Ford and Carter Presidencies, Reagan Era and End of the Cold War, Foreign Policy Challenges of the 90s, Domestic and International Terrorism, Contemporary Domestic Issues, The Civil Rights Movement, The Vietnam War, Domestic Policies of Johnson and N...

Bill Clinton

"The ability to assure global security, shared prosperity and freedom is beyond the power of any one nation. But the actions of many nations often follow from the actions of one." —Bill Clinton, December 2000 While the first President Bush was highly successful abroad, conditions at home put him at odds with his party and much of the country. His reversal on a tax promise made during his campaign, plus cuts in defense spending, hurt him with his base. The economic recession that had been ongoing was turning public opinion against Republicans in general, and rifts within the party hurt their electoral prospects. In 1992, William Jefferson Clinton assumed the presidency. In contrast to Bush, Clinton came to the office, in 1993, with very little foreign policy experience, and given his lack of military service he had difficulty garnering support and trust from Congress and the US military establishment. In the post-Cold War world, "anticommunism" was no longer the logical basis for foreign policy in the United States, and Clinton sought to delineate a foreign policy approach that would maintain a leadership role for the United States. His approach, which came be referred to as the Doctrine of Enlargement, put the United States in an activist role, promoting democracy, protecting human rights, and opening up global market trade.

Montgomery Bus Boycott

African Americans in Montgomery rally to end Jim Crow segregation by refusing to ride the city's buses. Martin Luther King Jr. becomes a leading voice in the movement. Meanwhile, discontent over discrimination was brewing in the general populace. In December, 1955, a woman famously sat for what she believed in and changed history. In Montgomery, Alabama, an African American seamstress named Rosa Parks boarded a bus in December 1955 and refused to give up her seat to a white man, and in so doing, disobeyed the law. She was arrested, and her action set off the nationwide civil rights movement. The black community rallied around her. That evening, a group met at the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church, where Martin Luther King Jr. was pastor. They decided to boycott the buses to protest segregation. Hundreds of thousands of black residents and others who were sympathetic to the cause joined in. The Montgomery bus boycott was a massive, collective public action taken by blacks to protest discrimination. The struggle was no longer behind the closed doors of the courts but out in the streets. As a result, more people joined in, and boycotts sprung up in other cities as well. The community remained strong, refusing to use the buses for a whole year until the courts ruled segregated public transportation illegal. This successful protest, begun by the courageous action of Mrs. Parks, launched the civil rights movement.

Ford

After Richard Nixon resigned in light of the Watergate scandal, Gerald R. Ford—who had initially replaced Vice President Spiro Agnew on his resignation—succeeded Nixon as the 38th President of the United States. During Ford's presidential oath, he acknowledged, "I assume the Presidency under extraordinary circumstances . . . This is an hour of history that troubles our minds and hurts our hearts." Ford inherited a nation that was under emotional, moral, economic, and political duress. Much to the dismay of the American public, President Ford pardoned Nixon for "any and all crimes" that September. Americans were outraged. What's more, Ford had to navigate noticeable economic challenges, including ever-worsening inflation. Prices skyrocketed despite Nixon's efforts to curtail them through programs such as "Whip Inflation Now" (WIN)—the program touted via millions of iconic red buttons. By 1975, the United States was in a bona fide recession—the deepest since the Great Depression. The mid-1970s represented very hard times for Americans. Ford's tax cuts, increased federal spending, and rejection of regulated price controls further spurred the economic crisis that marked the 1970s.

Intro 2

After World War II, African Americans began to speak out against their treatment as second-class Americans. Their new impetus came from returning World War II veterans, the movement of blacks from the South to the North and into the cities, and a rising black middle class. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was the main political organization pushing for change early on. In a series of court cases from 1946 to 1950, Thurgood Marshall won rulings to desegregate public schools and universities. In 1954, with Brown v. Board of Education, segregation in education was outlawed. The years 1954 through 1957 saw a flurry of activity to advance equal rights for African Americans: the Montgomery bus boycott, the formation of the Southern Christian Leadership Convention (SCLC), and the integration of Little Rock Central High School. These gains were well-fought and hard-won. African Americans advanced their civil rights immensely, in legal terms, during these years. But social change did not follow quickly, and many schools remained segregated for decades.

Bush on attack

After the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States, President George W. Bush visited the ruins of the World Trade Center. He spoke to lift up Americans' spirits after such a brutal and shocking event. The ability of the terrorists to carry out the attacks frightened many Americans. President Bush and his administration began pushing for preemptive action before any enemies attacked the United States again. In his 2002 State of the Union speech, President Bush described an "Axis of Evil", certain nations and groups that stood as enemies of the United States that could not be ignored. This speech was a defining moment of the early 2000s because American forces would soon invade Iraq, setting the stage for US forces to be in decade-long wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. Watch the video to see footage of President Bush at Ground Zero in 2001 and his 2002 State of the Union speech.

Bin Laden and the Terror Attacks

After the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan, bin Laden returned to Saudi Arabia, but, angered by the presence of US troops on Saudi soil, he could no longer live as he had before the jihad. Bin Laden was soon expelled from Saudi Arabia over his militant and extremist views and actions. He went to Sudan, where he continued to build his al-Qaeda organization and train militants to destroy the West. In 1993, when American troops were captured and killed in Somalia, bin Laden was implicated in the events. A few years later, he was again implicated (through intelligence reports), this time in the coordinated attack on multiple United States embassies in Africa. More than 200 people were killed when bombs exploded in embassies in Kenya, Tanzania, Nairobi, and elsewhere. Back in Afghanistan, bin Laden continued his training activities, and his planning. Estimates put the numbers of militants trained in al-Qaeda camps and indoctrinated in extremist Islam at upward of 20,000. Of those, al-Qaeda selected a smaller group to provide more specialized training, and to place them in secret terror cells around the world.

Changing Family Structures

Another significant change in US society has been the drastic shift in family dynamics. The traditional nuclear family of a husband, wife, 2.5 kids, a dog, and a white picket fence are no longer the norm in society. An increase of women in the workforce beginning in the 1950s and 1960s resulted in a higher standard of living for many two-income families. The fact that working women can support themselves is one factor that has led to lower marriage rates. In the 1980s and 1990s, the country also experienced an increase in the divorce rate as this practice became more socially acceptable. Finally, many Americans more readily accept same-sex couples, leading to debates about and growing support for marriage equality.

Little Rock Confrontation

Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus defies the US Supreme Court and prevents the Little Rock Nine, a group of African American students, from starting high school.`

Doctrine of Preemption

As President George W. Bush took office in 2000, his stance on international policy leaned strongly away from the multilateralism and idealism that the elder Bush and Clinton had incorporated. In campaign debates with Al Gore, the Democratic candidate and Clinton's vice-president, the younger Bush had been critical of Clinton's handling of events in Kosovo, Bosnia, and Haiti. He espoused a strong belief that the United States should be involved only when it was in the best interests of the United States. Bush claimed strong support of NATO and a desire to see more countries put more of their own troops on the ground in places where the United States did not have a vested interest. He also expressed a clear disdain for nation-building, or maintaining a military presence in a country in turmoil to assist in its development of political structures. The terrorist attacks on the United States in September 2001, however, created a different way of thinking for President Bush. After launching a retaliatory attack on Afghanistan in an effort to destroy the Al-Qaeda organization charged with organizing and launching the attack, Bush also considered alternative actions to protect the United States from dangers he and his advisors pointed out in the country of Iraq. Bush adopted what came to be known as the "Bush Doctrine"—the idea that the use of military force to preempt perceived dangers was an appropriate and preferred approach to foreign affairs.

Economic Turmoil

As US manufacturing declined, the economy became increasingly service-based, and the once-prosperous "Manufacturing Belt" was fittingly renamed the "Rust Belt." This area included Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin—where manufacturing and industry fell victim to super-high energy costs and competition from abroad. Unemployment especially plagued cities in the Rust Belt, and once-steady families fled the region in search of jobs. The term "Rust Belt" is at once symbolic and literal. Factories were abandoned to the powerful forces of disuse and neglect. They literally rusted out. Social scientists like to give new names to certain events and periods. In this case, economists called the unprecedented skyrocketing inflation in the face of a stagnant economy "stagflation."

Climate Change

As long ago as 1957, scientists warned of rising global temperatures. They argued that an increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, primarily carbon dioxide, was the cause. Since then, studies have verified the findings of those early scientists. Patterns of increase in average global temperatures have been well documented. In the twentieth century, Earth's average temperature increased by one degree Fahrenheit, and the rate of temperature increase rose after 1970. The 10 hottest years on record occurred after 1985. Increases in carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere have also been well documented. Using core samples from 500,000- to 650,000-year-old glaciers, scientists have measured the level of carbon dioxide trapped in the ice at different periods. This research shows that the presence of carbon dioxide has grown in modern times. Scientists have long understood the connection between carbon dioxide and climate change. Carbon dioxide acts much like the windows on a car parked in the sun. Solar energy can pass through the windows, heating the car (or Earth), but then the windows (or carbon dioxide) trap the heat inside. In a car parked in the sun, this process can happen very quickly. On a planet the size of Earth, the process happens more slowly.

Reagan

As the 1970s ended, it seemed that Americans were daunted and spent by several factors. The following are some of these factors: a noticeable distrust of the federal government after the Watergate scandal and Ford's subsequent pardon of Nixon the fall of Saigon, which indicated defeat for the United States in Vietnam the horrendous economy of the 1970s, as evidenced by double-digit inflation and the day-to-day challenges of de-industrialization precarious relations with the Middle East, as evidenced by the tense hostage crisis in Iran tensions with the Soviet Union, as evidenced by Carter's response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan an overall feeling of "malaise," which Carter summed up in his "malaise speech" during the summer of 1979 Americans were primed for a change. Ronald Reagan, former actor and governor of California, would lead this change with his optimistic, charming personality. Through his conservative ideals, he promised real change for the American people. He wanted to run ardent liberalism out of Washington and to restore America to greatness.

2008 Global Recession

As the summer of 2008 was ending, an uneven US economy started to falter. The year before, Americans began to default on, or stop paying off, their mortgages because they could not afford the rising costs of the loans. As a result, a surging housing market known as a housing bubble collapsed. This collapse affected banks that had made risky investment decisions involving mortgages. Such poor investments weakened the banks. The combination of a housing bubble, banks gambling on risky mortgages, and a decline in consumer credit caused panic in the global economy. The panic led to a recession, which is a phase of decline in the economy. In late September 2008, large banks such as Lehmann Brothers and Citigroup declared bankruptcy, and the stock market plummeted. In an effort to stabilize the economy, President George W. Bush signed the Trouble Asset Relief Program (TARP), a government bailout of banks worth an estimated $700 million dollars. While the injection of money was welcomed, the economy still struggled.

Twin towers

At 8:46 a.m., the first plane flew directly into the north tower of New York City's World Trade Center. Less than twenty minutes later, a second plane hit the south tower. People working in the towers who were not immediately killed were trapped or evacuated. Those who were trapped could do nothing as the flames and heat advanced. Many jumped to their deaths. The planes and the towers burned at such high heat and with so much jet fuel that the towers eventually collapsed from the heat. More than 2,600 people, including firefighters and police on the scene, were killed.

Sept. 11 part 2

At that time, terrorist activities involving planes had primarily been takeovers resulting in demands for hostage release, or the use of unmanned bombs to destroy planes in flight. This explains much of what transpired that morning. Security checks for those under suspicion required that security personnel hold the checked bags of those under suspicion until they boarded the planes—surely no one would board a plane they intended to blow up in midair. At 8:46 a.m., the first plane crashed into the north tower of the World Trade Center. By 10:30 a.m., both of the Twin Towers had collapsed, the Pentagon was ablaze, and nearly 3,000 people had been murdered. Read more about how the terrorists were able to board and commandeer the planes in the 9-11 Commission Report (find and read section 1.1 Inside the Four Flights). The immediate aftermath of the hijackings and crashes was chaos. What came next was a surge of national unity. The country was in mourning, but the country was also energized. Communities and the country came together. An outpouring of international support was immediate. Vigils were held worldwide. Heads of state pledged support and offered aid. Support for the president shot up. President Bush's approval ratings had been hovering in the low- to mid-50 percent range since his disputed election in 2000, but in late September, due in large part to his strength and resolve in speaking to the nation about the US response to the attacks, it shot up to high 80s.

Approaches to Crisis

Below are some speculative outcomes that might result from different approaches to this crisis. Read the one you chose as president, then compare it to other approaches and outcomes. Idealism- You call an immediate summit meeting in Washington between the leaders. Some discussions are fruitful, but the parties leave with no new agreements in hand. Realism - You call for the parties to maintain their cease fire and send an envoy to begin shuttle diplomacy. Still, small skirmishes erupt and the rhetoric on each side gets strident. Unilateralism - You send in US troops to enforce current borders between the parties. This strengthens the cease fire, but costs you politically at home and abroad, and puts US troops in harm's way. Multilateralism - Working with the UN, sanctions are imposed on both sides. Partners from around the world air their concerns, and discussion opens on a new round of peace talks.

Intro

By 1980, Americans—simply put—were fed up and frustrated. They had endured a decade of inflation, unbelievable gas lines, hard-to-come-by jobs, tense foreign affair dramas, and a general and tangible feeling of malaise. How long could this frustration continue? At the end of the day, Jimmy Carter was not the face of hope and change that Americans had had in mind. Without question, the 1980s was a markedly different decade from the gloomy 1970s. Perhaps you've been able to experience this decade through more recent cultural reversions back to a decade famous for big-hair, parachute pants, Music Television (MTV), great music, Thriller, and economic prosperity. But what shaped the economic, political, and social landscape of the 1980s as we understand it today? And who best symbolizes these transformations? The name Ronald Reagan, known as the "Great Communicator," comes to mind for many people. As the president from 1981 to 1989, Reagan came to represent the political, economic, and cultural aspects of the post-"Me Decade."

Carter Foriegn Policy 2

Carter dealt with other foreign affairs, including formal negotiations for the United States to relinguish complete control of the Panama Canal to Panama by 2000, which was formalized in the Panama Canal Treaty. In Cold War dealings, Carter veered from a policy of détente with the Soviet Union, suggesting that the relaxation of strained tensions between the two superpowers was not acceptable. In December 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan. Carter responded by starting up military draft registration again, boycotting the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow, and stopping US grain shipments to Russia.

Carter = Domestic Affairs

Carter inherited a terribly challenging economic landscape when he became president. Yet historians argue that his handling of the economy made the situation even worse. He attempted to combat unemployment with a tax cut and then increased federal spending. Unemployment did go down somewhat in 1977, but inflation skyrocketed from 5 percent when Carter became president to 10 percent in 1978. In the years thereafter, inflation seemed to know no bounds. In terms of the energy crisis, Carter fared much better. When he took office, the United States alone was consuming one-fourth of all OPEC production. Many Americans had little commitment to reducing their own energy consumption. Carter, however, was committed to breaking down Americans' dependence on OPEC oil. One avenue for doing so was the Emergency Natural Gas Act, which rerouted energy generation to interstate natural gas. He also launched a Department of Energy, tasked with researching and developing alternative and sustainable sources of energy such as wind and solar power. Although Carter is sometimes viewed as an ineffective president, his efforts to establish energy efficiency were inarguably far-reaching.

Carter Election

Carter's running mate was Walter Mondale, a Minnesota senator. The Carter-Mondale ticket won the presidential election by a very narrow margin: 50 to 48 percent in the popular vote, and 297 to 240 in the Electoral College. (Note that the state of Washington cast an Electoral College vote for Ronald Reagan, even though he had not won the Republican primary.) Politically, Carter was up against rampant economic woes, including stagflation. He also worked to cut federal spending, stating in his second State of the Union address that "Government cannot solve our problems. . . . It cannot eliminate poverty, or provide a bountiful economy, or reduce inflation, or save our cities, or cure illiteracy, or provide energy." With this belief in mind, Carter began a policy of deregulation—taking away government control of airlines, railroads, trucking, and oil and natural gas pricing. Many liberals opposed his deregulation position, although Carter did work hard on behalf of human rights, even arguing that "the soul of our foreign policy" should be the preservation of human rights everywhere

Kyoto Protocol

Concern over climate change has also led to an increase in studies on the impact of greenhouse gases. Based on these studies, people and governments are working to limit emissions of greenhouse gases. The Kyoto Protocol is an international environmental treaty that intends to fight climate change. The United States made news in 1997 when it signed the treaty but refused to ratify it. US officials were concerned about the effect the treaty might have on US jobs. They also worried that exemptions for India, China, and other developing nations would not allow for the reduction of overall levels of greenhouse gases. The Kyoto Protocol was due for renewal in 2012. At the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Doha, Qatar, the United States again refused to ratify the international agreement.

Carter

Despite the many challenges Ford inherited when he became President, he won the 1976 Republican nomination. On the Democratic front, a folksy naval engineer and peanut farmer from Georgia named Jimmy Carter launched his national political career when the former governor swept the primary elections and landed his name on the Democratic ticket. Carter's distance from the Washington political scene appealed to many Americans, especially in light of the Watergate scandal that had disheartened the nation. In fact, Carter promised honesty and integrity, and he tapped his strong Christian faith and background to position himself as a down-to-earth, moral, and trustworthy politician. Carter captured the support and votes of African Americans (especially in the South), labor groups, economically challenged Americans, and others eager to place a fresh face in the White House.

September 11 and response

Eight years passed too quickly. On the morning of September 11, 2001, millions of people were going to work all over the country. Hundreds of planes were taking off and landing, with hundreds more passengers passing through gates and boarding or disembarking without incident. On this morning, though, there were 19 passengers who boarded four planes between them, carrying weapons and items such as mace or pepper spray. The 19 terrorists who hijacked the planes were all members of al-Qaeda. Fifteen of them were Saudi Arabian, two were from the United Arab Emirates, and one—the leader of the operation—was from Egypt. The men boarded four different airplanes, all bound for destinations across the country. The screening system for air travel at that time required metal detection, and there was a system in place for identifying passengers who should receive extra security screening. Despite several irregularities in their passage through screening, all 19 men boarded their flights on time and in possession of whatever carry-on bags they had. The planes all took off between 7:50 a.m. and 8:45 a.m.

Ending Segregation in Education

Ending Segregation in Education Like other parts of US society, some states carried out racial discrimination and segregation in public schools as well. In the 1950s, civil rights leaders began targeting public schools for equality. The 1954 Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas has achieved iconic status, and rightfully so. It knocked down the legal wall erected by the Plessy v. Ferguson ruling that for more than 50 years separated blacks and whites in our nation's schools. The lawyer who argued and won that case was Thurgood Marshall. Marshall was born in Baltimore, Maryland, in 1908 and attended Lincoln University, an all black college. He then applied to the University of Maryland Law School but was rejected because he was black. So, he attended law school at Howard University in Washington, DC, the jewel of the black college system. Marshall's first legal triumph must have been especially sweet to him; in 1933, he represented Donald Gaines Murray, a black student who was suing the University of Maryland Law School for admission. Marshall won, and Murray studied law alongside his white colleagues there.

Balkans

Ethnic conflict was one issue that made the need for a change in post-Cold War policy in Europe compelling. Without Soviet control over parts of Eastern Europe, ethnic conflicts that had been suppressed during the Cold War became all-out wars during the move for self-determination, as is clearly seen in the case of Yugoslavia. After the fall of the Soviets, Yugoslavia's republic broke apart, and the quest for national identity rested in ethnicity rather than boundaries. In republics where there was no clear ethnic majority, civil war erupted. Serbia, under Slobodan Milosevic, sent forces into Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bosnia) to "cleanse" the country of Muslims and Croats. Serbs living in the Croat republic joined the effort and the international community struggled to devise a strategy to help. In 1995, Clinton hosted Bosnia's warring leaders at the Dayton Accords in Ohio, and negotiators worked out a peace agreement. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) sent 60,000 troops, including 20,000 Americans, to enforce the agreement. The Balkans, with their proximity to Europe and the former Soviet Union, certainly fit the criteria of the Doctrine of Enlargement, so when Milosevic set to ethnic cleansing again at the end of the 1990s, NATO, again including American troops, launched a series of air strikes to stop the violence. Explore these State Department pages on Kosovo and Bosnia to learn more about the events and the current status of these countries.

Iraq invasion

Following the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August of 1990, the United States, along with nations across the globe, called for Iraq's immediate and full withdrawal. When Saddam Hussein's forces ignored the call and began amassing troops on the border of Saudi Arabia, Bush's New World Order and diplomacy skills were put to the test. President Bush was able to use his relationships with world leaders to build a coalition of more than 30 countries. The coalition included the Soviet Union but did not include Israel. Bush, and others, saw that an alliance with the Soviets would isolate Iraq, and that convincing Israel to stay out of the conflict would help maintain the Mideast alliances to focus on the task at hand. Bush also took the time to get Congressional support for the effort. On January 17, 1991, the United States and its allies went to war against Iraq, and Iraq withdrew from Kuwait in less than six weeks. The United States, providing more than half a million troops in the effort, lost only 148 servicemen. Iraqi casualties were estimated at over 100,000. Bush yet again faced criticism. This time it was for not removing Hussein from power, but he was unambiguous in his stance that the mission accomplished what it set out to do. Avoiding a recurrence of a long, drawn-out occupation as in Vietnam was paramount. The successful result of the conflict was highly energizing and made the concept of the New World Order seem much more plausible.

Intro. 2

Given all you know about the political and cultural movements of the 1960s and Watergate and Vietnam, do you ever wonder how the nation survived the rest of the 1970s? How could our system of government handle such disruptions and not end in a revolution? What events and decisions would enable the United States to return to some semblance of order? With these questions in mind, think about what you already know about the 1970s and what you want to know.

Gorbachev and Reagan

Gorbachev succeeded in lessening the Communist party's power and stronghold of the Soviet Union. What Reagan once called the "evil empire" in 1983 was not looking so evil after all. Read more about Gorbachev and his policies. In fact, Gorbachev even opposed Reagan's Star Wars program, which fundamentally fueled Cold War thinking. After the summits in 1985 and 1986, Reagan and Gorbachev succeeded in reducing the notorious tensions between the two world powers. In December 1987, both signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear (INF) Treaty, which essentially got rid of 2,500 missiles from Europe. In May 1988, Reagan visited Moscow—an event that symbolized the vastly changed relationship between the United States and the Soviet Union. This landmark visit set the stage for the end of the Cold War.

An American Dilemma

Gunnar Myrdal's report on social, economic, and political conditions of black US citizens is published. The study, An American Dilemma, brought attention to the stark contrast between American ideals and the unequal treatment of blacks.

Introduction

Imagine going out to eat at a restaurant with your family or friends on a Friday night. You aren't sure where to go, but you see a restaurant crowded with many smiling customers, so you decide to try the food there. After waiting in line for 20 minutes like everyone else, you ask for a table. The manager scowls and tells you the restaurant won't serve you and that you have to leave. What would your reaction be? African Americans faced this discrimination every day in the United States until the mid-1900s. Although the Civil War had abolished slavery, many states, particularly in the South, began passing laws that persecuted blacks and other minorities. In the South, the Jim Crow system of laws and traditions relegated blacks to second-class status. For a time, after the Plessy v. Ferguson Supreme Court decision, the government permitted racial segregation as long as states provided public and private establishments of equal quality for whites and blacks. But the quality of white and black establishments was far from equal. This level of discrimination in the United States prompted African Americans and others to push for civil rights and equality, thus beginning the civil rights movement.

Immigration

Immigration to the United States can be divided into four distinct periods: the colonial period, the mid-1800s, 1880-1920, and after 1965. The colonial period saw steady immigration from Great Britain and northern and western Europe. Immigration increased tremendously in the mid-1800s, especially with the influx of the Irish who were fleeing the potato famine. A new wave of immigrants came from southern and eastern Europe between 1880 and 1920. After US immigration law was reformed in 1965 as part of the Great Society legislation, immigration peaked once more. New immigrants came increasingly from Asia and Latin America. Consider the following questions as you explore some immigrant stories: Is the United States a "nation of immigrants" as some suggest? Is the United States a melting pot of cultures? Do you see the United States instead as a mosaic of many distinct cultures and ethnicities? How have different immigrant groups contributed to what the United States is today? What would the present-day United States be like without its long history of immigration?

Illegal Immigration

Immigration to the United States continues to be an important social issue. The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 abolished the quota system established in the 1920s. It allowed for a higher percentage of immigration from Asian and Latin American countries, areas that had previously been significantly limited by quotas. Recent legislation has also directly changed US immigration policies. The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 established penalties for companies hiring illegal immigrants. The Immigration Act of 1990 increased the total yearly immigration level. The REAL ID Act of 2005 established new policies on declaring refugee or asylum status. Illegal Immigration People around the world view the United States as a highly desirable destination for relocation. More people want to come to live in the United States than can legally enter in a given year, which results in illegal immigration. Some immigrants cross the border without the proper visa paperwork, while others stay in the country after their visas expire. The impacts of illegal immigration create political division on issues ranging from jobs to civil rights. Should immigrants that arrived illegally be deported? What about their children? Should there be government protections for immigrants even if they arrived illegally? These issues continue to pose challenges to this day.

Southern Leadership Conference

In 1957, Martin Luther King Jr., along with some colleagues, formed the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) to coordinate protests, raise funds, and train black leaders in nonviolent direct action. The SCLC worked closely with other civil rights groups, including the NAACP, which helped to bring civil rights cases to court.

Carter - domestic policy part 2

In 1979, after spending 10 days traveling among and speaking with ordinary Americans, President Carter delivered a speech—later dubbed his "malaise speech"—in which he noted that the nation suffered not just from an energy crisis but from a "crisis of confidence," which he described as follows: "The threat is nearly invisible in ordinary ways. It is a crisis of confidence. It is a crisis that strikes at the very heart and soul and spirit of our national will. We can see this crisis in the growing doubt about the meaning of our own lives and in the loss of a unity of purpose for our nation." While Carter did not specify a social issue that underlay this crisis, he did cite several symptoms of it, including a pervasive belief among Americans "that the next 5 years will be worse than the past 5 years," a low percentage of voters in the American population, and a decrease in productivity in the workplace and in Americans' willingness to "save for the future

Post Soviet Communism and New World Order

In 1989, newly inaugurated George H. W. Bush was primed to meet international challenges. In his political career he had served as Ambassador to the United Nations and envoy to China under Nixon. He was appointed by Ford as Director of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and was Reagan's Vice President for two terms. In each position, he had gained contacts and built relationships with global leaders. He had the benefit of participating in a variety of international policy-making sessions. As president, Bush took a thoughtful and pragmatic approach to foreign affairs. Early in his tenure, he put that pragmatism to use in response to Chinese handling of the Tiananmen Square protest. In the face of calls for a harsh response, Bush approached the situation with diplomacy, risking the disapproval of his country to maintain a long-term strategy on China.

Environmental Concerns of Today

In 1989, the Exxon Valdez spilled more than 10 million gallons of oil into Alaska's Prince William Sound when operator error caused the oil tanker to run aground. The spill was the largest in US history and affected more than a thousand miles of shoreline. The US Coast Guard attempted to clean the spill by burning the oil, gathering it, and chemically dispersing it. However, a study by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration suggests that only about 10 percent of the oil was recovered. The oil spill devastated wildlife in the area, and sensitive areas were targeted for cleanup first. An estimated 250,000 seabirds and 2,800 sea otters died in the immediate aftermath, and many more died from long-term effects. Wildlife experts and volunteers hand cleaned birds and other wildlife using dishwashing soap. The full extent of damage to the ecosystem is still being studied. Health complaints from cleanup workers have also led to concerns about the effects of the oil on humans. The Exxon Valdez oil spill prompted the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, which charged the Coast Guard with strengthening the regulation of vessels transporting oil. The spill also led to improvements in vessel hull designs to help prevent similar spills in the future. However, the spill did not lead to a slowdown in oil use or in exploration and drilling for oil in fragile Alaskan landscapes.

2008 Presidential Election

In 2008, Democrats were excited about the opportunity to regain the White House following plummeting approval ratings of Republican president George W. Bush. Democratic candidate Barack Obama inspired new voters with his African American heritage and hopeful message. Republican senator John McCain ran against Obama. Obama's calm demeanor helped rally moderates, and his support grew. On November 4, 2008, Barack Obama won the election and was inaugurated in 2009 as the 44th president of the United States.

Federal Job Discrimination ends

In July 1948, President Truman issues an executive order barring all racial discrimination for all federal employment.

Panama

In a second international event during Bush's first year in office, the actions of Panamanian dictator Manuel Noriega, who had earlier been an ally of the United States opposed to the Sandinista government in Nicaragua, called for a different type of interaction. Noriega, who was already wanted in the United States for drug trafficking, seized power in Panama by staging a military coup. He began giving aid to the Sandinistas (the communist presence he had formerly opposed), and Bush was under heavy internal pressure to remove him from power. When Noriega's forces were accused of attacking American military personnel stationed in Panama, Bush sent troops to Panama and deposed Noriega. Bush faced international criticism for the action because he had not sought multilateral approval, but he was lauded at home. Read his address to the nation. Bush's actions regarding the crisis in China were pragmatic and patient; he used diplomacy and a more methodical approach. While diplomacy was an aim in the Panamanian crisis, Bush authorized force in the end. What was the difference between the two situations? Which country was more vital to American interests in the long run?

Patriot Act

In addition to the USA Patriot Act, and in response to heavy criticism of interagency communication that purportedly resulted in missed or mishandled evidence that might have prevented the attack, the president created a new cabinet-level agency, the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), in 2002. The agency became the umbrella organization for the United States Secret Service, the Federal Emergency Management Agency, the Immigration and Naturalization Service, and the United States Coast Guard, plus many more. The department's role is to coordinate the homeland security missions of all its subagencies and organizations to ensure strategic, well-defined communication between agencies. Specific areas of responsibility, in addition to information analysis, include border security, the Transportation Security Administration's airport screening and security, and responses to biological, chemical, or radiological attacks on the United States. (Note: TSA was created at the same time as DHS.) The Federal Bureau of Investigation and the Central Intelligence Agency maintained their independent roles as the domestic and international information agencies of law enforcement. Critics contend that although a director of national intelligence was appointed to coordinate all the different intelligence agencies of the United States, bureaucracy and redundancy are still impediments to national security. US Dept. of Homeland Security emblem

naFTA

In earlier eras, tariffs and other protectionist measures determined US economic policy. In contrast, recent policy has focused on free-trade agreements. After World War II, the United States agreed to provide aide to European nations through the Marshall Plan. In 1947, the United States and the other nations within the United Nations also signed the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). This international agreement reduced tariffs and other trade barriers. It allowed US industry to continue to grow by expanding trade. The United States also led in the creation of the World Trade Organization (WTO), formed in 1995. The WTO establishes the international rules for trade between nations. NAFTA The most important trade agreement for the United States is the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Through NAFTA, Mexico, the United States, and Canada agreed to remove tariffs and other trade barriers within North America. Though negotiated by President George H. W. Bush, President Bill Clinton strongly supported the treaty and advocated for its signing. Opposition focused on the loss of US jobs to Mexico, which had cheaper labor. However, the agreement passed and came into effect on January 1, 1994.

Carter Foreign Policies

In foreign policy, Carter faced incredibly daunting issues. You may be more familiar with President Clinton's efforts to smooth US relations with the Middle East. But in 1977, Carter hosted Egyptian leader Anwar el-Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin for two weeks at Camp David. A formal peace treaty emerged from these "Camp David Accords," calling for Israel's historic withdrawal from the Sinai Peninsula. In turn, Egypt acknowledged Israel as a nation. Other Arab nations were not on board with these efforts, and broader peace efforts were unsuccessful. Islamic extremists assassinated Sadat in 1981. In addition, the Iran hostage crisis landed on Carter's plate. The United States looked to the pro-US Iranian leader Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi as a key player in staving off Soviet expansion and ensuring the free flow of oil resources to the United States. Iran's Shiite Muslims thought otherwise, supporting Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini and his overthrow of the shah's government in 1979. When the shah was in the United States for cancer treatment, Khomeini backers took 66 Americans hostage at the US Embassy in Tehran. The agonizing standoff lasted 444 days, and the hostages were not released until just minutes after Ronald Reagan was inaugurated as president on January 20, 1981.

Iraq

In keeping with this approach, President Bush and his advisors, who had long believed that Saddam Hussein should have been removed from power in the Persian Gulf War (1991), now pushed forward their belief that the threat of Iraqi terrorism was significant and imminent. Seeing an opportunity to strengthen the United States' safety and power in the Middle East, they began a campaign to convince Congress and the public that Iraq should be preemptively disempowered through force. The administration presented evidence (some of which later proved dubious or even false) that Iraq was manufacturing chemical weapons and may have nuclear supplies. Weapons of mass destruction (WMD) were the new threat to American security. After a lengthy political struggle, Bush was able to secure a resolution from Congress authorizing the use of force—at his discretion—to "defend the national security." Under intense political and public pressure, many early critics of the resolution in the end supported it. This change in course would come back to haunt several of them in significant ways, but it nevertheless gave the chief executive the power to go to war with Iraq without the support of the United Nations, which disagreed with the use of force at this juncture as did many of its individual members and United States allies. In March 2003, the United States began an assault on Iraq dubbed Operation Iraqi Freedom. With a "coalition of the willing," Bush's primarily unilateral attack was highly successful in its early months.

Earth Day 2

In response to the public outcry for greater environmental protections, Congress passed two key measures in the year following that first Earth Day. One was the Clean Air Act of 1970, which established federal emissions standards to limit the amount of pollutants vehicles could release into the environment. The other was the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The EPA's job is to oversee existing guidelines for clean water, air, and other environmental issues. Both measures were enacted by Congress over President Richard Nixon's veto. Other protective measures, such as the Water Pollution Control Act and the Endangered Species Act, followed throughout the 1970s. In 1990, Congress passed its last major piece of environmental legislation to update the Clean Air Act. Throughout the summer of that year, the House, the Senate, and President George H. W. Bush worked together to propose revisions to the Clean Air Act. The idea was to address three threats not covered in the 1970 law: acid rain, urban air pollution, and stricter emissions levels. Two decades later, in 2012, the Obama Administration established new guidelines for car emissions that focused on making cars more fuel efficient. These new standards require car companies to increase the average gas mileage to 35.5 miles per gallon by 2016. The change benefits the environment by promoting the use of alternative fuels.

Battles in Court

In the 1930s, the NAACP launched a series of legal attacks to take down Plessy v. Ferguson. The group set its sights on integrating education, with Thurgood Marshall arguing the cases as the NAACP's chief counsel. Three key victories advanced the cause: Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada, 1938 Marshall racked up a first win in this Supreme Court case. The court ruled that if Missouri denied blacks entrance to its law school, then it had to create a fully equal institution for blacks to provide access to education. McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents, 1950 African American law student George McLaurin had been admitted to the University of Oklahoma (Oklahoma didn't want a repeat of the Gaines ruling and have to build a new university), but he was not allowed to eat or study with the white students. The NAACP's challenge was successful: the Supreme Court ruled this practice unconstitutional. Sweatt v. Painter, 1950 The NAACP had brought a similar case involving a student at the University of Texas Law School in Austin. The administrators there had relegated Herman Sweatt to a basement room, denying him access to the campus itself because he was black. The Supreme Court also ruled this treatment unconstitutional.

Social Issues

In the United States today, about one in every eight people is 65 or older. In the 1950s, it was one out of 10. In the year 2030, it will be one person in every five. Through a combination of increased life span and decreased fertility, the median age of the US population will continue to rise, until it is close to 40 by the middle of the twenty-first century. This change has implications for the major government programs that benefit the elderly, Medicare and Social Security. While Medicare supports the health care of older Americans, Social Security supports Americans financially in retirement. These benefits are paid out of taxes on the current wages of working Americans. Social Security is a system of shared responsibility, where the money workers make and pay in taxes goes to pay for the needs of older, retired persons. In their time, those older workers worked and paid taxes to support the system for the older Americans who needed it; now, current workers are doing the same. But will there be enough workers in the future to support the greater numbers of older Americans once the Baby Boom generation retires?

Global Economy

In the past 100 years, the US economy has grown significantly and shifted toward globalization. Globalization is the unification of diverse nations into a single market. One result of this shift is a more integrated world economy, bringing an increase in competition among businesses. This competition benefits consumers as companies compete with one another to offer better prices and a larger selection of goods. On the downside, globalization increases the strength and size of international corporations. As the economy favors these larger corporations, workers can be neglected. Larger companies can move their operations to other countries in search of lower wages, lower standards, and better profit margins, a process often called outsourcing.

Brown v. Board of Education

In this momentous case, the US Supreme Court strikes down Plessy v. Ferguson and its "separate but equal doctrine" in all public education, from kindergarten through university. School segregation is outlawed.

Marshall

Later, Marshall's career took him to New York, where he became chief counsel of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Here, he became a key architect of early civil rights advances from 1938 to 1957, arguing all the significant cases in the struggle for equality. His outstanding track record defending the rights of minorities drew both national and international attention. The United Nations asked him to help draw up the constitutions of two newly independent countries in Africa, Ghana and Tanzania. In the 1960s, President Kennedy appointed Marshall to the US Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, and in 1965 he became the US Solicitor General, the most powerful lawyer in the federal government. A gifted and eloquent debater, Marshall argued and won more cases before the Supreme Court than any other lawyer in history. In 1967, he reached the pinnacle of his profession, gaining a seat on the US Supreme Court. Marshall resigned from the court in 1991. He died in 1993.

SCLC Established

Martin Luther King Jr. and other black leaders form the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) to continue the popular movement to end legal segregation and gain full civil rights.

Homeland Security

Meanwhile, President Bush worked with officials in Washington to address the threat of further attacks at home. In October, anthrax sent through the postal system to Senate offices and news outlets resulted in five deaths. Bush pushed through the Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act, or the USA Patriot Act, designed to give the government more authority to monitor communications for evidence of threats to the United States. Many protested the intrusions and the potential for civil rights abuses in the act, and Bush and his advisors would be heavily criticized for this act later, but the political climate made it an easy sell at the time. It passed Congress again in 2005, though with some protections.

Reaganomics 5

Nevertheless, personal prosperity did take root for some throughout Reagan's first term. Reaganomics was working on paper, and even oil prices fell after Reagan removed price controls. The optimism on which Reagan counted during his first presidential campaign held some merit. Despite the direct toll of Reaganomics on welfare and other social programs, mainstream economy recovery was promising. It is no surprise, then, that Reagan swept the 1984 election, claiming almost 59 percent of the popular vote, and declaring it "Morning in America." Still the 1980s presented contradictory pictures. Affluence was widespread among Americans who benefited from supply-side economics, but homelessness and rampant poverty were conflicting issues that Reaganomics clearly overlooked. In 1988, the New York Times reported that approximately 45 percent of New York's adults were living in poverty. The subjective story of Reagan's success on the domestic front depends on which sector of the society is examined.

Deep Water Horizon Oil Spill

On April 22, 2010, the Deepwater Horizon oil rig operating off the Gulf Coast exploded, killing 11 and injuring 17. At the time, gas and oil company BP was operating the oil rig. Two days later, the company discovered an underwater oil leak, which was releasing thousands of gallons of oil into the Gulf of Mexico each day. For three months, scientists, technicians, and company workers tried one idea after the next to slow the leak. The US public followed the story as scientists tried to capture the escaping oil with a device called a top hat, and then attempted to plug the leak with a so-called "junk shot" of golf balls, shredded tires, and rope. Most of the work had to be done by remotely operated vehicles, which proved difficult to control at such depths. In September, BP successfully drilled a relief well. This measure allowed it to divert the flow of oil from the original leak and pump it into cement to seal it. On September 19, BP announced that the leak was officially sealed. The spill greatly affected wildlife in the Gulf of Mexico, despite cleanup efforts. Fishers, the tourism industry, and others who relied on the Gulf of Mexico for their livelihoods were suddenly unable to earn a living. These difficulties harmed the economy of the entire region. BP launched a massive cleanup effort, using up to 170 vessels and 750,000 workers, in addition to volunteers. The Deepwater Horizon spill made Americans sharply aware of the dangers of offshore drilling, an oil extraction practice that had been growing in recent years. Less than a month before the spill, President Barack Obama had agreed to open the eastern Gulf and parts of the Atlantic to offshore drilling and exploration. The spill, however, raised questions about emergency plans and the oil companies' ability to deal with accidents effectively. In the aftermath of the spill, Obama reorganized the agency responsible for oversight of offshore drilling,the Minerals Management Service. On December 1, 2010, his administration reversed its pre-spill position on offshore drilling and announced that it would not allow drilling in the areas agreed to before the spill.

Global War on Terror

On October 7, 2001, with full congressional support, Bush authorized the first attack in the global war on terrorism, when a US-led coalition invaded Afghanistan in Operation Enduring Freedom. Within two months, the Taliban government, an extreme Islamist government ruling brutally in Afghanistan and long accused of harboring al-Qaeda and bin Laden, was toppled. Al-Qaeda officials fled to the wilderness. The war turned into a manhunt as the terrorists spread to safe havens throughout the Middle East and secret cells throughout the rest of the world. Captured prisoners were sent to Guantanamo Bay to await trial. As the manhunt for bin Laden continued, President Bush developed a new policy on foreign affairs. In what would come to be called the Bush doctrine, or the doctrine of preemption, Bush declared the United States' right to act in its own defense against perceived threats rather than waiting for threats to materialize into action (as he felt had happened in the September 11 attacks). This philosophy grew out of the neoconservative element of the Republican Party. Neoconservatives believed that building multilateral consensus, gaining world approval for action, and spreading democracy by example was a waste of time. Action by the United States should be based on a unilateral determination of what was best for the United States. The philosophy of Realpolitik was the underpinning of this approach.

Reagan foreign policy

On the home front, Reaganomics guided the domestic agenda. In foreign affairs, "The Reagan Doctrine," dictated American actions. The president's general foreign policy, The Reagan Doctrine, asserted that the United States would support any anti-Communist forces worldwide. In stark contrast to isolationism following the Vietnam War, this approach to foreign affairs meant that the United States was willing to "defy Soviet-supported aggression" on all counts, in all places. An early example of this policy emerged in 1983 in Grenada, a Caribbean island nation run by a leftist government. After a formal appeal from the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States due to a revolutionary military coup in Grenada, the United States invaded the island. Nearly 2,000 American soldiers succeeded in deposing the leftists, thereby launching the Reagan administration's hard-hitting stance against all things Communist.

Ford - International

On the international front, the South Vietnamese government fell to the Communist People's Army of Vietnam in April 1975. The "Fall of Saigon" was the official end of the Vietnam War, crushing American morale after the United States' controversial and mortal involvement in the War. Yes, 1976—the bicentennial of the Declaration of Independence—was just around the corner. But what did understandably jaded Americans really have to celebrate? In the years leading up to the bicentennial, the economy was foremost on Americans' minds. The oil crisis, which Americans faced directly as they contended with exorbitant gas prices, certainly made its mark. But that's not all. During this time, the United States experienced a period of rapid "deindustrialization." Free trade agreements enacted in the 1960s made cheaper-made imports attractive. Not to mention that the oil crisis worsened steel, car, and electronics manufacturing. Demand for US-manufactured goods therefore declined, forcing widespread layoffs in the manufacturing and heavy-industry sectors.

Osama Bin Laden

Osama bin Laden was born in 1957 in Riyadh—the capital of Saudi Arabia. Born to wealthy parents who owned a construction company, Bin Laden chose to continue his education in Saudi Arabia unlike his siblings who went to study abroad. While completing his education, Bin Laden became a member of the Islamist Muslim Brotherhood. By the late 1970s, he had developed strong religious and political views. Bin Laden's obsession with his religion was equivalent to his distaste for the Western world. Following the Soviet invasion in Afghanistan in 1979, Bin Laden joined hands with pan-Islamist scholar Abdullah Azzam to form an organization that trained and aided the Afghan rebels known as mujahideen. In 1988, Bin Laden founded the al-Qaeda, an organization that aimed to establish Islamic dominance over the world. Using the resources and camps that Bin Laden had set up during the Soviet-Afghanistan conflict of the 1980s, al-Qaeda went on to train militants from all over the world. This organization would eventually be responsible for numerous acts of terrorism across the globe.

Environmental Concerns

Paper or plastic?" It's the standard question at the checkout lane in grocery stores. In recent years, "neither" has become an increasingly common answer as more and more environmentally conscious customers supply their own reusable bags. This trend is just one of many signs of a growing awareness of environmental issues in mainstream America. The environmental movement in the United States can be traced back as far as 1872 with the establishment of the first national park. Much later, a resurgence in environmentalism began in the 1970s in the midst of a fast-growing economy fueled by consumerism. Modern environmentalism addresses global environmental concerns such as climate change and fossil fuel use. Earth's systems are so complex that simple answers to environmental concerns are rare. Even among supportive scientists, activists, and policy makers, there is often little agreement on what issues are most important, what actions should be taken, and how to balance environmental concerns with those of individuals and businesses.

Reagan and Cold War end

Paradoxically, as the Cold War strengthened during the Reagan Administration, evidenced by the Star Wars initiative and the Reagan Doctrine, it ultimately began to thaw by the mid-1980s. Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev came to power, with reform-minded policies intended to smooth US-Soviet relations and to lessen Communism's hold around the world. Who was Mikhail Gorbachev and how did he become the man who transformed world politics? When the Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev died in 1982, KGB leader Yuri Andropov took over. He died 15 months later to be succeeded by Konstantin Chernenko whose term was also cut short by death. In 1985, the new leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, vowed to keep the Communist machine he inherited going. He soon stunned the world, however, by advancing widespread political liberalization via a policy of openness and commitment to freedom (glasnost) and transformative economic reform (perestroika). His policies led to greater freedoms across all segments of the historically repressive Soviet Union.

Political Issues

Political power in the United States has traditionally been divided between two parties. In recent years, dissatisfaction with this concentration of power has led to an increase in support for third parties. The 1992 presidential campaign of Ross Perot opened real space for alternative candidates. Since then, third parties have continued to grow in membership and leadership roles at the local and state levels. Voter registrations in parties such as the Libertarian, Green, and Constitution Parties have all exceeded 100,000. These parties provide politically independent citizens with a multitude of voting options. However, some Americans contend that third parties simply split votes from the major party candidates. As a result, elections have become closer and sometimes contested. One such example occurred in 2000, when a third-party candidate, Ralph Nader, won some votes that were expected to go to the Democratic nominee, Al Gore. Bush v. Gore, 2000 The 2000 presidential election pitted Republican George W. Bush against Democrat Al Gore. The election resulted in one of the closest votes in history. Preliminary results from election day were so close that a recount was ordered in the state of Florida. Florida's 25 electoral votes would decide the new president. The state first conducted its recount by machines and found that George W. Bush had won the state by just 537 votes. The Gore campaign then requested that Florida conduct the recount again by hand. Debate over the fairness of this request made it all the way to the US Supreme Court in the landmark case of Bush v. Gore. The court ruled that the recount by hand was unconstitutional, and Bush was awarded the 25 Electoral College votes from the state of Florida.

New World Order

President George H. W. Bush's approach to foreign policy hinged on quiet, patient negotiation and a belief that reasonable leaders could forge meaningful and powerful alliances to stand against oppressors. His talk of a "New World Order" following the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August of 1990 conveyed a belief that this new order relied on international cooperation and alliances, but would result in greater security world wide. Critics found the discussion to be vague and incomplete. They worried that multinational cooperation might mean involvement in wars or issues not in the national interest. The thought of coming to the aid of an ally over an issue unrelated to US self-interest was troubling, but supporters saw the expansion of the US role in defending democracy and aiding in humanitarian efforts as a potential boon to the nation's standing in the world. Read President Bush's address to Congress following the invasion. Think about his introduction of the concept of a New World Order. What are its tenets? What are its risks?

Reagan and Soviets

President Reagan took a direct and forceful approach when dealing with the Soviets. Although Reagan worked with the Soviets to cool tensions and reduce nuclear arms, he also pushed the Soviet government to provide more human rights and freedom to the people of Eastern Europe. One of President Reagan's most-famous foreign policy moments came when he gave a speech at the Brandenburg Gate in West Berlin, Germany in June, 1987. Although it had been erected in 1961, the Berlin Wall still stood, symbolizing both the real and imagined separation of capitalist Western Europe and communist Eastern Europe. By 1987, it seemed an antiquated reminder of the harsh Soviet system. In his speech, Reagan famously declared, "Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!" Within 3 years, the wall had come down and Germans were free to travel between East and West Germany.

Love Canal

Read the background information about Love Canal and study the chronologies of the crisis. Then watch a video clip of Lois Gibbs, President of the Love Canal Homeowners Association. As you study these materials, think about these questions: How did the homeowners force a resolution to Love Canal? What did Carter's administration do? In addition to taking these measures in reaction to Love Canal, the Carter administration proactively took environmentally friendly steps as well. The Alaska Lands Act preserved about 100 million acres. Although he was debilitated to a standstill by other issues, including foreign affairs, Carter was successful in his environmental efforts. The parks, wildlife refuges, and national forests protected by the Alaska Lands Act are a testament to this success.

Reganomics 3

Reagan advocated deregulation of banking, the savings-and-loan industry, and communications. He did not stop there. He supported the end of regulations that were meant to protect air quality and other environmental efforts. Wildernesses, forests, and aquatic environments that were once safeguarded gave way to the profit-driven endeavors of the oil, gas, and logging industries that moved in. The environmental deregulation remained controversial, with the economic benefits and potential environmental costs at odds. Not contested, however, is Reagan's impact on labor relations. Although the airline industry witnessed the Airline Deregulation Act of 1978 to spur free range of pricing, routes, and inter-airline competition, it was during Reagan's administration that the role and power of organized labor was called into question. In 1981, the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (PATCO) went on strike. Despite his own past role as the head of the Screen Actor's Guild, a union, Reagan's firm stance against organized labor became evident. Since PATCO workers still were considered federal workers despite the widespread economic deregulation of the airline industry, Reagan threatened to fire all of the nearly 12,000 people on strike if they did not return to work in two days. And fire them he did, indicating to big business that they did not necessarily have to negotiate with unions.

Reagan 3

Reagan appealed to this growing base of conservatives. What became known as the "Reagan Revolution" was brewing. Read more about the background of the 1980 election and a biography of Ronald Reagan. But how did Americans view him in 1980? His campaign pitched "family values," traditional gender roles, lower taxes, less government, an abortion ban, and a bolstered military. Now, see for yourself what his campaign persona was like.

Reagan wins

Reagan benefited from Carter's overwhelming challenges. Yet no one would argue that Reagan was at the right place at the right time. Such was not the case when Reagan attempted and failed to win the Republican presidential nomination in 1976. By 1980, however, the political tides had turned. In fact, not only did Carter become the first Democratic incumbent to lose the presidential bid in nearly a century, but Reagan won in a landslide, logging 489 electoral votes to Carter's 49. What's more, Reagan took 51 percent of the popular vote (44 million votes)—compared to Carter's 41 percent (35 million). Third party candidate, John Anderson earned the remaining popular votes. Although Reagan won by a landslide, it should be noted that the election also suffered from a noticeable lack of votes. Only 28 percent of registered voters participated. This poor turnout symbolized both the success of Reagan conservative politics given that he did in fact win and the far-reaching failures of a broken Democratic party. After Election Day, the foremost question was, "Would the Reagan Revolution really turn around a struggling United States"?

Reganomics

Reagan was well known for his economic conservativism. Taxes quickly landed on the chopping block. On August 1, 1981, Reagan signed into law the Economic Recovery Tax Act, which slashed personal income tax by 25 percent over three years. It also brought down the maximum tax rate to 50 percent (from 70 percent), and, much to the pleasure of more wealthy Americans, it decreased the capital gains tax by a third. "Reaganomics" was born. These efforts represented Reagan's push for "supply-side economics." This economic theory suggested that free enterprise (free of both taxes and regulations) would lead to greater productivity on many fronts (e.g., the supply of goods and services, the labor supply, etc). This macroeconomic theory was founded on the belief that economic growth could be spurred by removing obstacles for the production (i.e., supply) of both goods and services. By way of lowered marginal taxes and lessened regulations the private sector indeed would tap such incentives to keep the supply flow going via private investments, thereby improving employment, productivity, and output. In this scenario, free trade is essential. In turn, customers could benefit from lower prices enabled by a greater supply (sometimes called "trickle-down economics").

Reagan 2

Republicans certainly fueled the presidential campaign by aggressively touting Reagan's social and economic conservativism as an antidote to the economic and political ills of the 1970s, but they also had some demographic help. Demographic shifts worked in Reagan's favor by helping his unique brand of staunch conservativism appear more palatable—and possible—on a national scale. America's aging population was one factor that worked in Reagan's favor. Many conservative-leaning older Americans retired and spread out geographically in the South and West, thereby widening the country's potentially conservative landscape. Religion also played a major role in political realignment. The religious right (as evidenced by Jerry Falwell and his Moral Majority and the Christian Coalition) was firmly at work in the 1970s, promoting free enterprise, small government, a ban on abortion, school-based prayer, and moral absolutisms. Reagan's campaign spoke to these concerns, resulting in massive support from the evangelical demographic. Furthermore, Reagan's message appealed to conservative Catholics, who had traditionally been aligned with the Democratic Party. Lastly, feminism, which had made far-reaching strides during the 1970s, experienced an overt backlash fueled by a right-wing Republican activist named Phyllis Schlafly. The Reagan campaign's emphasis on cultural issues persuaded many voters, who were concerned about an America they viewed as increasingly liberal and lacking in moral direction, to seek new leadership under Reagan.

Rosa Parks arrested

Rosa Parks refuses to give up her seat to a white man when the bus driver asks her to. Her stand triggers the Montgomery Bus Boycott in Alabama.

March on Washington

Singing "We Shall Overcome," more than 200,000 people of all races marched to the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, DC, on August 28, 1963. The marchers had gathered to show their support for civil rights and to urge Congress to pass President Kennedy's Civil Rights Bill. The March on Washington was the biggest and most important demonstration of the early 1960s, and the largest civil rights demonstration in US history. The most enduring speech of the day was Dr. King's "I Have a Dream" speech, delivered from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial. King's words that day are considered one of the greatest US speeches ever given. Experience the march and speech through movie footage and a second time via audio recording. First, watch some footage of the demonstration. Then, listen to the audio alone. Take notes, and use what you see and hear to complete the Lesson Activity.

Aging americ

Social Security, in particular, has been called the "third rail" of American politics; discussing changes to the system is considered damaging for politicians. Many older Americans disagree with such changes, and they tend to vote at rates far higher than younger citizens. Yet some kind of change is needed. Social Security is projected to run through its reserve of funds in 2041 and Medicare in 2019. Will Americans decide to raise the age for benefits, cut benefits, or increase taxes to support these very popular programs? Having an aging population is, it turns out, not only a problem in the United States. Read about the aging of the world's population and related challenges, opportunities, and policy implications. Are there any ideas that you think might apply to the United States? How will the United States and the world cope with the coming aging of society? Did you learn anything in this discussion that surprises you? One problem that affects everyone but is of special concern to older Americans, is the increasing cost of health care. In the 30 years since the creation of Medicare, the share of our Gross National Product (GNP) that is spent on the health care of Americans over 65 has more than doubled. In comparison, the share of the GNP spent on educating the young has not grown at the same pace. Health care reform is another area where Americans will have to continue to carefully weigh the costs and the benefits.

Iran Contra

Started by Jimmy Carter after the Soviets invaded Afghanistan in late 1979, American support of anticommunist factions in the area continued throughout both Reagan terms. United States supported anti-Soviet Islamic fighters called mujahadeen, including Osama bin Laden at one point. Perhaps the most noted efforts to stave off Communism around the world were what became known as the Iran-Contra scandal. In 1986, a Beirut paper claimed that the United States shipped 508 antitank missiles to Iran, a non-friendly country, according to the United States. Reagan admitted to the sale, which he rationalized was intended for "moderate elements" that were pro-American. Then news came that the National Security Council aide Lt. Colonel Oliver North diverted profits from the missile sales to Nicaraguan Contras, an anticommunist group fighting against the Sandinistas. This move was prohibited by the Boland Amendment. Some important classified documents went missing and/or were changed. These events were in fact illegal; ultimately, 14 federal officials, including the Secretary of Defense, were indicted. In the end, only one person, John Poindexter, National Security Advisor to Reagan, served prison time, and his convictions were later reversed.

Reganomics 4

Taxes represented just one piece of Reagan's economic puzzle. He concurrently ramped up military defense spending. His most noted defense effort was the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), which Reagan proposed in March 1983. Dubbed "Star Wars," the SDI program was an antimissile program designed to shoot down any launched Soviet missiles before they struck their targets. This initiative cost would cost, by some estimate, nearly $100 billion over its lifecycle. So while some upper middle-class and affluent Americans may have had more money in their personal pockets due to tax cuts and economic deregulations, the federal government did not. In fact, the federal deficit skyrocketed. In 1982 alone, it doubled. Although Reagan continued to champion smaller government and reduced domestic spending, the related cost of running the federal government reflected the price tag of a large government. His ideals for smaller government never materialized. Over the course of Reagan's 2 terms, the federal deficit increased by over 11 percent and 9 percent respectively.

Env. Reform and Disasters in 1970

The 1960s was a time of economic prosperity and social upheaval in the United States. Large numbers of baby boomers, born in the aftermath of World War II, came of age in a time of great prosperity. Baby boomers reacted to the consumerism and conservatism of their parents' generation with protests over civil rights, the Vietnam War, and, eventually, the environment. In 1962, Rachel Carson, a biologist who had worked for the US Fish and Wildlife Service, published Silent Spring. In this book, Carson brought to startling life the effects of the insecticide DDT, used to kill insects that harmed crops. Carson wrote of the destruction DDT brought to the bird population and its progression through the food chain. She predicted a "silent spring" from the songbird deaths the chemical was causing. At the time, DDT was widely used on large, commercial farms. In 1959, nearly 80 million pounds of DDT were applied in the United States. Carson's book, with its combination of literary style and scientific fact, caught the attention of the nation, becoming a best seller. Its publication, which led to threats of lawsuits from pesticide companies, is often heralded as one of the formative events of the modern environmental movement. A year after Silent Spring was published, President John F. Kennedy established an advisory committee on environmental issues. Many states banned the use of DDT, and the federal government followed suit in 1972.

Doctrine of Enlargement

The Doctrine of Enlargement was very similar to Bush's New World Order. It favored multilateral peacekeeping and international alliances, but Clinton added the caveat that intervention in the face of tyranny or injustice would be pursued "when practical" and when it would not put US interests or national security in jeopardy. "Practical" meant that it would not be costly or entail risk of high levels of loss of American lives. Like Bush, Clinton favored a multinational or multilateral approach. President Clinton had some early successes in foreign policy while working out his long-term approach. In 1993, Congress ratified the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which had been negotiated by President Bush. The agreement added Mexico to the US-Canadian free trade zone. Many feared that the treaty would lead to the loss of US jobs to lower-wage workers in Mexico, but Clinton felt opening more trade in Mexican markets would increase prosperity in the United States. Also during Clinton's first term, he enlisted the support of former Senator George Mitchell to work with factions in Northern Ireland to secure a peace agreement, which would come to fruition in 1998. Clinton also worked to mediate peace talks between Israelis and Palestinians, hosting talks and helping negotiate several agreements to move the peace process forward, though he did not achieve the goal of lasting peace during his time in office.

US Drug Policy

The use and abuse of addictive drugs known as controlled substances emerged as another US social issue in the late twentieth century. In 1970, Congress passed the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act. This law established categories of controlled substances. With these new definitions, President Nixon declared a "war on drugs" in 1971. The war aimed to reduce demand for addictive substances because they were thought to be associated with an increase in crime and poverty. Strategies included imprisonment for people involved in the production, sale, or use of any drug defined as a controlled substance. In 1988, President Ronald Reagan established the Office of National Drug Control Policy, a department within the executive branch. Its role was to advise the president on all legal and health issues related to US drug policy. Under the presidencies of the 1990s and early 2000s, drug policy changed little, and critics began to argue that the war on drugs was failing. In fact, even with tough laws and high imprisonment rates, drug use continued to grow. In 2011 alone, the FBI reported over 1.5 million arrests for drug related violations. In 2012, the US government updated its policy to focus more on the treatment of drug abuse rather than imprisonment. pills, money, handcuffs, and a judge's gavel

Israel Palestine

The Israeli-Palestinian crisis has plagued the Middle East and the United States for decades. Although he was unable to bring about a full, lasting peace between the Israelis and the Palestinians, President Clinton did create an atmosphere for dialogue that helped the peace process move forward, including the signing of the Oslo Accords in 1993 and 1995. Over time, conflict between the Israelis and Palestinians returned, but President Clinton showed the world the US commitment to peace in the Middle East. Watch the video to see a news clip of the signing of the first Oslo Accord in 1993, mediated by the United States. Note, in particular, the historic handshake between PLO Leader Arafat and Israeli Prime Minister Rabin.

Missouri v. Canada

The NAACP wins the first of three important desegregation cases. Missouri now had to provide an equal education in law for African Americans, even if that meant creating a whole new institution.

Brown v. Board of Ed

The Supreme Court ruling that finally struck down Plessy v. Ferguson came in 1954. Cases challenging school segregation in four states—Kansas, Delaware, South Carolina, Virginia—and in the District of Columbia had come before the Court, which considered them together in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. Clearly, racial discrimination in the public realm was an issue that had to be addressed. This time, the court decided unanimously in favor of the black plaintiffs. Chief Justice Earl Warren wrote the landmark opinion. In ruling on Brown, Warren went directly back to Plessy, using recent NAACP wins in cases such as Sweatt, McLaurin, and Gaines. What is striking in the decision is that he concludes that segregated schools by their very nature can't be equal. Even if the facilities, the teachers, and the books were of the same quality, denying blacks the opportunity to learn with whites in itself implies inequality between the races. Warren concludes, "In the field of public education, the doctrine of 'separate but equal' has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal." The Brown decision was the beginning of a major social change—integrated public schools all over the nation. Discrimination in education was finally outlawed, but changing the hearts of a segregated society would take time and painstaking effort.

End of communist regime

The end of the Communist regime was marked by freedom movements through the Soviet Union and Soviet-held areas. In Poland the Solidarity movement, led by Lech Walesa, succeeded in forming the first noncommunist government in the Soviet bloc in 1989. The Berlin Wall, the iconic symbol of the Iron Curtain came down that fall, paving the way for Germany's reunification—no small feat by a country literally demarcated for nearly three decades by the communist East and the democratic West. By 1989, the Soviet Union witnessed the first-ever free national elections, and the global political landscape has never been the same. In 1991, the Soviet Union was officially dissolved as once-Soviet republics declared their independence, thereby ending the Cold War once and for all.

9/11 morning

The morning of September 11, 19 terrorists boarded four planes heading out of Boston, MA; Newark, NJ; and Washington, DC. The terrorists—all members of al-Qaeda—in a well-coordinated plan, commandeered the planes and changed their flight paths to destinations as yet unknown. The planes had been carefully selected based on their planned routes because they were large and would have thousands of gallons of fuel on board.

HIV/AIDS

The year 1981 marked a significant turning point in the United States. On June 5, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) published a report about a group of patients who had died from an unknown combination of illnesses in the Los Angeles areas. Doctors continued to study the findings of this report, and in 1982, the CDC defined the disease: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). Further studies recognized that AIDS was caused by a virus known as the human immunodeficiency virus, or HIV. HIV spread from person to person through the exchange of infected bodily fluids. The early unknown characteristics of the disease meant that people were not well educated in prevention methods. As a result, an HIV/AIDS pandemic engulfed the country and the world during the 1980s and early 1990s. Scientists have not found a cure, but better education, medicine, and continued research have made HIV/AIDS a survivable diagnosis.

Reaganomics 2

Theoretically, lower income taxes would spur Americans to work, and lower marginal taxes on interest and capital gains would encourage personal and private savings. These incentives then would raise private investment in capital markets, thereby bolstering supply production and labor. Read more about supply-side economics in general and Reagan's supply-side economics in particular. Reagan's economic call for Americans to work, earn, and invest placed the burden on average Americans for their own success or failure. This push for personal effort reflected Reagan's belief that, "Government is not the solution to our problem"; rather, "government is the problem." Accordingly, espousing government deregulation as a way to enable tax cuts and to generate supply-side economics, Reagan cut many social welfare and education programs in an attempt to dismantle the welfare state. For the country's poorest citizens, the results were devastating. Increasing numbers of struggling Americans lived on the streets, with the nation reaching an epidemic level of homelessness. Other domestic institutions, such as public schools, also struggled with decreased funding. In all, Reagan slashed domestic spending by $40 billion.

Foreign Policy

There are multiple ways of looking at foreign policy, and multiple arguments both for and against one country's, or a coalition of countries', right to intervene in the domestic affairs of another country. Humanitarian interests, economic interests, and interests of global security all play a part. Read these articles describing approaches to foreign policy and consider the questions associated with each. Take notes as you read. Article One: a discussion of idealism v. realism (Realpolitik) How did Presidents George H. W. Bush and Bill Clinton use idealism in the addresses you read or watched throughout this lesson? How did their actions reflect the concept of global security and expansion of democracy? In which foreign policy decisions did they focus more on realism, or Realpolitik, than idealism? Article Two: a discussion of military involvement in Kosovo How did American involvement in Kosovo reflect a multilateral approach to foreign policy? How did it reflect a focus on Realpolitik?

McLaurin v. Oklahoma

This year, on the same day, the NAACP won two more victories on the road to school desegregation. The US Supreme Court ruled that the Oklahoma Law School could not force a black student to eat and work separately from whites. The court also stated that the University of Texas Law School could not bar a black student from its main campus.

Effects of Climate Change

Though some scientists remain skeptical, most now agree that Earth's global temperature is rising. Most also agree that carbon dioxide released from burning fossils fuels is a significant cause of that increase. Further, they predict a continued rise in temperatures over the next hundred years, even if strong conservation methods are put in place. Take a look at the EPA's report on climate change indicators. Click the slideshow to view the report's key findings. Effects of Climate Change Scientists have also identified risks and problems associated with a significant rise in global temperature. Some of the first effects of climate change were seen in the polar regions, where glaciers in both Antarctica and the Arctic began melting. Water from the melting ice caps has caused a rise in the oceans' water levels. Rising waters and storm surges have already displaced some coastal Alaskan natives. The melting ice caps also have threatened the lives of polar bears and the breeding grounds of seals. Climatologists predict rises in sea level of up to five feet over the next century. Such an increase could cause flooding in high-population coastal cities such as New York and Mumbai, India. In addition, it could disrupt fishing and agriculture and cause extreme weather and storms. Explore some of the strategies the United States has developed to address problems resulting from climate change.

Earth Day

Throughout the 1960s, environmentalism began to grow, particularly among young adults. The popularity of Carson's Silent Spring gave Americans a new way of looking at the interconnectedness of species on the planet; the fledgling science was named ecology. Between 1965 and 1968, President Lyndon Johnson helped pass bills to control air and water pollution and protect endangered species. He stated that the "air we breathe, our water, our soil, and wildlife, are being blighted by poisons and chemicals which are the by-products of technology and industry," and he called for a "new conservation." In 1967, Greenpeace, originally called the Don't Make a Wave Committee, was founded. Two years later the Friends of the Earth formed. Both international organizations advocate for the protection of the environment. The growing concerns about the environment came to a head on April 22, 1970, when an estimated 20 million people across the nation celebrated what would become an annual event, Earth Day. The first Earth Day celebrations were organized as grassroots events, meaning no one central organization directed the effort. The event was inspired by Wisconsin senator Gaylord Nelson and was designed to send a message to national leaders to take action on a number of environmental issues.

Iranian Hostage Crisis

To some degree, the Iran hostage crisis was an event that defined the Carter Presidency. After Iranian supporters of Ayatollah Khomeini overran the US embassy in Tehran, Iran, and took the hostages, Americans watched anxiously to see how the crisis would end. Whether or not President Carter was to blame for the crisis is debatable, but as the months went by with no solution for the hostage situation, many Americans began to look negatively on Carter for this catastrophe. Although the hostage crisis wasn't the sole event that prevented Carter from winning reelection in 1980, it certainly hurt his chances and helped Ronald Reagan win the presidential election. When the Iran hostage crisis ended, Americans breathed a sigh of relief. Watch the video to see the hostages' reactions after leaving Iran and ending their long ordeal.

Carter and the Environment

Today's environmental movement has its roots in the 1960s. Specifically, in 1962, the book Silent Spring by writer Rachel Carson helped launch the movement by exposing the detrimental effects of pesticides on the environment and on humans. The release of Silent Spring facilitated the 1972 ban on DDT, which Carson documented as having caused reproductive problems. Though controversial among some scientists and other critics, the book led to widespread scrutiny of companies' environmentally harmful practices. Because of Carson's book, Americans were primed to take action over the Love Canal fiasco. Tests taken of the land near Niagara Falls, New York, revealed in the 1970s that the area was heavily contaminated by chemicals that Hooker Chemical and Plastics Corporation had been blatantly dumping for two decades. High rates of cancer, miscarriages, and birth defects sparked support for helping residents of this area, known as Love Canal. In 1978, President Carter assigned federal funds to relocate families affected by the Love Canal contamination. What's more, in 1980, he called the situation a national emergency. And it was: residents were essentially living on top of a poisonous landfill. This incident was far-reaching, as it led to Carter's establishment of a federal "Superfund" to clean up similarly polluted areas throughout the United States.

Africa

When Clinton first entered office, conflict was already raging in Somalia, where the government had collapsed in the early part of 1991. President Bush had sent American troops in as part of a United Nations effort to provide hunger relief. Bush stated clearly in his speech to the American people that the mission was not intended to interfere in the politics of the country. The troops were successful, but without further intervention, the situation in Somalia did not improve. In 1993, following a United Nations-directed attempt to stop attacks on relief workers and troops, Somali rebels captured, tortured, and killed 18 American troops, wounding 84 others. Clinton withdrew American forces in 1994 without having solved the country's political and tribal problems. People questioned the role of the United States in conflicts or missions where there was no specific US interest—and in particular they questioned the US role in multinational efforts, where control rested with non-US command. In Rwanda, another African country, mass genocide committed by the government in power began in 1994. The Tutsi were under assault by Hutu. The two ethnic groups, despite their similar language, history, and traditions, had been building an animosity for years. When the Hutu President of Rwanda was killed by a rocket attack shooting down his aircraft, the Hutus in Rwanda began a mass murder that would result in approximately 800,000 murders. The United Nations, the United States, and the world stood by and did little to intervene. When visiting Rwanda several years later, Clinton delivered an apologetic speech to the country. Facing heavy criticism for the loss of American life in Somalia, in spite of his goal for America to be a humanitarian force under his Doctrine of Enlargement, Clinton was hesitant to risk American lives in a country where American interest was not at risk. He later regretted it.

Significant Events of the Civil Rights Movt

When John F. Kennedy gave his inaugural address in January of 1961, millions of African Americans in the South lived as second class citizens, unable to drink from the same water fountains as whites, eat at the same restaurants, or attend the same schools. Though the 14th Amendment made African Americans full citizens of the United States after the Civil War, Jim Crow laws throughout the South—backed by the "separate- but-equal" Supreme Court ruling of 1896—mandated segregation. Yes, African Americans were citizens, but in the South, they were decidedly second class ones. Though the 15th Amendment had enfranchised black men nearly a hundred years before, racist polling laws and violent intimidation made it extremely difficult and dangerous for African Americans in the South to exercise those voting rights. Yet by Kennedy's death in 1963, the tide was finally turning. Martin Luther King and the other civil rights leaders were using nonviolent direct action to draw the nation's attention to the grave violence and injustices in the South. In the Kennedy Administration, particularly in Attorney General Bobby Kennedy, blacks finally found federal authorities who were willing to act.

First attack on the trade center

When a grand jury in the United States indicted bin Laden in absentia for his roles in the deaths of US troops in Somalia and the bombings in Africa, the Clinton administration launched missile attacks into Sudan and Afghanistan, targeting what were believed to be a chemical weapons factory and training camps, respectively. Al-Qaeda was not to be deterred. Two years later, in 2000, a small boat carrying a bomb blew a hole in a US destroyer, the Cole, in Yemen. First Attack on the World Trade Center One of the first known terror attacks by a foreign agent on United States soil occurred in 1993 in the underground garage of the World Trade Center, in New York City, when an explosion was set off at the base of one of the two towers. A conspirator was reported to have said the goal was to collapse one tower into the other, killing thousands. Instead, six people were killed and several hundred were injured. The evacuation of 50,000 trade center employees took place. The attack was traced to an Egyptian Muslim extremist, and a total of five were arrested, with three convictions. Read this Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) account of the 1993 attack. Only eight years later, thousands were again evacuated from the center, but the death toll was much higher this time.

Introduction

When you think of the 1970s, what comes to mind? Disco dancing? Do you envision John Travolta grooving his way across the dance floor in the iconic Saturday Night Fever? Maybe masses of teenagers wearing once counter-cultural bell bottoms, maxi dresses, and platform shoes? Or does your mind run to tales of the wholesome blended family of The Brady Bunch? During the 1970s, the Declaration of Independence had its 200-year anniversary. Meanwhile, in US electoral politics, Americans were treated with news about scandal. Indeed, scandal is the one word that sums up the transition from the Richard Nixon presidency to the Gerald Ford and Jimmy Carter administrations of the 1970s. As you have studied, the Watergate affair had a momentous impact on the American psyche. It was dramatic and fueled among Americans a distrust of the federal government.

Collapse, reunification and Nuclear Arms

While the Chinese government's response to pro-democracy movements was harsh and intolerant, in other parts of the communist world, economics called for a different approach. The Soviet Union, under Mikhail Gorbachev, was moving more and more toward economic and political restructuring. Beginning with the collapse of the Berlin Wall in 1989, communism in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union was giving way to the benefits of international trade and a need for economic reform. East and West Germany were reunified—with the participation of both countries and the four World War II Allies (the United States, the Soviet Union, England, and France)—quickly and with little strife. Bush's response again confounded his party and others in the United States for its lack of zeal, but Bush saw that exhibiting conceit or self-satisfaction might alienate party leaders who still maintained power and influence in these countries—potential new allies in a changing world. Indeed, when Communist leaders tried to oust Gorbachev in a coup, Bush used his foreign relations contacts and diplomacy to forge a coalition that refused to acknowledge the legitimacy of the new Soviet government. The failure of the coup sped the independence movement of Soviet republics and opened the door to arms negotiations and a dramatic reduction in nuclear arms by both the United States and the Soviet Union via the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (1991). Read more about the treaty.

Victory in Iraq

Within two months, Bush declared victory as the Iraqi regime collapsed. The conflict did not end in May, however. It was seven months before Saddam Hussein, the dictator of Iraq, was captured. Additionally, rival factions in Iraq quickly began a struggle for power and against United States occupation. An insurgency developed that cost more than a thousand US lives by September, and the backlash was imminent. As had happened in Afghanistan decades earlier, Islamic jihadists came from other countries to repel the occupation. This time, the occupier was the United States and its coalition allies. The US departments of Defense and State could not agree on either a rebuilding strategy or an exit plan. Car and suicide bombings, ambushes of US soldiers, and kidnappings and torture of non-Iraqi civilians became daily occurrences. By fall 2003, public opinion was turning against the war, and those who supported it, especially Bush and his administration, were under political fire. When no weapons of mass destruction (WMD) were found and information surfaced that some of the reports of WMD were unconfirmed speculation, or in some cases false, the fallout intensified. In 2004, the situation only worsened when evidence, including photographs, surfaced of US military mistreatment of prisoners in a Baghdad prison. Abu Ghraib became a Middle East symbol of the evil United States, and people at home were shocked and discouraged by the images.

Energy Crisis

You may think the clamor for energy efficiency and gasping over rising gasoline prices are recent phenomena. If so, think again. Gas and oil prices soared during Ford's administration as a result of the first energy crisis. That crisis started in October 1973 when the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) announced an oil embargo "in response to the US decision to re-supply the Israeli military" during the 1973 Arab-Israeli War (the "Yom Kippur War"). This embargo was a very big deal for a nation that depended heavily on overseas supplies, and the embargo continued until March 18, 1974. Fueled by the quadrupling of oil prices, the crisis prompted Congress to impose fuel-efficiency standards for cars. Imagine what our current carbon dioxide emissions would be like had even more and even bigger cars puffed their ways unchecked down America's highways and byways for the last several decades? The oil crisis—which was symbolized by unending lines at the gas pumps—took its toll on many already struggling Americans.

The Conservation Movement and Environmental Reform

here can be nothing in the world more beautiful than the Yosemite, the groves of giant sequoias and redwoods, the Canyon of the Colorado, the Canyon of the Yellowstone, the Three Tetons; and our people should see to it that they are preserved for their children and their children's children forever, with their majestic beauty all unmarred. —Theodore Roosevelt, 1903 In the era of continued westward expansion after the Civil War, few regulations governed what could be done with the nation's land and natural resources. During the Progressive Era, conservation groups led largely by hunters and other recreational sportsmen began to form. They advocated for wilderness preservation, hunting regulations, and programs to manage natural resources such as rivers, minerals, forests, and natural wonders. The establishment of the first national park in Yellowstone in 1872 was a world landmark in the conservation movement. The move was sparked by geologists who were sent to survey the land around Yellowstone and returned with passionate pleas for its protection. The establishment of Yellowstone as a national park led to the passage of the Forest Reserve Act in 1891. The act gave presidents the ability to set aside forest reserves on land in the public domain. The idea of preserving and protecting land found a strong advocate in Theodore Roosevelt. As president, Roosevelt made extensive use of the Forest Reserve Act. He established 150 national forests, 51 wildlife refuges, 4 national game preserves, 5 national parks, and 18 national monuments. The total size of protected forests in the United States quadrupled from about 43 million acres to 194 million acres during Roosevelt's presidency.

The Sunbelt

igration is not a new phenomenon in US history. Westward expansion was one of the hallmarks of the young nation in the nineteenth century. View a map of the trails west, and consider whether internal migration is a defining characteristic of the United States. Another important movement of people was the Great Migration of African Americans out of the South during and after World War I. World War II was an even greater spur to migration for the whole population. War industries drew workers to booming cities in the South and West. Wartime defense plants, shipyards, aircraft factories, chemical plants, and oil refineries fueled the growth of the southern and western states and also served as the basis for postwar industrial development. Low wages, weak unions, states with right-to-work laws, and low taxes in the South and Southeast also contributed to a major population shift. US industry moved away from the old Rust Belt of the North and Midwest and relocated to the region known as the Sun Belt.

Gulf War

n the Gulf War, codenamed Operation Desert Storm, President George H.W. Bush responded to reckless aggression by Iraq when it invaded neighboring Kuwait. President Bush achieved this goal using a multinational force with minimal Allied casualities. The conflict lasted only a few weeks and strengthened the view for some people that the United States was a fair, global force for good. Nevertheless, Saddam Hussein remained in power after the conflict, and continued to cause issues for the international community throughout the 1990s until the United States invaded Iraq to remove Hussein from power in 2003. Watch the video to see President George H.W. Bush's television speech about the first war with Iraq in 1991.

Bush Doctrine

ush announced that the United States would protect itself, and that it would do so alone if other countries were unwilling to support such action. This represented a clear shift from the policies of the 1990s in which both sitting presidents acted almost exclusively multilaterally with other nations, the United Nations, or NATO. Additionally, in what would become more than a decade-long series of conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq, Bush would engage what he and his advisors perceived as imminent threats by removing a dictator from power and engaging in years-long occupations in an effort to rebuild the destroyed nations' governments. Bush would, as you will learn, take heavy criticism both here and abroad, for the US handling of the situation in Iraq. Critics accused him of taking a unilateral approach, and several long-standing alliances were badly strained over disagreement on the issue. Read these articles on the concepts of unilateralism and multilateralism. Take notes as you read, and then consider the questions that follow. Article One: article on American multilateralism Article Two: article on balancing multilateralism with unilateralism How is President George W. Bush's philosophy on foreign affairs similar to and different from those of his father's and Bill Clinton? In what instances of the presidencies of the 1990s did Bush and Clinton use more of a unilateral approach and why?