Gender Communication Exam 2

How many children are exposed?

1 in 15 children are exposed to intimate partner violence and 90% of these children are eye witnesses.

How many women and men are affected?

1 in 4 women and 1 in 18 men are affected by intimate partner violence.

5 Themes of Femininity

1) Appearance still counts 2) Be sensitive and caring 3) Negative treatment by others 4) Be superwoman 5) There is no single meaning of femininity anymore

6 Themes of Masculinity

1) Don't be feminine 2) Be successful 3) Be Aggressive 4) Be Sexual 5)Be Self-Reliant 6) Embody and transend traditional views of masculinity

Ways to prevent sexual violence:

4 main ways include: 1. Social emotional learning approaches which is all about teaching children social and emotional skills including communication, problem solving, empathy, emotional regulation, and conflict management. 2. Teaching healthy, safe dating and intimate relationship skills such as expectations for caring, respectful, nonviolent behavior. 3. Promoting healthy sexuality by promoting healthy discussions of sexual communication, health, respect, and consent. 4. Empowerment based training for women to reduce risk for victimization which includes focusing on strengthening the ability of women to assess risks for violence in relationships and empower them to act.

How many murder-suicides?

72% of murder suicides involve an intimate partner.

Does Traditional gender stereotyping still exist? How do we know this?

A classic study showed that in just 24 hours of birth, parents responded to their babies in terms of gender stereotypes. Although male and female babies were matched for size, weight, and level of activity, parents described boys as strong, big, active, and alert and described the equally large, active girls as small, dainty, quiet, and delicate. These findings have been replicated in more recent studies. In another recent study, despite the absence of sex differences in babies' vocal pitch, adults erroneously attributed the higher-pitched cries to girls and the lower-pitched cries to boys. These studies suggest the powerful influence of gendered stereotypes on parental attitudes and beliefs

2) Be sensitive and caring

A majority of women feel they are expected to be nice, deferential, and helpful and to care about and for others. From assuming primary responsibility for young children to taking care of elderly, sick, and disabled relatives, women do the preponderance of hands-on caring. In addition, many girls learn that being outspoken and smart does not win them prizes in the quest to be seen as feminine. Males who take charge are praised and admired, but females who take charge risk being called the new b-word: bossy. Girls are encouraged to soften their opinions and not to stand up to boys at school because they fear being perceived as a bitch. The bottom line is that, for many girls, adolescence is the start of shifting attention from developing and asserting identity to pleasing others.

What is the male deficit model?

A number of researchers maintain that a masculine style of building and maintaining relationships is inadequate. This view, the male deficit model, asserts that men are less skilled than women in developing and sustaining personal relationships.

3) Be Aggressive

A third injunction for masculinity is to be aggressive. boys and men are expected to take stands, be tough, and not run from confrontations. Many boys first learn this lesson in sports as coaches psych teams up with demands that they "make the other team hurt, hurt, hurt" or "make them bleed." Of course, sometimes the other team makes you hurt, and here again, sports teach masculinity by telling boys they have to "be tough" and they have to "play through the pain." Media fuel ideals of extreme masculinity such as the oversized, muscled male figures in video games and the TV characters who are dropped into wilderness locales and must forage and rely on survival techniques. These images of "real men" lead many young boys to decide they have to toughen up to make it. A recent study of advertising images in magazines targeted at men, such as Fortune, Field & Stream, Playboy, and Game Informer, found that men are most often portrayed as "hyper-masculine"—violent, tough, sexually aggressive, and dangerous.

Fijian People after media exposure:

After this culture was exposed to media, their culture changed drastically in a short amount of time. The Fijian people had typically been involved in a culture that did not expect women to be thin. However, after the culture was exposed to certain media, women began having body image issues and felt fat when that used to be a compliment.

To what extend are women, minorities, and the LGBTQ community represented in the media?

Although the United States is increasingly demographically diverse and women outnumber men, media overrepresent cisgender heterosexual white men, particularly as substantive characters. Whether in film, cartoons, or newscasts, males outnumber females. Only 30.2% of charac- ters in top-grossing films who have names or speak are female, and less than 25% of leading characters are female.

How do media act as gatekeepers?

An example of gatekeeping comes from media coverage of wars. Newspapers routinely fea- ture poignant pictures of teary-eyed children watching mothers go to war, while online polls ask, "Should a woman leave her baby to go to war?" Perhaps this is a reasonable question to ask about any parent, but media tend to ask it only about mothers and not about fathers. By doing this, media encourage us to perceive parenting as central to women and peripheral to men.

Psychological responsibility

Another way in which women's contributions to home life have been greater is in terms of psychological responsibility—the responsibility to remember, plan, and make sure things get done

Explicit frames:

Appeal to gender and race specifically

What are the gendered preferences for autonomy and connection?

Autonomy and connection are two basic needs of all humans. We all need to feel that we have both personal freedom and meaningful interrelatedness with others. Yet, gender affects how much of each of these we find comfortable. Masculine individuals tend to want greater autonomy and less connection than feminine people, whose relative priorities are generally the reverse.

What are the gendered expectations for relational health (who is responsible for it)?

Because most lesbians, like most heterosexual women, learn feminine ways of thinking and acting; both partners tend to be sensitive to interpersonal dynamics and interested in talking about their relationship and working through problems Against the standard set by lesbians, heterosexual couples do not fare as well in distribut- ing responsibility for relational health. In heterosexual relationships, both men and women tend to assume that women have primary responsibility for keeping relationships on track. The expectation that one person should take care of relationships burdens one partner with the responsibility of keeping a relationship satisfying. In addition, it is difficult for one person to meet this responsibility if the other person doesn't acknowledge and work on mat- ters that jeopardize relational health. The partner who is expected to safeguard the relation- ship may be perceived as a nag by the one who fails to recognize problems until they become very serious. Not surprisingly, research shows that the highest level of couple satisfaction exists when both partners share responsibility for the relationship

"covert intimacy"

Compared to women friends, reports Kory Floyd (1997), men "simply communicate affection in different, more 'covert' ways so as to avoid the possible ridicule that more overt expres- sion might invite". Male friends tend to signal affection by teasing one another, engaging in friendly competition, and exchanging playful punches and backslaps. Most males learn very early in life that physical displays of affection between men are prohib- ited except in traditionally masculine settings such as sports or the military

3) Negative treatment by others

Devaluation and mistreatment of females is pervasive in Western cultures. The Web teems with sites that feature sexual assaults on women. Popular music refers to women as "bitches" and "hos" and routinely shows men abusing them. Mainstream video games allow players to earn points by assaulting or killing women. Candidates running for office openly describe women female candidates, news anchors, winners of beauty contests, the wives of other candidates are unattractive, overweight, or pushy. Fat jokes and derogatory remarks about women's appearance in popular culture are common, reinforcing the value placed on women's appearance and normalizing negative treatment of them. Devaluation of femininity is not only built into cultural views but typically is internalized by individuals, including women. Negative treatment of females begins early and can be especially intense in girls' peer groups.

What is gendered styles of friendship? In other words, what does the research say about the features of feminine friendships and masculine friendships?

Feminine Friendship: Closeness in Dialogue; Regardless of race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, or economic status, a majority of women regard talk as the primary way to build and enrich friendships. Consequently, many women share their personal feelings, experiences, fears, and problems in order to know and be known by each other. To capture the quality of women's friendships, Caroline Becker (1987) described them as "an evolving dialogue" through which initially separate worlds are woven together. To know each other in depth, women friends typically confide personal feelings and disclose intimate information, and they tend to maintain higher expectations for their friends in matters related to trust and intimacy. Consistent with feminine socialization's encouragement of permeable ego boundaries, communication between women friends also tends to be empathic, expressive, and supportive. While women tend to perceive greater levels of intimacy in face-to-face friendships, online friendships are more likely to be satisfying to women when they include high levels of self-disclosure and person-centered support. Masculine Friendship: Closeness in the doing; At very young ages, most boys are as emotive and socially oriented as girls (Way, 2013). Even as they engage in vigorous play, they also talk about feelings. However, boys' social and emotional tendencies tend to be tempered by older children, adults, and media models of masculinity. As a result, many boys learn to ground their friendships in shared activities, particularly sports. Engaging in sports, watching games, and doing other things together cul- tivate camaraderie and closeness between men. When men do talk, they often talk about activities—reminisce about great games they attended, recall pranks they played or had played on them, and psych themselves up for upcoming activities. Whereas women tend to look for confidantes in friends, men more typically seek companions. Growing out of the emphasis on activities is a second feature of men's friendships: an instrumental focus. Because many men like doing things for people they care about, their friendships often involve instrumental reciprocity. For example, Brad helps Jake repair his car, and Jake assists Brad with computer problem—an exchange of favors that allows each man to hold his own while helping the other. A third feature of men's friendship is typically indirect talk about serious feelings.

6) Embody and transcend traditional views of masculinity

For many males, a primary source of pressure to be conventionally masculine is other boys and, later, men who enforce the masculine code. At the same time, many men feel other pressures—often from romantic partners, female friends, sisters, and mothers—to be sensitive and emotionally open and to be full partners in relationships. It's daunting to try to be both traditionally masculine and not traditionally masculine. Some counselors believe that men's struggles to live up to social ideals of masculinity have produced an epidemic of male depression, substance abuse, and stress. because masculine socialization emphasizes emotional control and self-reliance, many men who are depressed or stressed are unwilling to seek help. Men are four times more likely to take their own lives than women and account for nearly 80% of suicides in the United States.

1) Don't be feminine

For many men, the most fundamental requirement for manhood is not to be feminine. One man recalls his high school football coach goading injured players by asking, "You a football player or are you a little girl". To be accepted by peers, boys become less verbally expressive of feelings other than ones considered appropriate for men—anger, for example. A male who shows sensitivity or vulnerability is likely to be called sissy, girl, or wimp. Peer groups pressure males to be tough, aggressive, and not feminine. The antifemale directive is at least as strong for men of color as for white men. As jackson Katz, a leading researcher on men and masculinity, explains, "in a lot of ways that pressure to conform is more acute among men whose power and identity are under threat in the real world from things like racism and growing economic inequality". Not being like a girl means learning to "suck it up." Youths of both sexes engage in sports and sustain injuries, yet males are less likely than females to report pain or symptoms of injuries, including life-threatening brain injuries.

What are the unique benefits and challenges of friendships across gender?

Friendship across gender pose unique challenges and offer special opportunities. Because our culture is heteronormative and heavily emphasizes gender, it can be difficult for women and men not to see each other in sexual terms. In addition, misunderstandings may arise as the result of socialization into distinct gendered speech communities. Despite these difficulties, friendships across gender are common. For many women, a primary benefit of friendships with men is companionship that is less emotionally intense. For men, an especially valued benefit of closeness with women is access to overt emotional and expressive support. One study of close friendships between gay men and straight women reported a unique benefit shared by both parties the exchange of dating and relationship advice that was perceived as more trustworthy than that offered by their straight or gay peers. Both men and women report receiving more emotional support from female than male friends . Some researchers suggest that this may be related to the cul- tural tendency to use a feminine ruler to measure support and thereby overlook the unique forms of support that men tend to provide. In friendships across gender, men generally talk more and get more attention, response, and support than they offer. A majority of people, regardless of gender, report that friendships with women are closer and more emotionally rich, that women are their primary confidantes, and that they are more comfortable self-disclosing to women than to men.

Video on consent:

From these videos we can learn that consent needs to be clearly stated on both ends of sexual contact. After watching the rape survivor confront the man who raped her, we learned that for years, he was unaware that she did not consent. Consent can often times be a gray area where people are unsure what is consent and what is not consent. However, we can all agree that tons of communication is key to making sure both partners are consenting to sexual activity.

Video watched in class:

From this video, we learned that the media industry has a large effect on how people, in particular, women, view themselves. With constant ads for products and tons of sex appeal, women are forced to feel like they have to have a certain image to be liked. Men are also given false expectations of what to view from women when they see photo shopped pictures of women. The media industry is the main culprit of all of the false expectation and pressure on society. Testing has been done in other cultures not exposed to media and the effects proved to be true that media forces society to feel like they have to look a certain way.

What are the gendered power dynamics that influence relationships?

Historically, the person who earns the most money has had the greater power in heterosexual romantic relationships, and that person traditionally has been male. As you might predict, problems fostered by believing that men should be more powerful are not prominent in lesbian relationships, and lesbians tend to be partic- ularly skilled at building harmonious relationships with romantic partners. Gay and lesbian couples report a greater desire for shared power and decision-making than do heterosexual couples. People who adhere to traditional views of gender in relationships are more likely to experience a decrease in both self-esteem and marital satisfaction if the woman earns more money. In heterosexual relationships, the belief that men have more power than women is often reflected in the distribution of labor in the home. Although the majority of two-parent house- holds today have two wage earners, the housework and the care of children, parents, and other relatives continue to be done primarily by women in heterosexual families. Gay and lesbian couples are more likely than heterosexual couples to divide child care and household labor equally between partners. Lesbians report greater equality in division of labor than do gay men, and, in lieu of relying on gendered norms to divide tasks, incorporate factors such as individual capacity and preference

Implicit frames:

Implicit frames convey the same meaning as explicit appeals, but they replace the racial/gender nouns/adjectives with more oblique references. Implicit frames invoke a particular "schema" and trigger "group implication," a kind of reasoning by analogy.

What are complexities and challenges of growing up outside of conventional genders in a binary world?

Individuals who don't fit into conventional categories for sex, gender, and sexual orien- tation face challenges that most gender-conforming people can't imagine. For those of you who fit comfortably in the conventional gender system, imagine this: You visit a doctor and learn that you are actually a different sex than you have believed yourself to be and than you identify with. If you identify as a woman, you discover that genetically you are male. If you identify as a man, you learn that genetically you are female. Your physiology and/or anatomy doesn't match your self-concept. Everything from how you dress to whom you date to which bathroom you can use suddenly becomes an issue that you have to negotiate.

"Invisible support"

Invisible support is a form of covert intimacy but emerges in response to a particular stressor or event. It is a form of support that the recipient doesn't have to acknowledge as support, either because it is instrumental (dropping off a meal for a buddy who is stressed over exams) or is otherwise indirect (making extra time to hang out with a friend who is sad). Because it is not obvious help, invisible support allows the recipient to save face. Especially in masculine speech, communities where independence is paramount, invisible support minimizes the chance that the individual in need of sup- port will feel vulnerable or incompetent. Some suggest that this form of support may have especially long-lasting positive effects for the support recipient (High & Solomon, 2014). While covert intimacy is present in most men's friendships regardless of sexual orientation, friendships between gay men tend to be more physically and emotionally expressive than straight men's friendships.

5) Be Self-Reliant

Many men feel that a "real man" depends on himself, not others. both physically and emotionally, men are expected to be self-sufficient.

"Joke Talk"

Many men find it uncomfortable to disclose feelings explicitly to other men. If they mention serious emotional issues, they often engage in "joke talk", which couches serious feelings in humor.

4) Be Superwoman

Many young women today seem to feel they are expected to do it all. The physical and psychological toll on women who try to do it all is well documented, and it shows no signs of abating.

Male domination

Men tend to hold positions that are socially important. They also tend to lead major institutions in our society. Statistical examples include: only 4.8% of CEO's at fortune 500 companies are women, only 30% of college presidents are women, and 1.9% of top grossing movies are directed by women.

What is generally true of mothers' communication with their children?

Mothers tend to communicate with children more than heterosexual fathers. Mothers use talk to build connections with children and to give information, advice, encouragement, and emotional support to children. Mothers surpass heterosexual fathers in talking with children, particularly daughters, about feelings and relationships, guiding them in how to build relationships and interact socially. Even when children are less than two years old, mothers call sons' attention to numbers and talk with sons about numbers more than they talk with daughters. When interacting with children, mothers typically focus on providing comfort, security, and emotional development. They engage in more eye contact and face-to-face interaction with children than do fathers, and they are more likely than fathers to hug children and tell children they love them. More than fathers, mothers tend to play with children at the children's level, which develops children's confidence and security in play.

What does it mean to grow up outside of conventional genders in a binary world?

Not every person grows up identifying with socially prescribed gender, sex, and sexual orientation. For people who do not identify with and perform normative gender identity and heterosexuality, growing up can be particularly difficult. Homophobia is often used to police gender pressuring girls to conform to femininity and boys to masculinity, and threatening discrimination or violence if they do not. Social isolation also greets many people who are gender nonconforming or trans. They find themselves trapped in a society that conflates male, men, and masculinity, as well as female, women, and femininity. It's difficult to find in-between spaces, ways to blur rigid lines, and options to the binary choices of male/female, man/ woman, masculine/feminine, and straight/gay.

What are the two narratives of femininity?

One suggests that women are liberated from tradi- tional roles to have careers, enjoy egalitarian marriages with partners who share in home- making and child care, and raise amazing children; in short, they can "have it all". Secondly, a very different narrative tells women they may be able to get jobs, but fewer than one in five women will be given opportunities to advance to the highest levels of professional life. Not only do women earn less than men doing comparable work, but women's professional success is often additionally undermined by workplace policies that don't accommodate their family responsibilities. The gender pay gap grows if women become mothers and continues to grow as women age. Moreover, the gender pay gap is wider in particular industries—for example, in 2015, female financial managers' earnings averaged just 65% of that of their male counterparts

What does parental communication about gender look like?

One way children learn gender roles is by receiving positive and negative reinforcements for various behaviors (social learning theory) and through observing and emulating others whom they see as models (cognitive development theory). Typically, girls are rewarded for being cooperative, helpful, nurturing, friendly, and polite. Parents may also reward—or at least not punish—girls for being sensitive, athletic, and smart. For boys, rewards are more likely to come for behaving competitively, independently, and assertively.

How does parental modeling influence children?

Parents communicate gender is through modeling masculinity, femininity, and, for heterosexual parents, male-female relationships. Cognitive development theory tells us that, once children have gender constancy, they actively look for role models of their sex and use those models to develop masculine or feminine qualities, behaviors, and so forth. For most children, parents are the single most visible and available models of gender. by observing parents, children often learn the roles socially prescribed for women and men. Parents are major messengers about gender. For most people, parents provide gender with their modeling, descriptions of children, and chores and activities they encour- age. Yet, gender is not just about learning society's rules. Gender is also deeply personal.

Intimate partner violence:

Physical, mental, emotional, verbal, or economic power used by one partner against the other in a romantic relationship. This violence tends to follow a pattern. First, it starts with the abuser being frustrated with something outside of the relationship such as work. Second, there is an explosion which could be emotional, physical violence from the abuser. Third, the abuser feels remorse and promises to never do it again. Fourth, the abuser acts devoted to their partner and the cycle repeats.

How these are all used:

Politicians and people in power use framing, schemas, and analogical reasoning with many issues to map race and gender when the issue itself is not related to race and gender at all. They can do this by focusing on certain topics or issues that primarily affect a certain race or gender and point the audience's perception a certain way to make them either vote a certain way or persuade them to have beliefs and views that lean toward a certain side. Issues such as healthcare or immigration laws do not directly discuss certain races or genders but with certain laws put in place or certain discussions about each topic, they can in turn have effects on specific races or genders without directly saying it.

Rape myths:

Rape myths support rape culture. Rape myths paint a picture that survivors are responsible for their rape. These myths also circulate doubt regarding the allegations. They suggest only "certain women" get raped and they absolve perpetrators of their crime by relying on traditional gender and sexuality ideologies.

1) Appearance still counts

The focus on appearance begins in the early years of life with gift catalogs for children that feature makeup kits, adornments for hair, and even wigs, so girls learn early to spend time and effort on looking good. Teen magazines for girls are saturated with ads for makeup, diet aids, and hair products. Romance novels send the message that popularity depends on being rich, thin, fashionable, and sexy. In stores, women see clothes they are encouraged to buy on mannequins that are size 4, 2, or 0. Given the relentless pressure to be thin and beautiful, it's not surprising that disorders related to body image have become so common that they are considered customary in young women. The makeover genre of television programs features a person, most often a woman, who looks ordinary when viewers first see her and who is then made over to be physically stunning. To maintain the new "improved" image, she must become an active consumer, spending her time and money on products and services that make her acceptable. Consumption is unending and never sufficient to secure lasting success. Women athletes may feel special pressure to look and act feminine. Women athletes in our classes tell us that, if they don't look feminine, others assume they are lesbians simply because they are strong and athletically skilled. To assert their femininity, female Olympic competitors increasingly pose nude or nearly nude in Sports Illustrated, FHM (For Him Magazine), and Playboy.

4) Be Sexual

The fourth element of masculinity is to be interested in sex—all the time, any time. The more partners a man has and the more casually he treats them, the more of a stud he is. Cornell West (2007) notes that for black males, sexuality is particularly associated with a masculine identity and with being powerful. A man who doesn't want a lot of sex with a lot of women may find his manhood questioned by other men. The pressure to be highly sexual with women is problematic for many men. Those who identify as gay, bisexual, or trans may not be interested in sex with women, and a number of younger men report that they do not want constant casual sex. National surveys report that romantic relationships matter to many young men, and that 40% of men between 15 and 19 have not had sex because they are waiting for the right relationship. For men who aren't into hooking up, peer pressure to measure up to the stud image can be very uncomfortable.

What is the fundamental assumption of the male deficit model?

The fundamental assumption of the male deficit model is that personal, emotional talk is the hallmark of intimacy. A classic investigation measured the intimacy of same-sex friendships by the amount of intimate information disclosed between friends. As women generally self-disclose more than men, it is not surprising that the researchers concluded that women were more intimate than men. Based on this line of research, men were advised to learn to express their feelings more openly. Films, television programs and print, TV, self-help literature, and online ads often represent men as emotionally lacking and women as naturally adept at relationships. But some researchers question the male deficit model, offering a sec- ond interpretation of different ways people create and express closeness.

What are the gendered modes of expressing affection/care?

The masculine mode of expressing affection is primarily instrumental and activity focused, whereas the feminine mode is more emotionally expressive and talk focused. Women often feel hurt and shut out if men don't want to discuss feelings and the relationship. Conversely, some men feel resentful or intruded on when women push them to be emotionally expressive. Thus, gendered socialization may prevent partners from recognizing one another's ways of com- municating care. Gay and lesbian couples tend to share perspectives about how to communicate affec- tion. Gay men generally engage in more emotional and intimate talk than straight men but less than women of any sexual orientation. Lesbians, on the other hand, generally share responsibility for taking care of a relationship and build the most expressive and nurturing communication climates of any type of couple. Lesbian partners' mutual attentiveness to nurturing, emotional openness, and conflict resolution may explain why lesbians report more satisfaction with their romantic relation- ships than gays or heterosexuals.

What are the various ways parents communicate gender expectations? Which gender receives the most rigid socialization?

This happens through encouraging particular toys and activities for sons and daughters. Although many parents encourage their children to play with a range of toys, some parents actively discourage their children's interest in toys and games that are associated with the other sex. For instance, boys may be persuaded not to play with dolls (other than action figures), and girls may be dissuaded from engaging in physically aggressive sports. Another way would be through household chores that they assign to sons and daughters. Like toys, various tasks cultivate particular ways of seeing ourselves. Domestic chores, which are more often assigned to girls, emphasize taking care of others, whereas outdoor work and repair jobs, more typically assigned to boys, encourage independent activity. In general this socialization is more rigid for boys than for girls, and heterosexual fathers are especially insistent on gender-stereotyped toys and activities especially for sons. It's more acceptable for girls to play baseball or football than for boys to play house or to cuddle dolls. Similarly, it's considered more suitable for girls to be strong than for boys to cry and more acceptable for girls to act independently than for boys to need others. Overall, boys are more intensively and rigidly pushed to be masculine than girls are pushed to be feminine.

Informed consent:

This is something that can only be given by an adult who has normal mental abilities, who is not being coerced, and whose judgement is not impaired by alcohol, other drugs, or circumstances. This cannot be given by children or inmates who fear violence if they do not consent.

5) There is no single meaning of femininity anymore.

This is the final theme of femininity in the current era. This theme reflects all the others and the contradictions inherent in them. A woman who is assertive and ambitious in a career is likely to meet with approval, disapproval, anger, and curiosity from some people and to be applauded by others. At the same time, a woman who chooses to stay home while her children are young will be criticized by some women and men, envied by others, and respected by still others. Prevailing themes of femininity in Western culture reveal both constancy and change. Traditional expectations of attractiveness and caring for others persist, as does the greater likelihood of negative treatment by others. Yet, today there are options that allow women with different talents, interests, and identities to define themselves in diverse ways and to chart life courses that suit them as individuals.

Male centeredness

This is the idea that our cultural attention is focused mainly on males and male activities. The media, which includes newspapers, films, television, etc., focuses on stories about men, what they have or have not done, and what they say about each other. This male centeredness seems so natural in our culture. This is present in sports, for example. Our culture focuses on male sports. Women sports do not get nearly as much attention.

2) Be Successful

This is the second requirement for men. From boyhood through the teen years, boys are expected to be successful at sports and other competitive activities. Sports train boys to compete and be aggressive in an effort to win. As adults, men are expected to compete to achieve status in their professions, to "make it." The theme of success translates into not just being good at what you do but being better than others, being most valuable player (MVP) rather than just another player, being more powerful than your friends, pulling in a bigger salary than your colleagues, and having a more expensive home and car than your neighbors.

Reasoning by analogy:

This is when a person in power compares two different things and finds a similarity in them and focuses on that similarity.

Male identification

This locates our cultural values in maleness and masculinity. In our society, activities of men suggest what our cultural prefers and considers normal. For example, qualities like competitiveness, individualism, and physical strength are honored in society while feminine qualities are undervalued.

What is the alternate paths model?

This model claims that there are different and equally valid paths to closeness. This model agrees with the male deficit model that gendered socialization is the root of differences between feminine and masculine styles of relating. It departs from the deficit model, however, in two important ways. First, the alternate paths model does not presume that masculine people lack feelings or emotional depth. Rather, it suggests that masculine socialization limits men's opportunities to practice emotional talk, which leads them to be less comfortable engaging in emotional communication. Second, the alternate paths model argues that masculine people do express closeness but in an alternate way than feminine people. According to this model, masculine and feminine ways of expressing closeness are different, and the two ways are equally valid.

What are Gatekeepers?

This refers to people and groups that control which messages get through to audiences of mass media. Gatekeepers include editors, owners, bloggers, producers, and advertisers. The gatekeepers for newspapers and news programs shape our perceptions by deciding which issues to spotlight, which points of view get a hearing, and how to depict women, men, people of diverse sexual orientations and gender identities.

What is the degree of media saturation today?

We are the most media-saturated and media-engaged people in history. Mass media are per- vasive. Currently 99% of U.S. households have at least one TV and 65% have three or more. The average U.S. citizen watches more than five hours of television a day, and children spend more time watching television than attending school. While walking, driving, or biking, we stream music or podcasts and take in an endless procession of billboards that advertise various products, services, and companies. Social media take up more of our time than mass media. Recent surveys show that the average person in the United States spends six hours online every day. Much of that time is devoted to social networking. We also use social media to connect with others, organize in our communities, and find out what's happening in the world. In addi- tion, many of us become producers of media as we create blogs, podcasts, and videos to post on sites such as YouTube.

What is the Third person effect?

Which is the belief that media affect others more than they affect us

Issue frames:

a central organizing idea or story line that provides meaning to an unfolding strip of events, weaving a connection among them. Issue frames construct narratives with actors, a plot, and a structure.

Schemas:

cognitive structures that represent knowledge about a concept or object, its associated characteristics, and how those characteristics are interrelated. The play a role in perception, they influence evaluations and judgements, they allow people to go beyond the information given, and they operate implicitly.

What is generally true of fathers' communication with their children?

fathers spend less time than mothers in one-on-one communication with children, today's fathers talk more with children than did fathers in previous generations. Fathers tend to engage in play that is physically stimulating and exciting, and they encourage children, especially sons, to develop skills and meet challenges. Fathers, more than mothers, stretch children by urging them to compete, achieve, take risks, act independently, and move beyond their current levels of ability.

Rape culture in the US:

the common attitudes, beliefs, and practices that ignore, excuse, encourage, or normalize sexual violence. The long term effects of rape culture include the victim experiencing distress and contemplating suicide. It also leads to an increase in drug use.

Embodied inequality

when a person is a victim of discrimination, they are at higher risk of emotional and physical problems including stress, depression, cold, hypertension, breast cancer, cardiovascular disease, and death.