot that they did not fall behind economically and technologically from the rest of the West. The Crimean War provided a wake-up call for Russia, showing how weak their military had become because of their lack of industrialism.

Division of Labor

The Division of Labor is a manufacturing system in which one person does a single step of the process (assembly line). This shows Confucian values of separating work because people are more productive together (this led to the Japanese Industrial Revolution. Arguably, the Industrial Revolution decreased the necessary intelligence of the masses (middle/lower classes) and increased that of the wealthy/powerful because of the division of labor system.

East India Company

The East India Company was a privately chartered British company that was in charge of colonizing India in order to gain partial economic, political, and social control. Although Britain did not want the EIC to completely control India, the profits from the industrialization of the country ultimately led there to be authoritative control over India by the EIC. Because of this absolutist control of India, India's economy and society began to rely heavily on the EIC and soon could not survive without it.

English East India Company

The English East India Company was a trading company that was sponsored by Britain. This company took power in India and the Americas which greatly helped the British begin the Industrial Revolution. The company also shows the rise of corporatism in the modern world. The company was ruled by a British Board of Directors which were wealthy economic officials ruling the EIC. These men were self-serving, but they were not autonomous from the Crown. The EIC became a monopoly. The EIC was a British charted company to gain economic control over India while leaving some Indian political power and independence, gained opium and textile monopoly, formed in 1600 for trading posts on costal India. Abolished because of monopoly, rebellions, and desire of other Brits to profit from India.

The First Opium War

The First Opium War which lasted between the years 1839-1842 was fought between Britain and the Qing Dynasty on the role of foreign trade and relations specifically concerning opium. While Britain relied on the exportation of opium to foreign countries to pay for their costly colonies and free trade, China saw the results of opium addiction and how it was corrupting their culture. In the end, China was forced to recognize and have free trade with Britain; additionally, China gave the Hong Kong Island to Britain as a colony.

The Fourth Industrial Revolution

The Fourth Industrial Revolution is a shift towards combining technologies to revolutionize consumer experience which causes a need for new products, new ways of collaboration, and new organizational systems. This Fourth Industrial Revolutions shows a societal shift towards globalization through technology.

Hegelian Dialectic

The Hegelian Dialectic was the idea that society functions in a way in which a new idea is introduced and a counter idea is introduced into society. These two ideas then play out in society and balance each other out (liberalism vs. conservatism). Then, there is a new idea introduced through rebellion which then uproots the previous idea and creates a new "era" (Marx). Marx believed that communism would put an end to this eternal Hegelian Dialectic because he saw it as the absolute idea and the perfect society. Religion of Man- The Religion of Man is the idea that Marx's communism is a religion in which it relies on the faith of the good of humanity and the heaven of ideal communism. This "religion" was able to inspire many poor people and intellectuals who felt out of step and exploited by society to begin to feel part of a group-- identity.

Indian Act

The Indian Act was a British act passed after Britain regained control after the Revolt of 1857 in which they abolished the EIC and put India under the control of Parliament and the Crown. The Indian Act also abolished the Mughal Empire so as to get rid of the claim certain Indian rulers had that they were the heir to the empire of India. The Indian Act shows that Britain was tightening the hold over their colony to maintain power.

Mines Act of 1842

The Mines Act of 1842 placed limits on who could work in mines-- no women were allowed to work in mines and only boys above the age of 10 could work in mines. This act was an effort to stop the humanitarian issues of child labor, staunch the uncontrollable sex drive of young teenagers working half-clothed together, and to further the sex-segregated working communities to enforce the uniform familial structure based on gender.

Orientalist Scholarship

The Orientalist Scholarship was a East Indian Company sponsored effort to send scholars to study Indian and East Asian culture in order to learn about Indian society. These scholarly efforts were an attempt for Britain to figure out the most effective way to rule Indian society without leading into revolution and rebellion. Orientalists scholars agreed with British colonization due to their nationality, but they often could not remove their inherent British bias while studying the cultures. Orientalists were not trying to reform Indian culture, but rather to study it in order to develop a strong British controlled government. There was an effort to study and understand the exotic culture of Asia that seduced Europeans.

The Hunan Army

The Qing army was in desperate, undisciplined, and disorganized shape and lacked modern technology. Zeng Guofan (1811-1872) was put in the position to restructure and discipline the Qing military into the Hunan Army which was built upon a network of familial ties and friendships. This bonded army was getting more funding from Qing taxes and was using modern weapons which increased their success and productivity in addition to their motivation. This army helped the Qing Dynasty regain some semblance of control in the little territory they had left.

Second Opium War

The Second Opium War developed from semi-colonized China which refused to compromise its culture or superiority complex. British forces burned the imperial palace in protest of the Chinese elitism. This war ended with opium legalized and more Chinese territory given to Western countries. Western missionaries increased as well.

Treaty of Nanjing

The Treaty of Nanjing was a Chinese treaty at the end of the Opium War which gave Britain control over Hong Kong and five other mainland ports after they lost the war. This treaty shows China's inferiority in technology and military due to their lack of industrialism and technological advancements.

Class

The class divisions and tensions of society stem from the mode of production and hierarchy of society. Throughout history there have been many different societal structures but all of them have classes so there is no peace within any of them. It is the radical change of the communist society which destroys classes that allows for peace and absolute equality which was not possible in times before.

Factories

The factory system of everyone being in one place increases efficiency, organization, and communication. This increased efficiency and also went in line with Smith's division of labor-- together these helped society thrive. The factory was an essential factor that contributed towards manufacturing and the Industrial Revolution.

The League of Just

The predecessor to the Communist League, the League of Just was a group of socialists who tried to overthrow the government in France, Germany, and England through creating Educational Societies which used gatherings and education to unite the lower class under socialism. The group became international, and Marx and Engel were interested and needed by the group to unify their cause under one ideology of communism. When Marx and Engel joined the League of Just, they transitioned the utopian views to their views of communism and renamed it the Communist League. Shows the transition of communism.

Anarchy

The sentiment of anarchy, or opposing any authoritative power in society in the form of government, religion, or economy, began to grow in Europe. Anarchists tried to spread their views through assassinations of officials, terrorist attacks, and insurrection. Anarchists argued for their views by calling upon some Marxist influence by stating that authority limited the freedom and equality of the individual. Anarchism was not successful in society. Anarchist terrorist techniques were the birth of modern terrorism.

Indian Textiles

There was a change in Indian society from complete textile monopoly to raw cotton producer due to European influence. There was a great decline in production and industry resulting from British control.

Family

There will be no sense of family in this communist society. Families have been destroyed by the Industrial Revolution because the bourgeois have taught the proletariats to think of their children as commodities and use them to get money. Thus, many children have been sold into the workforce as miners, factory workers, or prostitutes at very young ages. Because family has been corrupted, the communist society will be more peaceful without families. There is inequality and exploitation between parents and children in families which goes against communist principles. Families will naturally be replaced by the social education and community of the communist society.

Protectionism

This was the idea in Russia that in order to maintain stability and protection of their own, they established too high tariffs on imports, economy was very internalized, there was a lack of competition which would have driven the need for industrial capitalism

Utilitarianism

This was the other sect in Britain and British government that argued that it was Britain's moral duty to impose Western culture and teachings into Indian education in order to civilize the nation and culture. This form of thought reflects Eurocentrism and ended up becoming the educational system in India.

Utopian Socialism

Utopian Socialism is a planned society in which there is absolute equality through common ownership and tolerance. Utopian Socialism was often seen as unrealistic as it was about having absolute equality.

War Capitalism

War Capitalism is the system of oppression that was used to increase profits, exports, and trade with other nations. Systems that contribute to war capitalism are slavery, imperial conquest, violent/armed trade, asserting power over land by entrepreneurs, the decimation of indigenous people in lands, and feudalism. War capitalism was essential to create the Industrial Revolution and capitalism in general.

"The Industrial Revolution in World History"

Western countries including European nations and the U.S.A all partook in the Industrial Revolution because they were similar societies in terms of economy culture, and politics, and they had strong trade relations. Other areas of the world were late to join the Industrial Revolution because they were connected with the West in different ways.

Great Dying

With the death of so many Native Americans in the colonies, there was a need for African slaves which led to great production of natural resources at a very cheap cost because of the free labor. This also lead to the need for clothes and cotton textiles from Britain in the colonies-- Industrial Revolution.

Middle Class

With the growing industrialization movement in European cities, there developed a middle class which came from steady jobs which were not the lowest labor/manufacturing jobs. The previous feudalist European society made up of only nobles and peasants contrasted with the many new job options for people living in cities. Jobs including doctors, grocers, vets, etc. were considered middle class positions which were necessary because of the increase of people working in cities and towns across Europe.

"Crabgrass Frontier"

With the increase in population, people began to follow the influx of money and jobs found in cities. Suburbs became an area for the extremely wealthy to live and commute into the cities to work.

Periphery vs Core

With the rise of industrialism and factory work, residential areas became suburban in the periphery of the cities. The wealthy wanted to move out of the city to the suburbs to avoid the noise, labor, and dirtiness of the industrial cities. Therefore, the population in the periphery increased as previously agrarian farming communities became residential areas for the wealthy and middle classes who would commute to work in the city. The core was where industrialism was occurring in the middle of cities. The population declined here because of the lack of residents, but the increase of the population in the periphery made up for that.

Eternal Truths

Without any of the conventional systems emplaced in society which enforce ideas of inequality, hierarchy, and exploitation defined as eternal truths, communism will be a purely equal society. In past revolutions, the new eras have changed the ideas within the old structures of society, but they have not made any structural reform to the systems existing in society. Communism destroys these pre-existing systems such as religion, morality, and judiciary ideas, thus reforming society in a new way. Without abolishing these eternal truths, there will be no way to abolish class tensions. The eternal truths of society are institutions including religion, marriage, family, morality, law, political science, etc which were all very prevalent in most societies throughout history. The idea that thought can change but the structure of society cannot is brought up by Marx when describing non-communist societies. Marx describes communism as so radical because it abolishes these eternal truths and completely reshapes society away from these truths which previously supported class tensions.

Mercantilism

the economic system in which profitable trade and wealth are associated with government involved commerce. The government could protect internal industries from being beaten out by foreign competitors by instituting import taxes.

Science

the intellectual endeavor of attempting to understand the laws of the universe, Scientific Revolution, not the Industrial Revolution

Technology

using natural resources and phenomena to create inventions which increase human productivity, Industrial Revolution not the Scientific Revolution

KeyStone Species

whole society relies on this commodity to function in terms of their economy, politics, culture, religion, etc. ex: opium, cotton