FSHD 200 Exam #1
gametes
Each contributes half the genetic material - 1: ovum - 2: sperm
EEG
Electrical impulses (+ time, - location) - *Good* at determining *when* an electrical impulses occur, but *not so good* at *where* it occurs
macrosystem
Cultural impact on individuals (ex: political views, religious views, governmental influences) - Government could influence individual child's development
sensation
Detecting *physical* stimuli > brain - objective
proximodistal principle
Development proceeds from center - Organs, etc. develop from middle of body first
cephalocaudal principle
Development progresses head downward - Huge alien head progresses to normal head
psychosocial theory
Erickson - 3 stages - Trust vs. Mistrust *(birth - 18 months)* - Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt *(18 months - 3 years)* - Initiative vs. Guilt *(3 years - 6 years)*
qualitative change
Example: the conservation of liquid task - One kid in a given stage is going to look different in a task than a kid at a more advanced stage
social-cognitive learning theories
Learn by the imitation of others - Reward (or lack thereof) matters (ex: Bandura's Bobo study) - Ex: Adult had violent actions toward the bobo doll while children were watching; children went into a room with a bobo doll and were violent towards it. Children that did not see the adult violence did not use violence towards the doll.
dynamical systems theory
Mastering individual components and linking them - Muscle development, cognitive development, time
A-not-B error
More advanced than object permanence - Know which blanket the toy is being hid under, not confused - Even though mom hid it in one blanket the first two times, and a different one the next, the baby still knew where it went
locomotion
Motor development can be completely different for every child - movement or the ability to move from one place to another
polygenic inheritance
Multiple pairs of genes determine trait - ex: personality, intelligence
motion parallax
Nearby objects move through visual field faster - Ex: looking out the window of a train; trees close to track are blurry, mountains/trees in the distance are clear
natural selection
a recipe, for example, a bird: variation* = wingspan and speed; heritability* = fur color; selection* = type of beak for certain types of nuts for survival
genetic bottleneck
a sharp reduction in the size of a population due to environmental events (such as earthquakes, floods, fires, disease, or droughts) or human activities (such as genocide).
hypothesis (2)
a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. It is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in a study - Hypothesis is more specific in a specific part of cognition - Teens who play FarCry 4 will behave more aggressively than teens who do not.
memory in infancy
can't hold memories very long
nutrition
key to physical growth
schemes
mental models of how the world works
identical (monozygotic) twins
more identical DNA than fraternal
mesoderm
muscles, bones, blood, circulatory system
punishment
never want to see this behavior again, decrease future behavior by punishing
dependent variable
not manipulated; output (ex: level of aggression depends on what type of game is being played)
Lamarck
- species progress over time, - animals inherit characteristics from prior generations, - interested in the giraffe, interested in struggles in the environment and struggles to survive
correlation coefficient
-1 to 1; r = .9 r = -.9 - *Every time* A decreases, B decreases = 1 (not negative)
psychoanalytic awareness
"iceberg effect" - Above water: conscious awareness - Preconscious level: just below the surface Unaware, but retrievable - Unconscious: largest section, farthest underwater; Contains memories that are irretrievable, yet very important; Bad memories that were pushed down to the unconscious level
developmental discontinuity
"quick" - you can clearly see the developments occurring in something. One stage to another in a kid. // Butterfly has clear stages to go through in order to develop into a butterfly. Each stage is clear and distinct and can easily be seen
zone of proximal development
(Vygotsky) Space in between what a child can do independently vs. with a peer or parental figure - What they can do alone, what they can do with an adult
germinal
*(0-2 weeks)* First prenatal stage - Start: fertilization - Gamete to ovum - End: implantation - Zygote burrows into uterine wall
primary circular reactions (2)
*(1 to 4 months)* - Repeat chance actions involving own body, combine actions - ex: repeat thumb sucking
tertiary circular reactions (5)
*(12 to 18 months)* - "Experiment" by varying conditions - Piaget viewed infants as mini scientists
autonomy vs shame/doubt
*(18 months to 3 years)* - stage 2 of psychosocial theory - "I want to explore!" - + = self-sufficient, want to explore environment; - = doubts, protective parents, not allowed to explore, left with doubts in their abilities
new means through mental combinations (6)
*(18 to 24 months)* - Mental representations; demonstrate causality - Allow child to remember past events
embryonic
*(2-8 weeks)* Second prenatal stage - Major organs through three primary germ layers
initiative vs guilt
*(3 to 6 years)* - stage 3 of psychosocial theory - "Let me do it! Ugh, I failed! I should be able to do this." - Ex: dressing themselves: struggling with tying shoes, want to be independent but not quite there yet - + = initiate actions; - = guilt, guilty that you can't carry out these actions
secondary circular reactions (3)
*(4 to 8 months)* - Repeat chance actions involving environment - Interaction with the environment - Ex: Kick the mobile above head with foot because mobile is part of the environment; Hit a toy to make it play music
coordination of secondary circular reactions (4)
*(8 to 12 months)* Goal-orientated actions involving multiple components - Ex: Peek-a-boo; child thinks you are disappearing then reappearing
fetal
*(8 weeks-birth)* third prenatal stage - Development of limbs, fingers, toes, spine - Movement of limbs and body - Heartbeat - Size: 16 weeks: 4 oz.; Birth: 7-8 pounds (approx.)
trust vs mistrust
*(birth - 18 months)* - stage 1 of psychosocial theory - Beyond conscious control - Have cognitive abilities, but dependent on those around them - + = trust; - = fear of others
sensorimotor stage
*(birth - 2 years)* - Relationship between body and environment - divided into 6 substages
simple reflexes (1)
*(birth to 1 month)* - crucial for physical and cognitive development
stepping
*(birth to 2 months)* - If you lean the infant forward they will take a step
rooting
*(birth to ~ 3 weeks)* - Breastfeeding - Stimulation = rubbing against the cheek
palmar
*(birth to ~ 6 months)* - Grasps fingers of adults
age of viability
*~22 weeks*: capable of sustaining life - Bare minimum of structures but able to survive - Neural development accelerates - part of fetal stage
stage 1 labor
- Contractions (~30 seconds per 10 minutes) - Cervix widens - Longest stage
stage 2 labor
- Crowning, ends with birth - Length: ~90 minutes
misconceptions surrounding evolutionary theory
- Evolution isn't intentional (Variations benefitting survival/reproduction NOT intention) - Evolution isn't "Quick" - Human Behavior isn't Purely Genetic (Adaptations require environmental input Ex: callus on hands) - Human Behavior isn't Fixed (Knowledge is power: Wear gloves to avoid callus')
methods
- Identical twins (monozygotic) - Fraternal (dizygotic) don't share identical copies of genetic information, approx. 50% of genetic information like a typical sibling. - adoption
common themes of human development
- Nature vs Nurture - Developmental Continuity vs Discontinuity - Critical vs Sensitive Periods
placenta
- Nutrients and oxygen; transported by umbilical cord - Sustains life - Dangers of umbilical cord wrapping around neck, and cannot choose what nutrients are provided; along with ingestion of negative substances (smoking, alcohol, etc.)
Freud's psychoanalytic theory
- Theory that lacks evidence and support - Personality based - Early life experience is important to a child's personality, first few years of life - Unconscious is important
stage 3 labor
- Umbilical cord and placenta - Shortest stage
criticisms of Piaget
- Underestimates ability - Focuses on motor abilities - Ignores others' contributions toward development - Ignored environment outside of the child (Parents, grandparents, teachers, etc.) - Lack of universality
reaching/grasping
4 months = rudimentary reach/grasp - Ex: sticky mittens
experiments
A researcher is manipulating/controlling variables - Ex: a variable might be a video game they are playing (aka farcry 4, minecraft, or crossword) - Gain ability to infer cause (x caused y)
disequilibrium
Accommodation > assimilation (more accommodation heavy) - Discard existing theory and start from ground up - Sign that transition to next cognitive stage is nearing
infant states
Alert inactivity vs. Waking activity Crying vs. Sleeping
vision
Analogous to adult at ~6 months - Dilemma: Which Mobile to Buy? - Newborns (<2mo) look at figures way more than colors, simple shapes - ≥ 2mo can be introduced to objects and colors
equilibrium
Assimilation heavy
operant conditioning
Behavior + consequence >>> future behavior - Inhibit a behavior, have a consequence from that behavior - Ex: whiteboard on a wall in an office, child sees parent "writing on the wall" so the child doodles on his bedroom wall with no whiteboard
fMRI
Blood flow (- time, + location) *Not good* at figuring out *timing*, but *good at location* (basically opposite of EEG)
teratogens
Can cause abnormal prenatal development - Anything that can potentially cause abnormal prenatal development is categorized as this - Embryonic is the most risky period to potential (blank)
microsystem
Children's immediate environment (ex: home, family, peers, teachers) - Can have more than one (school vs home)
visual expansion
Closer objects = more retinal area - Ex: If something comes towards your face you will lean back
mesosystem
Connects "units" of microsystem - Example of two different microsystems interacting = dad has lots of work projects to do, but has to bring his kid trick or treating when he gets home (two micros crossing)
sleep cycles and environment
Continuous sleep increases with age: - Newborns: 3 hour increments - 4 months: 5-6 hours - 12 months: 8 hours - Newborns are sleeping approx. 16 hours a day with lots of REM
behavioral genetics
Contributions of nature and nurture for behavior/characteristics - Use studies of twins because they have identical genes
zygote
Fertilized ovum, conception
psychodynamic theories
Freud + Erickson
chromosomes
Genetic blueprint; contain genes - 23 pairs (46 total) 23 from each parent - 23rd pair (X Y) = male
naturalistic observation
Go out in the world and view things naturally - Look at a kids behavior after playing violent video games - Problems: people might act different if someone is watching them, what you want to happen might not happen
example of Freud's personality structure
Halloween candy ID: says gobble down all the candy Superego: says I should stick to my diet Ego: one piece won't really hurt.
chronosystem
Historical events' impact on development, Time when child develops is highly impactful - Ex: child is born in 2008, recession happens, impact of recession made the child have less financial resources - Ex: child born in 80's with technology vs. people born today with all of the new technology
invariance
In order to go through Piaget's stages, you have to go through all of them in order and cannot skip over one
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory
Interactions with adults and peers integral - Help of adults can help the child's developmental level increase
reflexes
Involuntary; require select stimulation
conclusions (5)
Is hypothesis supported or refuted? Never say PROVE use SUPPORT or REFUTE
deferred imitation
One single exposure to an event, then a week or two weeks later you can recall it
Piaget's theory of cognitive development
Piaget viewed cognitive development in children as constructivists in nature. Testing hypothesis - Viewed children as little scientists
object permanence
Place a toy under a blanket, and they think it is gone (but adults know it's still there) - Piaget thought at *8 months of age* they pass this
perception
Processing of *sensory* info to make it meaningful - Subjective
amniotic sac
Protects the embryo
affordance
Relationship between organism (ex: human) and object permitting an action - Ex: Sidewalk with ice doesn't "afford" safe passage
correlation
Relationship between two factors; no manipulation
exosystem
Societal institutions (ex: schools, community, local government) - Quality of schools
behaviorism
Stimulus > Response - Ex: stimulus = see someone get a ticket for blowing a stop sign, response is that I will not blow a stop sign
prenatal stages
Three stages; not equivalent to trimesters
information processing theory
View childhood abilities like a computer - More info processing = more hard drive - Higher speed = higher processor - More knowledge/strategies = higher OS
visual cliff
Visual Expansion and Motion Parallax
fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
affect on baby from the teratogen alochol - Intelligence and physical features affected - (small head, low nasal bridge, small eye openings, short nose, thin upper lip, smooth philtrum, flat midface, underdeveloped jaw)
survey
aka self-report, problem: could lie, but good way of testing a larger sample; response bias
Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems
all levels are important in human development
nature
an individual's inherited qualities - is your genes. The physical and personality traits determined by your genes stay the same irrespective of where you were born and raised. - Biological and family factors
intersexual selection
appeal to opposite sex > mating access; ex: male bird puffs up its chest when potential mate is here
theory (1)
broad, used to provide a model for understanding human thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, describe a behavior and precision of future behavior - Violent video games affect those who play them
evolution
changes over time, descending from one common ancestor
operant conditioning example
child crying for a candy bar in a grocery store - Parent has to decide whether to let the child have the candy or not. - Reinforcement: child - "every time I scream I will get a candy bar" - Punishment: when I scream I won't receive a candy bar
cross-sectional
comparing different participants at one time point
reactivity
con to naturalistic observation because, what if behavior doesn't occur?
random assignment
condition determined by chance (ex: draws number out of hat)
ego
conscious - Scale between the id and superego, tries to balance them out - Decision making
assimilation
consistent with existing scheme; Incorporate information consistent with existing scheme - Ex: a horse can vary in color, size, and shape; not all horses are brown and tall
bonding after birth
critical period
sensitive period
development occurs best in a specific period of time, once the period is passed it is still possible but might be more difficult
threats to prenatal development
diet, stress, age, teratogens, alcohol, cigarettes
endoderm
digestive system, liver, respiratory system
control group
does not receive treatment; sometimes can be multiple groups
fraternal (dizygotic) twins
don't share identical copies of genetic information, approx. 50% of genetic information like a typical sibling
reinforcement
encourage future behavior, would like to see more of in future
operational definition (3)
example: IQ test Construct (ex: aggression) > Variable (ex: measurable) - Example: Teens who play Far Cry 4 will behave more aggressively than those who don't Need more information aka age, time spent
habituation
fetal learning; getting used to something
cognitive neuroscience
focus on cognition revealed through brain activity
genotype
genetic material (letters) - (ex: Bb, where B = curly; bb = straight hair)
population
group you want to know about (ex: teens)
case study
in depth look at a theory; a process or record of research in which detailed consideration is given to the development of a particular person, group, or situation over a period of time; con: subjectivity
theory of sexual selection
includes intrasexual selection and intersexual selection
scientific method
includes theory, hypothesis, operational definition, method, conclusions
accommodation
inconsistent with existing scheme; Scheme revised upon encountering new information - Get a zebra mixed up with a horse
Darwin
interested in the Galapagos Islands: went to research Galapagos finches, "Why are there different shapes of beaks in Galapagos finches?" - Adaptation to different types of foods / one beak might be better at cracking one nut than another (variation present) - One form of beak will be better for survival and be a favorable variation - Adaptation: specific beak that leads to greatest chance of survival on that island
cognitive theories
internal representations emphasized
encoding
is defined as the initial learning of information
nurture
personal experiences - refers to your childhood, or how you were brought up. Someone could be born with genes to give them a normal height, but be malnourished in childhood, resulting in stunted growth and a failure to develop as expected. - Social and environmental factors
phenotype
physical appearance of trait - Ex: Can see if someone has curly hair by looking at them
equilibration
piagetian principles: equilibrium and disequilibrium - Need a history of events to be equilibrium or disequilibrium
sample
portion of population; randomly selected (ex: teens in Tucson)
superego
preconscious - Moral compass (rules learned from others around you)
birth distinctions and outcomes
premature, low-birthweight, very-low-birthweight, cesarean delivery
genetic drift
random changes in the makings of a genetic population; all pathways fall under this
REM sleep
rapid eye movement - The older you get the less time you spend in REM sleep, along with sleep in general decreases
experimental group
receives treatment ( ex: aggressive game)
validity
refers to how well a test measures what it is supposed to measure - Response to an air horn measures level of aggression - Should be a relationship between - Invalid: bubble size of gum doesn't relate to aggression
storage
refers to maintaining information over time
correlation ≠ causation
remember this
adaptation
requires environmental input, process of adapting to an environment
intrasexual selection
same-sex battle > victory > mating access; female vs female, male vs male
ectoderm
skin, hair, teeth, brain, spinal cord
method (4)
standardized way of making observations, gathering data, forming theories, testing predictions, and interpreting results - ex: have students come in and play either Far Cry 4, Minecraft, or Crossword - Air horn - operationalization of aggression
longitudinal
study of same people over a period of time
developmental continuity
takes time - Growth of a child: height and growth proceed in a linear fashion, same as with the growth of a tree. None of this happens overnight
retrieval
the ability to access information when you need it
reliability
the degree to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent results. - Stable, consistent - Stable and consistent across time - Ex: takes 10 seconds to respond to an air horn every time
founder effects
the loss of genetic variation that occurs when a new population is established by a very small number of individuals from a larger population. ex: blue eyes
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
the sudden unexplained death of a child less than one year of age, usually occurs during sleep
directionality
trouble with correlation, can't infer
third variable
trouble with correlation, ex: don't know the link between heat and aggression
id
unconsious, pleasure principle - Pleasure principle: immediate gratification - Ex: black friday shopping, people do not think about consequences, you just do it
independent variable
variable that is manipulated; the input (ex: video game being played)
appreciating affordances
video, Which of the following did not present an affordance to the child in the video? food (aka not the researcher, width of bridge, or handrail)
depth
visual cliff
considerations in birthing process
water birthing, delivery location, epidural
critical period
you either have this period, or you never will. - example: sewed kittens eyes shut at birth, never saw light, never developed properly; they did not have light fall in their retinas the first few weeks of light