Geo Exam #4

Australia/New Zealand climate

*Southeast of both countries: humid subtropical *N Australia: tropical wet/dry *S and SW Australia: Mediterranean *Australia's interior: desert fringed by steppe

Australia/New Zealand political and economic geography

*both have been full democracy since Independence in early 1900s *high standards of living with Australia ranked 2nd and New Zealand ranked 5th in HDI *unusual Economic Development pattern; raw material Industries, recent boom in service industry, & little interviewing industrialization (both dependent on USA, EU, Japan, and China for manufactured goods) *raw material Industries like ranching, farming, and Mining have long dominated (New Zealand- abundant pastureland and Australia- the world's highest non-oil mineral wealth per capita) *service sector: creating a post industrial sector without an industrial period (High profits from raw materials management, marketing, and finance but small pipe, good education system, and middle-class tradition with high rates of investment capital and abundance skilled labor); tourism and film industry now important in economic growth

Native Americans/ Indigenous

*considerable ethnic diversity exists among Native Americans *usually have low socioeconomic standing *largest single ethnic group in Bolivia and Peru

Latin America Ethnicity

*cultural origins: primary cultural sources are the Americas, Europe, and Africa and a large portion of the regions pop is of mixed ancestry (indentity v. ancestry among Europeans and Native Americans)

Raw materials & historic underdevelopment

*depends upon export of raw materials like gold, oil, cacao, greens, livestock, sugar, coffee, Etc *historically the backbone of most economies (ex. Costa Rica- bananas and coffee 90%, Nicaragua- coffee and cotton 70%, Chile- copper 85%, Uruguay- Timber 50% & Brazil- coffee 60%) *present: economies have developed and diversified but Mexico and Brazil still receive majority of income from raw materials *problems of raw material based economies: poor terms of trade (minerals and agricultural exports command low prices, region depending on MCD's for expensive manufacturing Goods, creates major economic disadvantage), profits from raw materials don't benefit most people (generally in Rich foreign investors and landowner Elites, foreign investors siphon profits from region, wealthy Elite often invest and spend profits elsewhere, low taxes restrict ability of gov to build physical and human infrastructure, very low wages), and raw material markets are extremely volatile (worst is when most countries are focused on one or two Commodities like the Banana Republic phenomenon and creates boom and bust economy that discourages investment)

Indigenous Cultures

*descendants of Bering Land Bridge migrants begin to settle about 12,000 years ago (large civilizations develop in Andes, Mexico, and Central American lowlands) *post-colonial myths: pre-Columbian natives were small in number and civilizations not especially advanced *pop in 1492: Europe 70 million and Latin America 50-100 million

Elitism, uprisings, & Cold War

*early 1900s: frustration among poor and landless (concentration of Economic and political power among the few wealthy Elite, expanding foreign ownership, interventions by US, many begin to embrace communist philosophy) *1950s-1980s: Soviet Union begins to back communist insurgencies (guerrilla warfare in Nicaragua, El Salvador, Columbia, Peru, Bolivia, Etc) *US response by backing anti-communist govs: "our dictator" phenomenon included most brutal and corrupt regimes in Regents history in effort to violently suppressed soviet-backed communist uprisings (ex. Nicaragua- the Somozas, Chile- Pinochet, Panama- Noriega) *u.s. armed insurgencies instituted sanctions to undermine Communists and socialists govs: Nicaragua (1979- Sandinista revolution and 1980s- US attempts to subvert sandinistas by trade embargo and the contras which are anti Sandinista Rebels illegally funded by US gov)

Plantations

*generally located in the Atlantic Rimland (along river that flow to Atlantic and near Atlantic coast) *grew single crop (sugar, coffee, tobacco for export) *after collapse of indigenous people enslaved African labor utilized

Oceania pop

*land area smaller than Oregon with total pop about same size as Arkansas *largest city is Suva and Fiji which is smaller than Springfield, IL

Latin America's independence

*wars for independence: gained their independence in the early 1800s *leaders of most revolutions were colonial elite (people of European descent who owned the haciendas, plantations, mines, and businesses; resented trade restrictions, manufacturing restrictions, and taxes; similar to US revolution) *once independent elites remained firmly in control and monopolized land, economy, and government (do little to expand economic development to poor and lack of Jeffersonian Ideal which produces a middle class) *colonial forms of land tenure and labor relations still influence region (dominance of elite, unequal distribution of wealth, 40% of pop lives in poverty, economic dependence on raw materials, persistent economic underdevelopment)

Latin America disparity

*world's largest gap between rich and poor *reasons: historic economic focus on haciendas, plantations, and mines (created wealthy landowners and impoverished workers); historic lack of industrialization (no manufacturing middle class); historic lack of democracy (impoverished majority unable to press for economic changes)

Latin America Precipitation

*year long wet climate: Amazon; Carribean Central America; S coastal Brazil, Paraguay, E Argentina, & Uruguay; S Chile *wet summer/dry winter climates: S Venezuela & S interior Brazil; monsoon summer flow (S Mexico & Pacific Central America) *wet winter/dry summer (Mediterranean) climate: central Chile *year long dry (desert & steppe) climates: N Mexico; N Venezuela & the Patagonia; N Pacific coast of South America; Atacama *multiple micro-climates associated with Andes

Religion

Catholicism dominate in most countries but protestantism dominate in most former British colonies. Hinduism and Islam common in Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, and Suriname

El Nino

warming of waters of the coast of the E Pacific causing large storms, floods, and landslides and occurs every 2-7 years

Frozen lands ("tierra helada")

*12,000 feet + *climate: very cold *rural economy: mining, some grain cultivation, and herding at lower elevations *pop: sparse, concentrated at lower elevations *ethnicity: almost exclusively Native American

Incas

*1200-1500s *2,000 mile long empire in Andes highlands *one of the most efficiently managed empires in world history (elaborate transportation systems, architecture, agriculture, organized labor, and reciprocal production systems)

Aztecs

*1300s-1500s *central Valley of Mexico with Tenochtitlan as capital *some tech and levels of social organization that rivaled Asia and Europe (advanced urban planning, water and sewage systems, metallurgy, architecture, organized trade and taxation systems, and higher standard of living than Europe)

Demographic Collapse

*1500s rapid die-off of indigenous pop because of conflict and displacement but mostly due to diseases introduces by Europeans (measles, smallpox, and influenza) *1650 pop of Native America is 5.6 million

Monroe Doctrine

*1823: US no longer permits European military activity in America's, interpreted as right of US to protect its interest in Latin America (Roosevelt Corollary) *set stage for future US involvement and intervention in Latin America (ex. banana Wars- U.S. military interventions to protect American business interests. 1903- us provides military support for Panama's Rebellion against Colombia. 1903-1925- 7 military incursions into Honduras. 1912-1933- occupation of Nicaragua)

Latin America Population Density

*Brazil and Mexico are the two largest countries that account for 56% of regions pop *next four countries (Columbia, Argentina, Peru, and Venezuela) account for 27% of regions pop *remaining seven countries account for 17% of regions pop (10-20 million: Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, and Guatemala; 5-10 million: El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Paraguay; less than 5 million: Costa Rica, Panama, and Uruguay)

Language

*Colonial language is dominant in all countries *English: Belize, Bahamas, Jamaica, Guyana, and British Lesser Antilles *Spanish: Cuba, Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico *French: Haiti and French Guiana *Dutch: Suriname and Dutch Lesser Antilles

The Conquest

*1492: Columbus discovers the "New World" (seeking shorter trade route to East Asia, makes landfall in Caribbean, and established first European outposts in the Americas) *1500: Portugal's Alvares Cabral begins colonization of Brazil *1519: Spain's Hernan Cortez defeats Aztecs and Spain assumes control of Middle America *1533: Spain's Francisco Pizarro defeats Inca and Spain assumes control of Andean South America *colonial objectives: obtain raw materials for Spain and Portugal and convert native people to Catholicism

Caribbean island Independence

*1804: Haiti gained independence as result of slave revolt (small mulatto minority continue to control gov, land, and wealth) *1840s: Dominican Republic gain independence *1898: Puerto Rico and Cuba seeds from Spain by USA (1902 Cuba gain "independence" & 1952 Puerto Rico become self gov Commonwealth) *1960s: Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, and Guyana gain independence *1970s-1980s: Bahamas, Belize, Suriname, and six countries in the Lesser Antilles gain independence

Political developments in Cuba

*1902-1959: Cuba operates under authoritarian regimes as US satellite state (US interest to control Agriculture and tourism) *1959: Castro topples gov and alliance with Soviet Union (remains only authoritarian country in W hemisphere) *1959-2000s: USA and Cuba continue to have tense relationship (Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961, Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, numerous attempts by CIA to assassinate Castro in 1960s, long-standing travel and trade embargo primarily for Cuban Florida and USA politics) *2006: Castro retires and Raul Castro becomes president which he allows some freedom of press and speech *2015: USA and Cuba try to normalize relations and end embargo (they have open embassies in Havana and Washington for the first time in five decades and USA has relaxed restrictions on financial transactions and shipments to Cuba) *2016 President Obama becomes first USA president to visit Cuba in 9 decades (USA loosens restrictions on travel and trade & possible impact on 2016 presidential election possible impact on 2016 presidential election) *remaining obstacles to fully normalize travel and trade relations: USA insist that Cuba relax restrictions on freedom of speech and information, agreements over economic damage claims (Cuban Americans hold judgement totaling more than $2 billion for property confiscated in 1959 while Cuba and sis the USA pay $150 billion in Damages that have resulted from embargo) *2017: Trump Administration tightens some travel and trade rules

Maya

*200s-900s AD *inhabited modern day Belize, Guatemala, and Southern Mexico *sophisticated agriculture and monumental architecture *advanced systems of math and astronomy

Caribbean Islands

*known as the Antilles or west in Tilles and consist of three major subdivisions: the Bahamas, the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, and Puerto Rico), and the Lesser Antilles (42 large islands, includes eight independent countries, and remaining Islands governed by Netherlands, Britain, France, and USA) *Belize: a Central American country with strong cultural connections to Caribbean islands *the guianas: located in Northern South America (Guyana is a former British Guiana, suriname is former Dutch Guiana, and French Guiana)

Rural to Urban migration

*25% in 1950 and 75% in 2015 *push factors: consolidation and mechanization of Latin American agriculture resulting from Green Revolution, mechanization of Mining and logging (new techniques made mining less labor-intensive) *pull factors: opportunity for higher wages and more employment; upward Mobility; access to wider range of Education, Healthcare, and other public services; excitement and perceived superiority of urban lifestyles *has exceeded job creation in most major cities: rapid growth of cities has overwhelmed Urban infrastructure (housing, sewage, Schools, transportation, Etc) & illegal informal settlements increasingly the norm (squatter settlements around older Urban cores) *rural migrants have targeted primate cities (cities that demographically, culturally, politically, and economically dominate country) ex. Mexico City, Managua, Lima, Santiago, and Buenos Aires

Temperature Lands ("tierra tamplada")

*3,000 - 6,500 feet *climate: year round spring like conditions *rural economy: some plantations, domestic commercial and subsistence food production *pop: contains some of region's highest pop densities *ethnicity: large Native American, mestizo, & European pop

Cool lands ("tierra fria")

*6,500 - 12,000 feet *climate: very cool temp *rural economy: subsistence food production; cool weather crops *pop: less dense than templada but some large cities (Mexico City, Bogota, Quito) *ethnicity: similar to templada & increasing dominance of Native Americans

Development Strategies

*60s: borrow heavily to stimulate economic growth; focused largely on agricultural (mechanized and modernized), state-owned industry, and public infrastructure; import substitution (featured state-owned Industries in extremely high import tariffs, intended to make region less reliant on Imports and to create manufacturing jobs) *80s: dept crisis (corruption, lack of industrial competition, & falling raw material prices stalls economies) *90s: neo-liberalism (adopt this as part of debt repayment programs, state-owned Industries privatized in order to learn foreign investment, and protectionism abanded in favor of free trade)

Australia/New Zealand historical and cultural geography

*Australia's Aborigines arrived in Australia from Asia about 50,000 years ago *New Zealand Maori arrived from Polynesia about 1,000 years ago *Europeans arrived during the 1500s (began settling in large numbers in 17 hundreds; settler slaughtered and marginalized indigenous people; both countries now mainly British and culture, religion, and ethnicity; both countries restricted non-European immigration) *Australia has a majority of European ethnic makeup (92%) *New Zealand has a majority of European ethnic makeup (63%)

Australia/New Zealand landforms

*Australia: the world's flattest continent with much area dominated by enormous, flat, and dry outback & only significant mountains on SE rim but most peak below 3,000 feet *New Zealand: Rugged landscapes dominate

Caribbean Development

*HDI above-average: Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Cuba, Saint Kitts and Nevis *HDI average: Belize, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Grenada, Jamaica, St Lucia St Vincent, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, and Suriname *HDI well below average: Haiti

Oceania economic geography

*HDI average: Palau and Tonga *HDI below average: Fiji, Fed. St. of Micronesia, Nauru, and Vanuatu *HDI well below average: Kiribati, Solomon Islands, and Tuvalu *many live in small farming or fishing villages and are dependent on root crops, tree crops, fishing, and pigs *economic liabilities: distance, lack of resources, and lack of capital *major industries: tourism, Plantation crops, minerals, military services, and textile production

Oceania Island groups

*Melanesia: group of large islands NE of Australia *Micronesia: thousands of scattered small Islands in Central and W Pacific *Polynesia: thousands of scattered small Islands between Hawaii and New Zealand

Latin America Language

*Portuguese dominant language in Brazil *Spanish dominant language in all other countries *numerous indigenous languages but are in decline

Latin America Religion

*Roman Catholics: largest religious group in every country, a major institution in the colonial process, & more than 90% of pop in Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, Venezuela, and Honduras *Protestants: fastest growing religious movement; focus on individualism, personal wealth, no central authority, and female clergy; 10% of pop in Brazil, Chile, Peru, Uruguay, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Panama

Latin America's political geography

*as they became independent countries poorly defined boundaries led to numerous conflicts *War of the Pacific (1879-1882): Chile v. Bolivia and Peru; results- chili expands N seizing territory from Bolivia and Peru and leaving Bolivia landlocked; fatalities- 20,000 *Mexican-American war (1846-1848): Mexico v. US; results- Mexico relinquishes claim to Texas and US ceases New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Nevada, and California; fatalities- 8,000 *War of the Triple Alliance (1864-1870): Paraguay v. Argentina, Brazil, & Uruguay; results- Paraguay loses territory to Argentina and Brazil; fatalities- 400,000 (included 42% of Paraguay's total pop and 70% of adult male pop) *20th century most conflicts shifted to internal Civil Wars, American interventions, and Cold War proxy wars

Mercantile colonization

*colonies intended to harvest minerals, timber, and agricultural products *indigenous pop forced to serve as labor on farms and mines

Caribbean total pop

*entire region has 42 million people which is smaller than total pop of Colombia *85% live in Greater Antilles: Cuba- 11 million, Dominican Republic- 9 million, and Haiti- 9 million (3 most populous countries) *all other countries except Trinidad and Tobago have less than 1 million

Migration

*except few Islands in Lesser Antilles most countries experienced net migration loss *primary destinations are USA, Britain, Canada, France, and Netherlands *"brain drain" problem but remittances now a substantial source of income throughout region

Columbian Exchange

*exchange of culture, tech, and products between "New World" and "Old World" *Old World to New World: Christianity, political and economic systems, chickens, cows, donkeys, goats, bees, horses, pigs, sheep, rice, wheat, coffee, apples, bananas, barley, smallpox, measles, and influenza *New World to Old World: peppers, cacao, potatoes, tomatoes, corn, rubber, tobacco, peanuts, yeast, turkeys, syphilis *changed agricultural, political, and ethnic patterns around the world. Helped to accelerate the European colonization of Asia (peppers and tobacco) and likely altered the future ethnic make-up of the US

Boom & Bust

*experienced rapid economic growth during the first several years of 2000 (stimulated by increase in demand and prices for raw materials which much of that was fueled by the expansion in China and other emerging economies; prices for oil, natural gas, gold, silver, bauxite, and soybeans all increase substantially; Regional poverty rates decreased; Regional pop defined as middle class increased) *countries are experiencing severe economic decline in recent years resulted from collapse in prices of raw materials which are still the economic base of the region (largely due to overproduction and declining demand in China and other emerging economies) *results: poverty, unemployment, and inflation rates have risen sharply (ex. Venezuela in 2016 was worst economic crisis in nations history and contained an inflation rate of 720%, economy contracted by 10%, and around 87% of Venezuelans now undernourished. Brazil in 2015 saw country's worst economic performance in two decades and economy contracted by 4%, foreign investment decline by 15%, and unemployment Rose from 7%-9%)

Industrialization (the Maquiladora)

*free trade stimulated Manufacturing in Mexico, Honduras, Guatemala, and El Salvador *low-tech manufacturing most outsourced from wealthy countries (prominent Industries- textile and clothing & final assembly of cars, appliances, and consumer electronics; components imported tax free and final products shipped from Latin America tax free) *spurred by lower manufacturing cost (low taxes, labor cost, and far fewer regulations) *problems with maquiladoras: poor working conditions, low pay for factory workers, lower or absent taxes= little money for social programs and infrastructure, and severe environmental pollution

Haciendas

*generally located in interior (highlands away from coast) *grew variety of grains and raise livestock to produce food for mines, missions, and cities *utilized sharecropping (often featured absentee landlords)

Emergence of democracy

*govs dominated by dictatorship and one-party "democracies" supported by wealthy Elites, foreign corpse, the military, and the USA *since 1990 elections have been held in all countries (USA curtails involvement and regions politics with collapse of Soviet Union) *current status of democracy: full democracies with free election & little corruption (Costa Rica and Uruguay), flawed democracies with free election but serious corruption (Mexico, Panama, Colombia, Peru, Chile, Paraguay, Argentina, and Brazil), partial democracies with some suppression of opposition parties and questionable elections (Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Bolivia)

Latin American Landforms

*highlands: chain of mountains along Pacific from Alaska to the Tierra del Fuego (Ex. Sierra Madre, Central American Highlands, Andes Mountains in South America). Region is tectonically active and subject to earthquakes. Also have older deeply eroded highlands in E section of South America (Ex. Guiana & Brazilian Highlands) *lowlands: Mexico & Central America are relatively broad plains descend to Caribbean & Gulf coasts. South America has wedges of lowlands stretch from Andes to Atlantic (Ex. the Llanos, Amazon, Gran Chaco, Pampas, and the Patagonia)

Caribbean islands historical geography

*indigenous cultures: first humans arrived about 6000 years ago and vast majority of Caribbean natives died within a century of colonization *Columbus made landfall in Bahamas in 1492. By 1600s most islands have been colonized. Colonial economies similar to that of Latin America: most of region colonized for purpose of Plantation Agriculture and Timber extraction; slavery a common practice; and colonization left a similar Legacy of authoritarianism, poverty, and economic disparity *Spanish colonies: Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico *French colonies: French Guiana and Haiti *British colonies: Guyana, Belize, and Jamaica *Dutch colony: Suriname *Spain, France, Britain, Denmark, and Netherlands all colonize Islands in Lesser Antilles

Oceana historical and cultural geography

*indigenous pop entered region about 5000 years ago probably from Taiwan & S China (most remote E Islands settled about 1,500 years ago) *ethnic makeup: indigenous (80%), Asian (13%), and European American (7%) *most indigenous people speak languages from Austronesian language family with French and English as lingua francas *religion: Christianity- missionaries arrived on most islands in 1700s and vast majority adopted and continue to practice it, Hinduism- arrived with Tea Plantation workers from India during British period and largest religious group in Fiji, small pockets of Buddhism and Islam we're Asians have settled, and Indigenous beliefs practice on remote Islands

Latin America Colonial Economics

*large land grants given to colonist, military leaders, and the church (best soils and most resources) while forcing small scale farmers onto marginal land and into poverty *major colonial economic institutions: haciendas, plantations, and mines *results: concentrated wealth and political power in the hands of hacienda, plantation, and mine owners which created the ruling class/colonial elites; majority of pop are marginalized farmers, sharecroppers, plantation slaves or workers, or miners that live in poverty; analogy to pre-Civil War US South

International Emigration

*late 20th century has experience the world's highest rates of emigration, regions wealthier economy's received migrants from within the region (like chili, Costa Rica, Venezuela, and Panama), US still the preferred destination, Europe is popular destination specifically from SA *rural to Urban migration: push factors- low wages, high unemployment, and lack of basic human services. Pull factors- opportunity for higher wages and more employment, upward Mobility, and wider range of Education, Healthcare, and public services

Pop growth in Caribbean

*like Latin America experienced rapid pop growth rates during 20th century *TFRs now declining throughout region *high TFRs: Haiti (3.5), Belize (2.9), Dominican Republic (2.8), Jamaica (2.4), and Guyana (2.3) *low TFRs: Cuba (1.5), Trinidad and Tobago (1.6), and Puerto Rico (1.8) *birth rates largely tied to levels of organization, Economic Development, and status of women

Australia/New Zealand pop geography

*low pop densities: Australia has land area about the same size as 48 USA states but only a pop less than Texas while New Zealand has land area about size of Colorado but a pop about size of Kentucky *highly urbanized: Australia is 91% Urban with 61% of pop in five largest cities (Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, and Adelaide) while New Zealand is 86% Urban with 31% of pop in largest city (Auckland) *pop distribution: Australia's highest density in humid SE Highlands and New Zealand highest densities are near ports on N island *low birth rates in aging pop: faces common issues related to labor, conception, and tax base also both countries averse too liberal immigration policies that would boost pop

Latin America Climates

*lower elevations: 23.5N and N degrees are warm year round, 23.5N-23.5S degrees hot year round, S of 23.5S warm year round and S of 34 degrees sound can be cool during the fall *altitudinal zonation in the tropics: small seasonal variation in temp, large percentage of pop. in the tropical highlands, and air temp decreases 1 degrees per 3,000 feet.

Levels of development

*lower overall development than Europe and USA But higher overall development than sub-Saharan Africa, southeast Asia, and South Asia *HDI above-average: Argentina and Chile *HDI average: Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Mexico, Panama, Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela *HDI below-average: Bolivia, El Salvador, Honduras, and Paraguay *HDI well-below-average: Guatemala and Nicaragua

Caribbean islands ethnicity

*majority descended from European colonizers, African slaves, and Asian indentured workers with numerous people from mixed ancestry *African/black: largest ethnic group throughout region with majority in Haiti, Jamaica, Bahamas, and most islands in Lesser Antilles but substantial minority and all other countries *European/White: majority in Cuba and Puerto Rico mostly of Spanish descent and small minorities in most countries in which some descendants of colonial Elite others are more recent migrants (particularly on Islands) *Asians: mostly of South Asian descent (India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh). most populous in the guianas in Trinidad and Tobago with a significant minority on a number of Caribbean islands *Native Americans/indigenous: almost absent on islands with small minority in guiana and Belize

Oceania political geography

*most colonized between 1840 & 1900 with Britain, France, Germany, USA, and Japan as Colonial powers *most achieved Independence between 1960 and 1990 *most are full democracies with few exceptions (Solomon Islands and Fiji are partial democracies with recent history of instability and Corruption while Tonga is a monarchy with few Democratic institutions) *major remaining colonies: France- new Caledonia, French Polynesia, and Wallis Islands; USA- Guam, Mariana Islands, & American Samoa; New Zealand- Cook Islands

Caribbean island landforms

*most islands are volcanic in origin (consists of mostly dormant volcanoes and eroded volcanic plateaus, caused by Collision of Caribbean and Atlantic tectonic plates, region susceptible to earthquakes) *Greater Antilles: Cuba- mostly lowland with low mountains at East and West Ends; Hispaniola, Jamaica, and Puerto Rico- all steeply mountainous or hilly *Lesser Antilles: most are small hilly Islands consisting of one or two volcanoes *the Bahamas: flat Limestone Islands ringed by coral reefs *Belize: flat coastal plains in East and hills in West *the guianas: flat coastal plains in north and hills and mountains in South

African/Black

*nearly all descendants of slaves (1500s-1800s 10 million African slaves brought to Americas) *usually low socioeconomic standing *not largest ethnic group in any Latin American country but significant minority in some *pop claiming at least partial African ancestry: Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuela have 10% or more while Uruguay, Ecuador, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Honduras have 3-10% each country

Oceana landforms and climate

*nearly entire region in tropics with tropical rainforest most common climate *three Island types: Continental (found in Melanesia and tectonically attached to Continental shelves often elongated islands with Central Mountain Spine), high Islands (islands of volcanic origin, conical islands with sloping from Central volcano), and low Islands (made of coral and are flat often forming a ring like atoll)

Mestizos

*people of mixed Native American and European background *largest ethnic group in Latin America and more common in Latin America than in U.S (much larger pre-colonial pop and few women participated in colonization) *largest single ethnic group in Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, Venezuela, Mexico, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, and Guatemala

European/White

*primarily of Spanish and Portuguese descent also includes descendants of many Post Independent migrants (ex. Ireland, Germany, and Italy) *the economically, political, and cultural Elite in most countries *largest single ethnic group in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay, in Costa Rica

Latin America Population Growth

*region experienced Big Pop growth during 20th century total pop went from 59 million in 1900 to 510 Million by 2000 *demographic transition has impacted growth *TFR declining during second half of 20th century with strongest influences in level of gender equality, urbanization, and education *TFR: above world average at 2.8 (Bolivia, Guatemala, Honduras, and Paraguay), above replacement rate but below World average at 2.1 (Argentina, Colombia, Ecuador, El Salvador, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, andVenezuela), & the replacement rate (Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica, and Uruguay) *pop will continue to grow, 28% of Pop under 15 & disturbing Prospect for where majority of people live in poverty

Informal economy

*regular permanent employment in manufacturing and services is unavailable too many in the region *nearly half of urban dwellers work in the informal economy that takes place outside of traditional economic Market *"Underground" economy: contract, untaxed by the government, and does not involve regular wages, benefits, or gov regulations *ex: crafts and services, Street vending, day labor, garbage picking, small-scale manufacturing, drugs, weapons, prostitution, and money laundering

Hot lands ("tierra caliente")

*sea level-3,000 feet *climate: high temps *economy: plantations near river valleys and mouths, shifting cultivation, logging, and mining elsewhere *pop: dense near plantations and major seaports; sparse elsewhere *ethnicity: few Native Americans, some Europeans, and densest concentration of Africans

Political future of Puerto Rico

*self-governing Commonwealth since 1952 (are USA citizens with full constitutional rights and are free to migrate to the mainland & more live on the mainland and in Puerto Rico) *is not a state and therefore has no representation in Congress or votes in the Electoral College *does not enjoy the same funding and financial protections as states do *are not required to pay the federal income tax but also do not receive the same benefits as Mainland residents *options for Puerto Rico's future: Independence, statehood, or Commonwealth *it has held for referendums on his political status. These are referendums are non-binding and Congress is free to take action on statehood or not. In 1967 only 30% of Pop wanted statehood now in 2012 61% of Pop want statehood

Emigration on sending communities

*sending communities: rural areas, smaller towns, and cities (Latin America as a whole) *negative consequence: brain drain (the most resourceful, educated, and ambitious are the emigrants and sending communities lose most talented young adults) *positive consequences: remittances (they can contribute to family and community, it allows significant portion of GDP in some countries, & ex. 2006 Latin American working in US remit $45 billion)

Asian

*small pop of Indian and Chinese scattered throughout most are descendants of indentured agricultural workers *Japanese: thousands immigrated to region in late 1800s early 1900s with largest concentration in Brazil and Peru and small minority but influential and Agricultural and Industry (many initial immigrants arrived with some capital)

Caribbean major industries

*tourism: primarily from the USA and Europe and are a major source of Revenue on many islands (especially Bahamas, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, Jamaica, and Lesser Antilles); despite USA travel ban tourism now primary source of Revenue in Cuba *Plantation agriculture: leading export industry in region- sugarcane, coffee, bananas, and tobacco; most plantations are owned by Foreign corpse, wealthy landowners, or (in Cuba) the gov with workers earning low wages *mining: most countries possess few mineral resources but major exceptions in Trinidad and Tobago (oil), Jamaica (bauxite), and Cuba (nickel) *Manufacturing: maquiladoras style is growing source of Revenue in countries (Puerto Rico, Barbados, St Kitts and Nevis, Haiti, and a Dominican Republic); mainly chemicals and textiles *internet gambling and Offshore Banking common in Lesser Antilles

Green Revolution

*use of Machinery, high-yield hybrid crops, chemical pesticides and fertilizers *reduces need for labor in rural areas *increases yield of farming but also its capital inputs (smaller Farmers driven out by large-scale corporate farms) *displaced farmers and laborers migrated to cities

Caribbean island climate

all areas are generally warm and wet year round. Wettest and Eastern Islands, Guianas, and Coastal Belize

Australia/New Zealand physical geography

isolated outpost, natural ecology, & the threat of invasive species

Monroe Doctrine & Cold War

like Latin America this region has long history of USA military interventions and democracy has flourished in the region since the end of the Cold War

Mines

located throughout Latin America but productive in Andes, Mexico, and Brazilian Highlands