Geography Exam 2

Southwest Asia and North Africa: Pastoral Nomadism

a traditional form of subsistence agriculture where people move livestock seasonally; nomads practice transhumance—seasonally moving livestock to cooler, greener highcountry pastures in summer and returning to valleys and lowlands for fall and winter grazing—practiced in Atlas Mountains and Anatolian Plateau

Europe: International Migration to Europe

After Second World War, many foreign workers moved between countries; many countries also imported workers from Africa, Asia, and other former colonies; after collapse of Soviet Union, substantial in-migration from former Soviet satellite countries

Sub-Saharan Africa: Women and Development

Development gains will not be realized unless economic contributions of women are recognized; women are invisible contributors to local and national economies—but these are considered informal activities

Russia: Socialist realism

During Soviet period, socialist realism—a style devoted to realistic depiction of workers struggling against nature or capitalism—dominated; traditional high arts, including classical music and ballet, continued to be supported by state subsidies

Southwest Asia and North Africa: Hydropolitics

interplay of water resource issues and politics—has raised tensions between countries that share drainage basins; region's physical geography produced choke points—where narrow waterways are vulnerable to military blockade or disruption

Europe: Languages spoken

language has been important component of nationalism and group identity; EU honors linguistic mosaic by recognizing more than 20 official languages; 90 percent of Europe's population speaks Germanic, Romance, or Slavic languages

Southwest Asia and North Africa: Modern Geopolitical Issues

on-going geopolitical instability

Russia: Brain-drain

'brain-drain' becoming an issue for Russia, as many young, well-educated, and upwardly mobile Russians are moving to other European countries and the United States

Europe: What is the European lowland?

Also known as North European Plain; economic focus of western Europe; forms arc from southern France to northeast Poland; also includes southeastern England; high population density, intensive agriculture, major cities and industrial regions; includes several of Europe's great ports; includes several major rivers, including Rhine, Loire, Thames, and Elbe

Sub-Saharan Africa: Pasoralism

Animal husbandry is important in Sub-Saharan Africa— especially in semiarid zones; camels and goats are principle livestock in the Sahel and Horn of Africa; cattle more important toward the south; pastoralists typically graze stock on stubble of harvested fields during dry season and move to drier, uncultivated areas during wet season; large expanses of region have been off-limits to cattle because of infestation of tsetse flies—which spread sleeping sickness; tsetse fly eradication programs are reducing threat and cattle raising is spreading—this may pose problems for continued survival of many wild animals, however, as more land is required for cattle raising

Europe: Cold War Thaw

Berlin Wall torn down in 1989 and Germany was reunited; Cold War ended as result of numerous factors, including economic problems in Soviet Union, revolutions in satellite countries; with collapse of Cold War, Europe's map reconfigured again

Southwest Asia and North Africa: Judaism (Torah, Abraham)

Both Jews and Christians trade religious roots to eastern Mediterranean hearth; monotheism— belief in one God; Christianity as outgrowth of Judaism emerged in vicinity of modern-day Israel

Sub-Saharan Africa: Economics (Roots of poverty, connections to global economy, role of China): Economic and Social Development: The Struggle to Rebuild

By most measures, SubSaharan Africa is world's poorest region; some small, resource-rich states do fairly well, but most do not; the 1990s were especially difficult for region—AIDs crisis was raging, economic and debt crisis also caused widespread poverty following introduction of structural adjustment programs—these reduced government spending, cut food subsidies, and encouraged private-sector initiatives, but caused hardship for the poor; since 2000 there have been signs of economic growth

Sub-Saharan Africa: Introduction and Spread of Christianity

Christianity arrived first in northeastern Africa; kingdoms in Ethiopia and central Sudan covered by 300 CE—Coptic form was adopted; European settlers and missionaries introduced Christianity to other parts beginning in 1600s; generally, Protestant Christianity prevails in areas of former British colonization and Catholicism prevails in former French, Belgian, and Portuguese territories

Sub-Saharan Africa: Decolonization and Independence

Decolonization occurred quickly and relatively peacefully beginning in 1957; many independence movements, however, originated in the early 1900s; during the 1950s political demands in African and changing attitudes in Europe led to decolonization efforts; by mid-1960s most of Sub-Saharan Africa had achieved independence; dynamic African leaders quickly put their mark on the region (e.g. Jomo Kenyatta, Kwame Nkrumah); in 1963 the Organization of African Unity was founded (renamed African Union in 2002)—this is a continent wide organization whose main role is to mediate disputes between neighbors

Russia: End of USSR (Gorbachev, Perestroika and Glasnost)

Ethnic nationalism intensified in postWorld War II era as Soviet system grew less impressive; Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev initiated glasnost (greater openness) policy during the 1980s; several republics (e.g. Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia) demanded independence; Gorbachev's policy of perestroika (restructuring) lead to further changes of political system; failed war in Afghanistan contributed to political turmoil; Soviet Union collapsed in 1991 as all 15 constituent republics gained independence

Europe: A Geography of Judaism

Europe long been difficult region for Jews; severe persecution, pogroms, and especially the Holocaust during World War II

Sub-Saharan Africa: European colonization

Europeans did not immediately gain effective control over region; colonization occurred over centuries, beginning in the 1400s; European presence first felt along coastal West Africa and East Africa

Europe: The Alpine Mountain System

Forms topographic spine of Europe; stretches from Atlantic to Black Sea; distinct regional names, including Pyrenees, Alps, Apennines, Carpathians, Dinaric Alps, and Balkin Ranges

Russia: Growing Economic Globalization

Globalization and Russia's Petroleum Economy: Russia's oil and gas industry remains one of strongest economic links to global economy; Russia is world's largest gas export and second largest oil exporter in world; Russia's geography of oil exports has shifted with expansion of facilities and infrastructure; state-controlled Russian companies increasingly playing larger role

Sub-Saharan Africa: The impact of AIDS of Africa

HIV/AIDs has been one of world's deadliest epidemics; virus possibly emerged in the Congo in the 1950s—impact most widely felt beginning in the 1980s; because of dominant means of transmission, women often bear disproportionate burden of epidemic; until 1990s, most African governments did not acknowledge severity of the problem; southern Africa is ground zero for epidemic in Africa; social and economic implications have been profound—notably, life expectancies have fallen dramatically in recent years; mortality especially pronounced among the working age—thus impacting economic productivity of region; there are hopeful signs—prevention measures being taught, treatment with drugs becoming more prevalent, changes in sexual practices likewise promoted to reduce spread of disease

Russia: Alcoholism

Health care is major problem in Russia; mortality rates are high, especially from cardiovascular disease; alcohol use rates are exceptionally high compared to other countries; Russian leaders initiated anti-drinking campaign in 2010, citing alcoholism as 'national disaster'

Sub-Saharan Africa: Southern Africa's Independence Battles

Independence was not as easy in southern Africa; in Southern Rhodesia (modern-day Zimbabwe) for example approximately 250,000 white residents were unwilling to see power pass to country's black majority; disputes over land-reform remain problematic; Portugal likewise refused to peacefully relinquish control over its African colonies—armed resistance and conflict erupted in Angola and Mozambique, and these conflicts became embroiled in global Cold War politics

Sub-Saharan Africa: Introduction and spread of Islam

Islam began to advance into SubSaharan Africa approximately 1,000 years ago; Berber traders from North Africa and the Sahara introduced religion into the Sahel; the religion gradually spread to other parts through trade

Sub-Saharan Africa: Interaction between religious traditions

Islam's southward spread and Christianity's northward spread resulted in complex religious frontier across much of West Africa; in some regions (e.g Nigeria), religious conflict has been relatively rare until recent years; elsewhere, religious conflict has been more acute—especially northeast Africa (e.g. Sudan)

Southwest Asia and North Africa: The Arab-Israeli Impasse

Israel as state created in 1948; zone of enduring political tensions; Arab Palestinians continue to demand independent state; Israel's relations with neighbors remain tense; agreements for provisional Palestinian state governed by Palestinian Authority have been proposed—but ongoing violence jeopardizes any solution; heightened conflict surrounding expansion of Jewish settlements into Palestinian territories, as erection of security barrier (wall); political fragmentation of Palestinians compounds problems

Southwest Asia and North Africa: Jerusalem

Israel's capital—holds special significance for Muslims, Jews, and Christians

Russia: The Legacy of the Soviet Economy

Much of the present economic infrastructure (dams, canals, rail lines)was established during the Soviet era; Soviet leaders pursued centralized economic planning, in which state controlled production targets and industrial output; heavy basic industries (steel, machinery, chemicals) were promoted, to the neglect of consumer goods; agriculture was based on large collectives and state-controlled farms

Southwest Asia and North Africa: Christianity

Muslims form majority of population in all countries except Israel—where Judaism dominates; divisions within Islam create regional cultural differences; most of region dominated by Sunni Muslims; but Shiites remain key in some locations, including Iraq, Iran, and Bahrain—also substantial minorities in Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Egypt; other variations of Islam include Sufism, which is prominent in Atlas Mountains, parts of Turkey; the Druze of Lebanon also another variant; many nonIslamic communities in region, including Christians in Lebanon

Sub-Saharan Africa: Religion

Native African religions often described as animist—a misleading, catch-all term used to classify local religions that do not fit into one of handful of 'world religions'; most animist religions centered on worship of nature and ancestral spirits; Christianity and Islam entered Sub-Saharan Africa early in their histories, but spread slowly

Southwest Asia and North Africa: Geopolitical Framework

Never-Ending Tensions: tensions remain high; recent Arab Spring rebellions led to downfall of governments in Egypt, Tunisia, Libya, Yemen; protests also in Bahrain; protracted civil war in Syria; uprisings focused on: charges of widespread government corruption, limited opportunities for democracy and free elections, rising food prices, and enduring poverty and high unemployment; other ongoing issues include future of Israeli-Palestinian relations, Iran's nuclear ambitions, and Iraq; some tensions related to colonial past, religious diversity, poverty, and environmental resources

Russia: Geopolitical issues outside (denuclearization, Crimea, North Korea) and inside (Putin, civil liberties)

Pressure remains for continued localized political control; Russian leaders, especially Vladimir Putin, have attempted to centralize control; crackdowns on suspected and actual dissidents have continued, especially in Chechnya q

Europe: Irredentism

Redrawing the Map of Europe Through War: two world wars radically reshaped geopolitical map of Europe in twentieth-century; new states were created, old states dismantled; successive attempts to reconfigure political divisions; many states attempted to reclaim lost territory—process known as irredentism;

Russia: Migration

Region has witnessed numerous migrations over past 150 years, both voluntary and forced

Europe: Moving Toward Stability

Serbia does not recognize Kosovo independence; Slovenia has joined EU, and other Balkan states have begun membership process

Europe: The Schengen Agreement

Signed in 1985, agreement originally intended to facilitate movement between EU member countries; but not all EU countries are members of agreement, nor is membership restricted to EU member countries; Agreement is controversial because absence of internal border controls facilitates illegal migration from outside of Europe

Russia: Slavic Language and Identity (Ukraine)

Slavic languages dominate the region; Belarus is more or less nation-state; eastern Ukraine composed mostly of Russian speakers, while in western Ukraine, most speak no Russia; in Russia, approximately 80 percent claim Russian linguistic identity; Russia also exhibits pockets of indigenous peoples and non-Russian speakers, including Finno-Ugric and Altaic; dozens of different languages in Transcaucasia

Europe: Population Growth Issues

Slow growth and rapid migration. Low (or no) natural growth, complicated patterns of internal and international migration, high levels of urbanization. Pro-Growth policies have been initiated to promote population growth. Attempts to ban abortion and sale of contraceptives, full-pay maternity leave, extensive child-care facilities, cash subsidies, free or low-cost public education and job training.

Russia: Development of USSR (Bolsheviks, Lenin, Stalin)

Soviet Union emerged following collapse of Russian Empire in 1917; the Bolsheviks, a faction of Russian communists, seized control; Vladimer Ilyich Ulyanov, known by selfselection name of Lenin, became architect of Soviet Union

Russia: Creating a Political Structure

Soviet Union was composed of 15 territorial republics with specially recognized autonomous areas; the Union was highly centralized, with political control emanating from the Russian capital of Moscow; chief architect of political consolidation was Joseph Stalin; Stalin period (1922-1953) witnessed enlargement of Soviet Union; Soviets extended an Iron Curtain between eastern European allies and more democratic nations of Western Europe

Sub-Saharan Africa: Wildlife Conservation

Sub-Saharan Africa is famous for its wildlife; a number of wildlife reserves have been established, mostly in East Africa and southern Africa—these are vital for wildlife protection and tourism; poaching is a major problem; the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) was imposed in 1989 to ban ivory trade—this was lifted in late 1990s however; ivory controversy shows how differences in animal distribution in the region, global markets, and international conservation policies are impacting longterm survival of elephants in the region

Sub-Saharan Africa: Links to the World Economy

Sub-Saharan Africa's trade connections with world are limited; overall trade is low both within region and outside; China is emerging as major trade partner for much of region; lack of connectivity is changing, though, with spread of cellular and digital technology; Internet especially is facilitating sharing of information

Europe: What affects the weather in Europe?

The Atlantic ocean is a major climate control, and contributes to marine west coast climate where no winter months average below freezing; further inland land-mass heating and cooling becomes strong climatic control

Europe: What are the 4 landform regions?

The European lowland, The alpine mountain system, central uplands, western highlands

Sub-Saharan Africa: Sahel

The Sahel is zone of ecological transition between Sahara to the north and the wetter savannas and forests to the south; life in the Sahel depends on balance of limited rain, drought-resistant plants, and pattern of animal transhumance— movement of animals between wet-season and dry-season pasture; disagreement exists over basic causes of desertification and drought in the Sahel—too many humans degrading environment? Unsound settlement schemes encouraged by European colonialists? Main practices cited in desertification are expansion and overgrazing; some regions of Sahel experiencing vegetative recovery because of new practices by farmers, change in government policy, and increased rainfall; one key has been permitting farmers to own trees

Sub-Saharan Africa: The Sahel and Desertification

The Sahel is zone of ecological transition between Sahara to the north and the wetter savannas and forests to the south; life in the Sahel depends on balance of limited rain, drought-resistant plants, and pattern of animal transhumance— movement of animals between wet-season and dry-season pasture; disagreement exists over basic causes of desertification and drought in the Sahel—too many humans degrading environment? Unsound settlement schemes encouraged by European colonialists? Main practices cited in desertification are expansion and overgrazing; some regions of Sahel experiencing vegetative recovery because of new practices by farmers, change in government policy, and increased rainfall; one key has been permitting farmers to own trees

Russia: The Nuclear Threat

The Soviet Union's nuclear programs ignored issues of environmental safety; as a result many environments have been poisoned by unregulated dumping of nuclear wastes; aging nuclear reactors also continue to contaminate rivers with plutonium leaks

Russia: The Ural Mountains and Siberia

Ural Mountains separate European Russia from Siberia; Ural Mountains are relatively low and contain valuable mineral resources; Siberia has very cold climate, little precipitation; three keys rivers (Ob, Yenisey, and Lena); Siberia's vegetation is dominated in the north by permafrost and tundra, to the south with taiga (a coniferous forest zone)

Russia: Challenges for Women

Violence against women, including beatings and rapes, are common and government authorities have been slow to respond; human trafficking is also widespread problem; region remains a source area for Internet brides—a practice that can invite additional violence against women

Russia: Population Distribution

With better agriculture and milder climate, western sub-region is more heavily populated; European Russia has population of 100 million, compared to only 35 million in Siberia. Belarus, Moldova, and Ukraine, also in the west, have a combined population of 60 million

Sub-Saharan Africa: Population Distribution and Trends: Population and Settlement

Young and Restless: population is increasing rapidly; family size tends to be large—TFRs are frequently around five children per woman; high child and maternal mortality rates are also present; life expectancy is low, and has fallen because of HIV/AIDs; growth of cities is another dominant trend; the region exhibits a complex pattern of settlement, livelihood systems, belief systems, and access to health care; the region as a whole is not densely populated

Sub-Saharan Africa: Export agriculture

agricultural exports are critical to economies of many African states; if region is to import modern goods and energy resources, they must sell own products on world markets—these are mostly primary products derived from farming, mining, and forestry; several African states rely on one or two export crops only—e.g. coffee is vital for Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanzania; peanuts have been primary crop for much of the Sahel; cotton is important for Central African Republic and South Sudan; Ghana and Ivory Coast major supplies of cacao; Liberia produces plantation rubber; Nigeria specializes in palm oil; nontraditional agricultural exports have emerged, such as floriculture industry—highly tropical climates are advantageous for the planting and export of flower industry; some producers in West and East Africa providing fresh vegetables and fruits in the winter for European markets; these latter industries have benefitted from significant capital inputs and refrigerated air transport

Russia: Potential Benefits of Global Climate Change

agricultural zones may increase, leading to increased productivity; less severe winters may facilitate increased energy exploration and development; warmer temperatures and less ice in the Arctic Ocean may translate into better commercial fishing, easier navigation, and overall improvements in commerce

Southwest Asia and North Africa: Deforestation and Overgrazing

an ancient problem in region; human activities combined with natural conditions have reduce most of region's forests to grass and scrubs; several governments have launched reforestation schemes

Southwest Asia and North Africa: The Geography of Population

approximately 500 million people in region, distribution is varied; dense populations along coasts of Atlas Mountains; much of Egypt is sparsely populated except along Nile River; in Southwest Asia, many people live in coastal zones; high population densities in better watered areas of eastern Mediterranean, Turkey, and Iran; physiological density—number of people per unit area of arable land—is very high by global standards

Southwest Asia and North Africa: The Colonial Legacy

between 1550 and 1850 region dominated by Ottoman Empire; later European colonialism, especially France and Great Britain; construction of Suez Canal linked Mediterranean and Red Seas in 1869— greater incorporation to world economy; Persia and Turkey never directly occupied by Europeans—most other places were; European withdrawal began prior to Second World War, intensified in 1950s—many post-colonial tensions following independence

Russia: The Challenge of Corruption

corruption remains widespread throughout Russian domain; organized crime is pervasive in Russia; Russian mafia has gone global and is implicated in vast moneylaundering schemes

Sub-Saharan Africa: Corruption

corruption seems to be especially prevalent in SubSaharan Africa; some states, such as Democratic Republic of the Congo, have been termed kleptocracies—states in which corruption is so institutionalized that most politicians and government bureaucrats siphon off huge percentages of country's wealth

Sub-Saharan Africa: Population trends and demographic debates

demographic profile is changing; child mortality rates have declined but life expectancy has also declined because of HIV/AIDs; some countries, such as Ethiopia, have rapidly increasing and youthful populations; others, such as South Africa, are more slower-growing

Sub-Saharan Africa: Environmental Issues

dominant perception of Africa is one of environmental scarcity and degradation—this is not entirely accurate; deforestation and desertification are commonplace and region is vulnerable to drought; but region is also home to impressive wildlife conservation areas

Europe: Germanic Languages

dominate Europe north of the Alps; includes German, English, Dutch, Flemish, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, and Icelandic

Europe: The Protestant Revolt

during 16th century division between Catholicism and Protestantism; split between these two major groups is less problematic

Southwest Asia and North Africa: Legacies of a Vulnerable Landscape

environmental history reflects both short-sighted and resourceful practices; reveals hazards of lengthy human settlement on marginal lands; island of Socotra illustrates fragile and vulnerable environment and shows how processes of globalization threaten area's ecological health

Europe: Western Highlands

extend from Portugal through British Isles to highlands of Norway, Sweden, and Finland; spectacular coastlines of fjords; thin soils limit agricultural activity

Southwest Asia and North Africa: Economic and Social Development:Lands of Wealth and Poverty:

extremes of wealth and poverty; some states very rich because of oil, others are among leastdeveloped; political instability contributes to region's overall struggling economy

Sub-Saharan Africa: Failed Development Policies

following independence, many African governments relied heavily on export of mineral and agricultural products; commodities prices declined in the 1980s, causing economic decline; significant mistakes made by some leaders were in agricultural and food policies—object was to maintain cheap supply of staple foods in urban areas, yet majority of Africans were farmers— who suffered tremendously under the policies; more recently, several states have experienced land grabs driven by food-insecure governments

Europe: Eastern vs Western Europe

from 1945 to 1990, Europe was divided into two geopolitical and economic blocs, separated by the 'Iron Curtain'; to the east the Soviet Union imposed communism, to the west, Europe established alliances and institutions

Russia: Climate Change

given northerly location, global warming may benefit region; in actuality, climate change will have positive and negative impacts

Southwest Asia and North Africa: The Geography of Fossil Fuels

global geographies of oil and natural gas reveal region's importance to global economy; also reflects uneven distribution of resources within region

Europe: Conflicts with Islam

historically, both eastern and western Christian churches struggled with challenges from Islamic empires to south and east; long history of crusades; continued presence of Islam in Balkans especially

Sub-Saharan Africa: The scramble for Africa

in 1884 representatives from 13 European countries (and the U.S.) met at the Berlin Conference to establish guidelines for the territorial division of Africa; several indigenous African states offered resistance, but within matter of years, much of Africa was under European control; South Africa—one of the oldest colonies—became the first state to achieve independence; South Africa, however, was dominated by Afrikaners—white South Africans who imposed apartheid in 1948

Europe: The ECSC and EEC

in 1950 leaders of western Europe proposed new arrangements of economic integration; European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) formed in 1952; five years later the European Economic Community was established

Europe: Fromm EEC to EU

in 1965 the Brussels Treaty laid groundwork for political union, as the EEC became the European Community (EC); in 1991 the EC expanded goals to become the European Union (EU); currently the EU consists of 27 countries

Europe: Balkan Wars of Independence

in 1990s the state of Yugoslavia fragmented as different republics seceded: Slovenia and Croatia declared independence—though Serbs did not support; Kosovo likewise attempted to secede, which Serbia failed to recognize; war and ethnic cleansing were rampant in region

Europe: The European Monetary Union

in 1999, 11 of then-15 EU members joined to form European Monetary Union; individual monetary systems were replaced with common currency—the Euro; in 2002 'Euroland' was formed, as euro coins and bills replaced different national currencies; Euroland members sought to increase efficiency and competitiveness of domestic and international business; some EU member countries (e.g., United Kingdom) express reservations and have not joined; some countries (Germany) have benefitted while others (Spain, Greece, Portugal) have been hindered

Russia: New International Movements

in post-Soviet era, Russification has been reversed and ethnic Russians return from newly independent nonRussia countries; many immigrants also arriving from non-Slavic regions, including Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and China

Europe: Romance Languages

include French, Spanish, and Italian; evolved from 'everyday' Latin used within Roman Empire; Italian is most widely used Romance language; languages all have distinct regional dialects; other languages includes Portuguese and Romanian—this latter includes many Slavic words

Russia: The European West

includes European Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine; intricate river-and-canal system provides regional integration; most of region experiences cold winters and cool summers; three distinctive sub-environments—poor soils, cold temperatures in north, longer growing seasons but acidic soils in central, and expansive grasslands and fertile soils to the south

Sub-Saharan Africa: The disease factor

initial European (especially Portuguese) colonization was limited because of prevalence of tropical diseases— malaria, sleeping sickness, especially; discovery of quinine in 1850s changed balance of power and facilitated European colonization

Europe: The Slavic Language Family

largest European sub-family of IndoEuropean languages; traditionally separated into northern and southern groups; in the north, there is Polish, Czech, Ukrainian; southern Slav languages include Serbo-Croation, Bulgarian-Macedonian, and Slovenian; two distinct alphabets are used—in those countries with strong Roman Catholic heritage (e.g. Poland and Czech Republic), Latin alphabet is used, while countries with close ties to Orthodox Church (e.g. Bulgaria, Montenegro, and Macedonia) use the Greek derived Cyrillic alphabet

Russia: Political Motives

leaders during imperial and Soviet eras forcibly relocated people to new locations (1) to extend Russia's political and economic power and (2) as part of vast security-prison complex—the Gulag Archipelago

Russia: The Caucasus and Transcaucasia

located in region's extreme south and situated between Black and Caspian Seas; diverse topography including flat terrain, low hills, and Caucasus Mountains; complex weather and climate patterns; agriculture is generally good

Sub-Saharan Africa: Afrikaners and Apartheid

major cities of southern Africa are colonial in origin; most grew as administrative or mining centers; foundations of region's urban economy rest on rich mineral resources; form of South African cities continue to reflect legacy of apartheid— official policy of racial segregation; under apartheid, South African cities divided into residential areas based on racial categories—white, coloured (mixed ancestry), Indian (South Asian), and African (black); Johannesburg epitomizes modern urban face of South Africa.

Russia: Russian Challenge to Civil Liberties

members of the urban middle class, human rights groups, and opposition political parties have demand more political reforms, greater democracy, open elections, and commitment to economic growth; criticism also leveled against Putin's close ties to the siloviki—members of the nation's military and security forces; Russian government continues to crackdown on civil liberties, including freedom of the press

Europe: Climate types

moderate and moist maritime climate along Atlantic coast, continental climates with hotter summers and colder winters found inland, and dry summer Mediterranean climate found in southern Europe

Russia: Eastern Orthodox and Islam

most Russians, Belarusians, and Ukrainians are Eastern Orthodox Christians; following downfall of Soviet Union, a religious revival is underway; pockets of Catholicism and Protestantism found throughout Russia; most non-Christians located in Caucuses'; a growing Islamic political consciousness is present throughout the region.

Russia: Eastward Movement

movement fueled by search for natural resources; pace increased in late 19th century with completion of Trans-Siberian Railroad; some settlers attracted by agricultural opportunities and greater political freedoms; indigenous peoples displaced

Russia: The Post-Soviet Economy

much of former centralized, state-controlled economic apparatus has been replaced by mixed economy of state-run operations and private enterprises; fundamental problems of unstable currencies, corruption, and changing government policies typified the 1990s

Sub-Saharan Africa: Aid Versus Investment

much of region is connected through flow of financial aid and loans rather than goods; economic aid is very important for many African states; overall level of foreign investment is very low; China is leading investor in the region—to secure oil and ore, China has invested in roads, railways, housing, schools

Sub-Saharan Africa: Language Patterns

multiple languages are present in most African states; indigenous languages often localized to relatively small areas; overlaying native languages are Indo-European and Afro-Asiatic languages; most African countries are officially multi-lingual; Swahili and Hausa often serve as lingua franca a. African Language Groups: Niger-Congo, Nilo-Saharan, and Khoisan are unique to the region; other language groups (Afro-Asiatic, Austronesian, and Indo-European) were introduced; Afro-Asiatic (especially Arabic) dominate North Africa; Austronesian language family limited to Madagascar; Indo-European languages are legacy of colonialism and are widely used; Niger-Congo is most important to region as a whole—originated in West Africa and includes Mandingo, Yoruba, Fulani, and Igbo; Swahili, which emerged from Bantu subfamily of Niger-Congo languages, is most widely spoken language in region

Southwest Asia and North Africa: Managing Water

occupants have modified drainage systems and water flows for thousands of years—usually at local level; scope of environmental change in recent years has been magnified, with construction of major dams, leading to additional problems of silting, salinization, and collapse of fishing industries; in some places, waterharvesting strategies have proven useful; fossil water—water supplies stored underground, have been utilized; some countries investing in seawater desalination projects

Europe: Central Uplands

older highland region between Alps and European Lowlands; region contains deposits of raw materials for Europe's industries

Southwest Asia and North Africa: Islam

originated in region in 622 CE former; now diffused widely but remains centered in Southwest Asia; follow religious teachings of Muhammad, founder of Islam, who was born in Mecca in 570 CE and taught in Medina; parallel JudeoChristian traditions but hold that Quran—book of teachings received by Muhammad from Allah (God)—represents God's highest religious and moral revelations to humanity; Islam offers blueprint for leading ethical and religious life; Islam means 'submission to the will of God'; five essential activities: repeating basic creed; paying facing Mecca five times daily, given charitable contributions, fasting during Ramadan, and making at least one pilgrimage (Hajj) to Mecca; Islamic fundamentalists argue for theocratic state—in which religious leaders (ayatollahs) shape government policy; major religion division occurred in 632 CE after death of Muhammad—Shiites favored passing on power within Muhammad's family, while most Muslims, later known as Sunnis, advocated power passed through clergy; Sunni Islam remains mainstream branch; Islam diffused along caravan routes and military campaigns; Ottoman Empire was focus of Muslim political power between 16th and 20th centuries

Southwest Asia and North Africa: Other Regional Conflicts

political instability (civil war) in Syria— larger Arab community suspended Syria from Arab League—a regional political and economic organization focused on Arab unity and development; Iraq as multinational state and remains unstable following invasion and occupation by US-led coalition—on-going tensions between Shiites and Sunnis, as well as Kurds; protests elsewhere in region, including Bahrain; Iran continues to pose problem with nuclear ambitions and its support of Shiite Islamist elements elsewhere—viewed as threat by moderate Arab states

Russia: Air and Water Pollution

poor air quality, resultant from industrialization, is pervasive throughout many cities; growth in private automobile ownership is compounding problems; urban water supplies are vulnerable to industrial pollution and raw sewage; oil spills have negative affected many rivers, lakes, and seas

Sub-Saharan Africa: Agricultural practices

population is mostly rural; people are widely scattered throughout region; African cities are however rapidly growing

Russia: The Demographic Crisis

region faces declining populations, low birthrates, and relatively high mortality; government has initiated program to encourage higher birthrates

Russia: The European Core

region is home to largest cities, biggest industrial complexes, and most productive farms; highly populated river valleys

Russia: Siberian Hinterlands

relatively sparse settlement, isolated, but sizeable cities located mainly along major rail lines, such as the TransSiberian Railroad and the Baikal-Amur Mainline

Southwest Asia and North Africa: Regional Economic Patterns

remarkable economic differences characterize region

Southwest Asia and North Africa: Salinization

the buildup of toxic salts in the soil is long problem; resultant from irrigation practices; problem especially severe in Iraq

Southwest Asia and North Africa: Higher-Income Oil Exporters

richest countries of region—Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, United Arab Emirates—owe their wealth to massive oil reserves; large investments in infrastructure; problems remain—fluctuations in world oil markets, and also specter of depleting reserves (esp. Bahrain and Oman)

Russia: Potential Hazards of Global Climate Change

rising sea level may inundate low-lying cities, including St. Petersburg; indigenous people, flora, and fauna may be negatively impacted by environmental changes; potential thawing of Siberian permafrost (and thus release of carbon) may accelerate global warming

Sub-Saharan Africa: Life for the Region's Poorest

securing sustainable livelihoods for Africa's poor majority is an ongoing challenge; some of poorest countries have experimented with innovative community development strategies; role of the informal sector.

Europe: Cold War Geography

seeds of Cold War planted during the Second World War as Soviet Union, Britain, and the United States planned for post-war reconstruction of Europe; Soviet Union desired buffer zone between its territories and western Europe—buffer zone consisted of extensive bloc of satellite countries; along borders between 'east' and 'west', military forces stood guard; organizations established, including North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Warsaw Pact; Berlin was symbolic epicenter of Cold War

Europe: Migration within Europe

since 1957 the EU has attempted to promote freer movement of people and goods within Europe; currently, residents of 27 EU countries can move about very easily; migration has impacted national population growth and loss

Russia: Privatization and State Control

since 1990s the economy has opened to private initiative and investment, but lack of legal and financial safeguards invited abuses, mismanagement, and corruption; agriculture, although privatized, remains little changed from Soviet era in terms of productivity and distribution; retaining establishments have increased, as has the 'informal economy'; natural resources and heavy industrial sectors, while initially privatized, have come under statemanagement; successes of new economy are increasingly visible on landscape, with new malls, buildings, and housing subdivisions; in rural areas (especially Siberia), poverty continues to be defining feature of everyday life

Southwest Asia and North Africa: Across North Africa

site of recent dramatic political changes; in Tunisia, moderate Islamist government replaced deposed dictator; in Libya former dictator replaced; in Egypt former president replaced; all regions exhibit complex interplay of religion and politics; Islamist political movements elsewhere in North Africa—esp. Algeria and Morocco; Sudan facing problems, including split between Sudan and South Sudan; Sudan's western Darfur region still site of conflict

Sub-Saharan Africa: Status of Women

social position of women in Sub-Saharan Africa is difficult to measure; female traders in West Africa have considerable political and economic power; based on female labor force participation rates, many African countries show relative gender equality; many women in traditional societies do not suffer social restrictions as seen in South Asia, Southwest Asia, or North Africa; however, prevalence of polygamy, practice of 'bride-price' and tendency for males to inherit property over females contributes to marginal social position of women; most African women still live in remote villages where educational and wage-earning opportunities are limited

Southwest Asia and North Africa: Lower-income Oil Exporters

some countries with reserves of fossil fuels—but political and economic variables hinder sustained growth— Algeria for example; also Iraq and Iran

Southwest Asia and North Africa: Prospering Without Oil

some states have prospered without fossil fuels—Israel (productive agricultural and industrial base); Turkey (diversified economy)

Russia: The Russian Far East

southerly latitude and situated close to the Pacific Ocean, thus milder climates and longer growing seasons; fertile river valleys (e.g. the Amur and the Ussuri); ecologically diverse with conifers and hardwoods

Europe: The Schism Between Western and Eastern Christianity

split between eastern Orthodox Christianity from western Christianity occurred in 1054; division between western and eastern churches, and two alphabets (Eastern Christianity uses Cyrillic alphabet) remains one of most prominent and problematic cultural boundaries in Europe

Sub-Saharan Africa: Agricultural subsistence

staple crops are millet, sorghum, core; irrigated rice is widely known in West Africa and Madagascar; in higher elevations wheat and barley are grown; intermixed with subsistence crops are export crops—coffee, tea, rubber, bananas, cacao, cotton, peanuts; in areas that support annual crop yields, population densities are higher; overall however African agriculture remains relatively unproductive; in areas of poorer tropical soils, farming usually entails shifting cultivation (swidden)

Sub-Saharan Africa: Kleptocracies

states in which corruption is so institutionalized that most politicians and government bureaucrats siphon off huge percentages of country's wealth

Russia: Russification

the Soviet policy of resettling Russians into non-Russian regions to increase Russian dominance

Russia: Soviet Economy to Globalized Economy (shifts, issues)

the economic future of the Russian domain remains difficult to predict; Russia's economic performance marked by ups-and-downs; economic declines typified the 1990s but early 2000s exhibited economic improvement because of higher oil and gas prices, then economic decline in 2008-2010 followed by improvements

Russia: A devastated Environment

the region faces many environmental challenges; the region exhibits some of the world's worst environmental degradation; there are signs of a growing environmental awareness

Sub-Saharan Africa: Deforestation

throughout history, local populations have relied on forests for daily needs; deforestation is significant issue in many parts of the region; in some locations, village women have organized community-based nongovernmental organizations to plant trees and create greenbelts to meet ongoing fuel needs; destruction of tropical rain forests for logging is most pronounced along fringes of the Ituri; two smaller rain forests have nearly disappeared; deforestation also a problem in Madagascar

Europe: nation-state

unique characteristic of Europe is dense fabric of 41 independent states within relatively small area; modern concept of 'nationstate' emerged in Europe; legacy of geopolitical problems

Balkanization

used to describe geopolitical processes of small-scale independence movements based on ethnic fault lines—term originated because of events in the Balkans; despite previous conflicts, signs that region is moving toward peace and stability

Sub-Saharan Africa: Roots of African Poverty

various causes of Africa's poverty have been proposed—colonialism, poorly conceived development policies, corrupt governance, environmental limitations, legacy of slavery; lack of infrastructure; colonialism in particular led to border conflicts, lack of infrastructure, and limited economic opportunities

Europe: Leaky Borders and 'Fortress Europe'

with high unemployment and economic stress, Europe does not require large numbers of foreign workers; Europe is currently attempting to stem flow of illegal migration and legal migration; conceptually, Europe has perimeter of hard borders ('Fortress Europe') with soft and porous internal borders