GEOL 1403 Physical Geology FINAL!!!

What are the four agents that drive metamorphism?

directional stress, pressure, heat, and chemically active fluids

metallic bonds

valence electrons are free to move from one atom to another so all atoms have available valence electrons, creating an electron "sea"

Formula for half-life of a radioactive isotope:

(Ln)(Mass of material given / Mass of original material)

How do a gaining stream and a losing stream differ?

1. A gaining stream gains an influx of Groundwater through the streambed, whereas a losing stream loses water to the Groundwater through the streambed 2. A gaining stream exists when the elevation of the water table is higher than the surface of the stream. In contrast, a losing stream exists when the elevation of the water table is lower than the surface of the stream

What are the processes by which grains in a rock can undergo foliation?

1. By recrystallizing into new minerals 2. By the flattening of spherical mineral grains 3. By the rotation of platy minerals

List the methods of caldera formation:

1. Collapse of a composite cone summit following an explosive eruption 2. Collapse of summit of a shield volcano after draining of magma chamber 3. Collapse of magma chamber after large volumes of material are erupted

What are the three environments of metamorphism?

1. High pressure in a subduction zone 2. Hot fluids coming off a diaper 3. Contact with a hot magma body

What are the three components of magma?

1. Liquid melt made up of mobile ions of the eight most common minerals found in earths crust 2. Solid which consists of silicate mineral crystals 3. Gaseous called volatiles

Which of the projected changes in the future's climate relates to factors other than temperature?

1. Ocean acidification will increase as the atmosphere accumulates CO2 2. Precipitation amounts will increase in high latitudes 3. The right of increase in atmospheric CO2, methane, and nitrous oxide will reach levels unprecedented in the past 10,000 years 4. The dissolved oxygen content of the ocean will decrease by a few percent

List the correct order of magmas from the most silica-rich to the least silica-rich:

1. Rhyolitic magma 2. Andesitic magma 3. Basaltic magma

Distinguish between the two measurements used to establish the orientation of deformed Strata:

1. Strike is the direction of a line produced by the intersection of an inclined rock layer and a horizontal surface; dip is the angle of inclination of a rock layer from horizontal 2. Strike is identified between 2 directions; dip is identified in 1 direction 3. The strike and the dip are each represented on geologic maps with their own symbols

How does the crystallization of igneous material occur?

1. The liquid igneous material cools 2. The ions within slow in their movement 3. They pack more closely together 4. When sufficiently cooled, ions become confined to a Crystalline arrangement

What are all of the immediate, direct paths of transformation that an igneous intrusive rock can take?

1. Weathering, transport, and deposition into sediment 2. metamorphism into metamorphic rock 3. melting into magma

What is the half life of potassium-40?

1.3 billion years

The lithosphere is broken into:

15 major plates and many minor plates

During what time period did scientists first notice the jigsaw puzzle fit of the southern continents?

1600's

In the mid-20th century, researchers dredging the seafloor could not find any materials older than:

180 million years

In what year did Paricutin form in a Mexican corn field?

1943

Name the units of the geologic time scale in order from largest to smallest:

1st (largest period): Eon 2nd: Era 3rd: Period 4th: Epoch

Name the events leading up to the formation of the early Earth (from 1st to last):

1st: Contraction of interstellar materials 2nd: Formation of solar nebula 3rd: Nuclear fission lights up Sun 4th: Formation of proto-planets

Continents have a density of ______ and are made of ______ rock.

2.7 g/cm3; granite

What is the average increase in temperature along the geothermal gradient in the upper crust?

25°C per km

What is the age of the oldest radiometrically dated rocks discovered on the planet? (Or, what is the age of the oldest remaining rocks on Earth?)

4 billion years old

What does the geothermal gradient represent?

A decrease in interior temperature with decreasing distance from the surface

What is an aureole?

A discreet zone adjacent to the heat source in contact metamorphism

What is a syncline?

A downfold in rock where the youngest layers are in the middle/center of the fold and the oldest are on the outside of the upward slope

What is considered a natural disaster?

A landslide striking a city

Viscosity

A material's resistance to flowing

Laccolith

A mushroom-shaped pluton with a round top and flat bottom that forms by injecting magma between sedimentary strata, forcing the upper layers to arch upward.

What kind of fault is represented by a hanging wall dropped several feet below the footwall and what kind of stress would generate it?

A normal fault with tensional stress

How does the viscosity of the magma fed to volcanoes affect nearby life and property?

A volcano that expels highly viscous magma is a greater threat because it is MORE explosive and MORE difficult or impossible to predict

Define the soil B horizon?

Accumulation of clay particles from upper layers

The higher temperatures during the Cretaceous period were the result of:

Additional carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

Summarize the greenhouse effect:

After absorbing solar energy, Earth's surface emits long-wave radiation, which is absorbed by water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other trace gases in the atmosphere. These gases in turn emit some of the energy back down to Earth

How do the crystallization and settling of the earliest form minerals affect the composition of the remaining magma?

After the earliest formed minerals have settled, the resulting magma will be more felsic than the original magma

What is meant by the statement "Every metamorphic rock has a parent rock"?

All metamorphic rocks are created only through the change of pre-existing rock

Which culture recorded the earliest writings about topics such as fossils, earthquakes, and gemstones?

Ancient Greece

What circumstances can lead to the formation of a spring?

And aquitard blocks the downward movement of groundwater, causing it to move laterally. Where the permeable crops out at the service, a spring results

What kind(s) of lava can a composite cone generate?

Andesite, Basalt, and Rhyolite

Folding and deformation of organic material will produce ______ coal.

Anthracite

Where are the Earth's oldest mountains?

Appalachians and Himalayas

How are sulfide ore deposits produced at oceanic ridges?

As seawater infiltrates the newly produced hot basaltic crust, it leeches sulfur. When this water emerges from the crust via a black smoker and is cooled by the seawater, it precipitates sulfides

Order the following pyroclastic materials from smallest to largest (Lapilli, Volcanic bombs, Ash):

Ash, Lapilli, Volcanic bombs

In which two plate tectonic settings would one expect magma to be generated?

At a mid-oceanic ridge and at an oceanic-continental convergent boundary

What parts of the carbon cycle shows the most active movement of carbon between spheres?

Atmosphere and biosphere

What kind(s) of lava generate a cinder cone?

Basalt

Which lava makes up 90% of the total volume of lava on Earth?

Basaltic

metamorphic facies derive their names from those metamorphic rocks specifically formed from a ______ parent.

Basaltic

What structure has a circular fold where the youngest layers are in the middle and the oldest layers are on the outside?

Basin

Aluminum laterite is also known as the mineral:

Bauxite

Why will metamorphic rocks found in a contact metamorphism aureole be nonfoliated?

Because significant directed pressure is not present in contact metamorphism

If the earth had no atmosphere, what would the average temperature of the planet be?

Below freezing

A(n) ______ facies is associated with a high-pressure, low-temperature environment.

Blueschist

Where in the United States is hydroelectric power development most concentrated? How about geothermal power development?

Both are concentrated in the western United States

Compare and contrast muscovite and biotite:

Both muscovite and biotite are micas that have cleavage in One Direction and have a shiny luster. However, unlike clear muscovite, biotite is black because it contains iron and magnesium

Troposphere

Bottom layer in the atmosphere where we live & breathe. It is also where all the weather occurs; has the greatest amount of air molecules and temperatures decrease from bottom to top

Which substance could serve as either a building mineral or an industrial mineral?

Calcite

How do craters differ from calderas?

Calderas have a diameter of 1 km or more, making them much larger than craters

Which acid that is found in most groundwater is responsible for most karst topography worldwide?

Carbonic

Which acid is commonly responsible for the dissolution of limestone?

Carbonic Acid

Which era are we currently in?

Cenozoic

What kind of weathering occurs when there is a chemical transformation of the rock into other compounds?

Chemical

covalent bonds

Chemical bonds created by sharing a pair of electrons between atoms

How are chemical rocks identified and how does this differ from how detrital rocks are identified?

Chemical rocks are primarily identified based on their compositions, whereas detrital rocks are primarily identified based on their particle sizes

Define Inclusions:

Chunks of weathered rock are older than the rock they are contained in

What type of volcano is Cerro Negro?

Cinder cone

What type of volcano is Paricutin?

Cinder cone

Over what time span do most typical cinder cones form?

Cinder cones are generally the product of a single eruption and thus are constructed in "LESS THAN a year or LESS THAN a month"

Compare cinder cones to shield volcanoes:

Cinder cones have steeper flanks than shield volcanoes and Cinder cones occupy a smaller area of land than shield volcanoes

What are the major components of clean, dry air, and what are the two significant variable components?

Clean, dry air is composed of 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen. It's two significant variable components are gases and particles

Which mineral property is the least useful for identifying minerals and why?

Color, because the same mineral type can be found in several different colors due to impurities in the mineral

Define the soil A horizon?

Composed of a mixture of humus and mineral material

What type of volcano is Mount Atna?

Composite cone/Stratovolcano

What type of volcano is Mount Hood?

Composite cone/Stratovolcano

When contrasting lava from composite volcanoes to lava from shield volcanoes:

Composite volcanoes most often produce silica-rich lava's with high viscosities, whereas shield volcanoes produce basaltic lavas with low viscosities

What kind of force will create foliation in metamorphic rocks?

Compression

What type of stress is necessary to produce the Geologic regions/features of the Appalachian Mountains?

Compression

What type of stress is necessary to produce the Geologic regions/features of the Dakota Hogback?

Compression

How do dissolved gases drive volcanic eruptions?

Confining pressure decreases on a rising magma allowing gas bubbles to expand and fracture the magma. This process further decreases pressure on the magma and will result in an explosive event

How are conglomerate and breccia different?

Conglomerate has rounded grains and breccia has angular grains

Define the soil O horizon?

Consists largely of organic material and is still identifiable in the uppermost layer

Which style of metamorphism will be generated by a magma pluton?

Contact

Compared to the Earth's asthenosphere, the Earth's lithosphere is:

Cooler and more rigid

Example of a trace fossil:

Coprolite

Nonmetallic minerals used for abrasives include _______.

Corundum and garnet

In what kind of bonds are electrons shared between two atoms?

Covalent

What are the three primary ways minerals can form?

Crystallization of molten material, precipitation, biological processes

What generates the heat necessary for convection in the Earth?

Decay of radioactive materials

The interior of the earth is divided into roughly spherical layers of differing:

Density

Drawdown:

Describes how the water table around the well becomes lower as water is pumped and taken from the subsurface

Foliated textures are primarily the result of ______. Nonfoliated textures are primarily the result of _______.

Directed pressure; heat

The Mississippi river cuts through Silurian-aged dolomite between northwestern Illinois and eastern Iowa. Which is older? How do you know?

Dolomite; The principle of cross-cutting relationships

The Black Hills of South Dakota are a good example of which type of geologic structure?

Dome

Which of the following is a metamorphic facies?

Eclogite

Approximately 91% of the coal used in the United States today is used for:

Electricity

How do the eruptions that created the Columbia Plateau differ from eruptions that create large composite volcanoes?

Eruptions that created Columbia Plateau ejected basaltic magma from fissures; eruptions that create large composite volcanoes eject silica-rich magmas from vents

Provide an example of the mechanical weathering process, Frost wedging:

Expansion of ice forces a rock a part

What type of mountains are Basin and Range?

Fault-block

Define Cross-Cutting Relationships:

Faults, fractures are younger than the rocks they cut through

Which igneous composition has 70% Silica content?

Felsic

Which planktonic marine organism, often found in sea sediments, can be used to make interpretations about past climates?

Foraminifera

Along with being important in correlation, how else are fossils useful to geologists?

Fossils can help determine the depositional environment in which the rock layer that contains them formed

______ are small vents that emit Volcanic gas.

Fumaroles

What form of renewable energy is produced by power plants in Iceland, accounting for 66% of Iceland's primary energy use?

Geothermal power

List three economic materials that can be profitably extracted from placer deposits:

Gold, platinum, and tin

List the four basic compositional groups of igneous rocks, ranging from the highest silica content to the lowest:

Granitic, andesitic, basaltic, ultramafic

Which mineral resource is the main component for plaster and drywall?

Gypsum

What is the most important factor driving metamorphism?

Heat

Folds form in ________ temperature - ________ pressure environments.

High; high

How did Aristotle's explanation about the natural world influence progress in geologic research?

His explanations were considered to be the authority on the subject, which inhibited the acceptance of novel scientific ideas for many centuries

What describes earths origins and its development through time?

Historical geology

Which soil order would form in the Wetlands/bog environment?

Histosol

Movements along normal faults can produce alternating upthrown and down-dropped falt blocks. What are the names associated with these blocks, respectively?

Horsts and grabens

How can contact metamorphism result in the deposition of ore deposits?

Hot fluids in contact with the country rock can result in chemical reactions that facilitate the migration of metallic ions

What force pushes groundwater from pore space to pore space when below the water table?

Hydraulic gradient

The debris from the big bang was made almost entirely of:

Hydrogen and helium

What chemical weathering process is the primary method of weathering for feldspars?

Hydrolysis

List the spheres that are part of the climate system:

Hydrosphere, biosphere and cryosphere

______ metamorphism Is responsible for the emplacement of metallic ore veins.

Hydrothermal

What significant problem might arise when groundwater is heavily pumped at a coastal site?

If the groundwater withdrawal exceeds recharge, the salt water will become high enough to be drawn into the wells

What kind of rocks are found along volcanic island arcs?

Igneous rocks with an andesitic composition

Hybrid bonds

Incomplete transfer of electrons that results in atoms partially transferring and partially sharing electrons

Which changes are evidence of migrating magma?

Increased ground temperatures, changes in the pattern of earthquakes produced by moving magma, and changes in the volcanic gases released from the volcano

Which igneous composition has 60% Silica content?

Intermediate

The granitic igneous rocks that make up the Sierra Nevada Mountains in California and Nevada are ______.

Intrusive

In what kind of bonds are electrons transferred between atoms?

Ionic

Why will an iron-rich Olivine have a higher density than a magnesium rich-Olivine?

Iron has a greater atomic mass than magnesium and therefore is heavier

Peridotite that undergoes partial melting will create a melt enriched in ______.

Iron, magnesium, feldspars, and silica

How might the direction that a slope is facing influence soil formation?

It determines how much solar radiation that it's soil will receive, which determines the soil's temperature and moisture content

In what situation is hydraulic fracturing used?

It is used to open cracks in impermeable rocks so that the natural gas can flow into wells

What interpretations can be made about the maturity of a volcano where most eruption's occur from basal fissures and there are a number of parasitic cones along the volcanoes flanks?

It's a mature volcano

What is the term Hadean?

It's an informal term used by many geologists to refer to the earliest interval of Earth's history

In cast and mold fossilization, what is the mold?

It's the hollow space in the rock made when a fossil is buried in sediment

Describe structural geology:

It's the study of rock deformation in response to tectonic forces

The first country to generate electricity geothermally was _______ in 1904.

Italy

If you were making emergency plans in a town built upon the remains of eruption materials from Mount Rainier, which is less than 30 miles away, using past volcanic hazard history, which volcanic hazard would most likely affect your town?

Lahar

At a transform plate boundary, the two plates move:

Laterally passed each other

If you're driving down a road that was constructed across a fault line and you notice the road ahead has been shifted to the left by 20 feet due to the slippage along the fault, what kind of fault would it be?

Left-lateral strike-slip

Define the soil E horizon?

Light colored, depleted of soluble materials and little organic material

What is the most abundant chemical sedimentary rock?

Limestone

Which rock is composed of only a single mineral?

Limestone

Distinguish among limestone, dolostone, and chert:

Limestone, which is composed of calcium carbonate, forms by both chemical and biochemical means; dolostone, which is composed of calcium-magnesium carbonate, forms strictly by chemical means; chert, which is composed of micro Crystalline quartz, forms most often chemically and to a lesser extent biochemically

What three components make up most magmas?

Liquid portion, solid portion, gaseous portion

Provide an example of the mechanical weathering process, biological activity:

Living materials break down a rock

Physical rotation of platy minerals will contribute most to the development of foliation in ______-grade metamorphism.

Low

What kind of temperature and pressure conditions will exist in a burial metamorphism environment?

Low temperature and pressure

What refers to a minerals intensity and quality of reflected light?

Luster

Which igneous composition has 50% Silica content?

Mafic

What magma forms from the partial melting of mantle material?

Mafic magma

What is the source of heat for most hot springs and geysers, and how is this reflected in the distribution of these features?

Magma bodies and igneous rocks; Springs and geysers are located where igneous activity occurs

Which is one of the largest plates on the earth?

Pacific plate

Which rocks does contact metamorphism create?

Marble, quartzite & hornfels

What are the three broad categories of sedimentary environments with an example of each?

Marine environments such as deep ocean floors; continental environments such as deserts; transitional environments such as title flats

How might volcanism lead to global warming?

Massive outpouring of hot lava combined with the release of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide may both increase and maintain global warming

What property of the crust allowed it to form as the exterior of Earth?

Materials that make up the crust or less dense and rose to the top

In what era is the Jurassic period?

Mesozoic

In what kind of bonds are electrons shared in a common pool?

Metallic

Provide an example of the mechanical weathering process, salt crystal growth:

Mineral crystal development forces a rock apart

Which mineral formation process is responsible for creating the hollow rocks with the inside lined with crystals (like the caves)?

Mineral precipitation from slowly moving groundwater

What is a diagnostic characteristic of a mineral?

Minerals only occur as solids

Define Unconformities:

Missing time

When a shell is buried in sediment and subsequently dissolved, a cavity called a ______ is left behind. When this cavity is later filled with sediments, a ______ is created.

Mold; cast

Which soil order would form in a Grasslands/prairie environment?

Mollisols

In which direction is the Pacific Plate moving as the Hawaiian Islands are forming?

NW

Which fossil fuel is the cleanest for the environment in that it is most likely to have the lowest sulfur content and the smallest volume of solid ash residue?

Natural gas

How did Vine & Mathews relate the seafloor-spreading hypothesis to magnetic reversals of the poles?

New crust created at an oceanic ridge recorded high magnetism during periods of normal polarity and low magnetism during periods of reversed polarity. Older crust of alternating magnetism is pushed away from the ocean ridge as new crust is created.

Are sedimentary rocks always the parrot rocks for metamorphic rocks?

No

Do all minerals have cleavage?

No

Do most cinder cones have eruptive phases that last for centuries?

No

Does a geode Contain minerals that form through biological processes?

No

Are joints fractures in a rock created by tension that will demonstrate significant displacement?

No; that is faults

Is climate the state of the atmosphere at a given time in a given place over a short period of time?

No; that is weather

Do temperatures decrease with increasing depth into the earth?

No; they increase

Determine whether the following materials are renewable or nonrenewable resources... gold, petroleum, wood, iron ore, & cattle:

Nonrenewable: gold, petroleum & Iron ore Renewable: wood & cattle

Geologists from which continent were initially the least receptive to the continental drift hypothesis?

North America

Order the 5 soil horizons from the surface downward:

O - loose, partly decayed organic matter A - mineral matter mixed with humus E - Zone of Eluviation & leeching with light colored mineral particles B - accumulation of clay from above C - partially altered parent material (*unweathered parent material at deepest)

List the parts of the Milankovich Cycle:

Obliquity, eccentricity, precession

What offers additional evidence supporting the theory of plate tectonics?

Ocean floor sediment cores, hotspots and measurements of plate motions

Which type of convergence will result in a volcanic island arc?

Oceanic-Oceanic

Together, ______, ______ and ______ provide more than 81% of the energy consumed in the United States.

Oil, coal and natural gas

What causes the rate of lithosphere distruction to be roughly equivalent to the rate of lithosphere creation?

Older and denser oceanic lithosphere is constantly subducting into the mantle at a rate equal to new lithosphere creation at divergent boundaries

Which of the following would make the best index fossil? Olenellus (522-510 mya), flexicalymene (490-418 mya), or phacops (418-360 mya).

Olenellus because the time gap is smaller

Match the minerals with their appropriate silicate structure (Olivine, Pyroxene, Amphibole, Muscovite, Quartz):

Olivine - Independent tetrahedra Pyroxene - Single chain Amphibole - Double chain Muscovite - Sheet Quartz - Network

List the three ferromagnesian minerals:

Olivine, pyroxene, and biotite mica

Ionic bonds

One atom gives up one or more valence electrons to another atom

Describe the chemical structure of a silica tetrahedron:

One silicon atom surrounded by four oxygen atoms in a pyramid shape

What is an index fossil?

Organisms that were geographically widespread but limited to a short span of geologic time

The ______ is a layer Of liquid nickel and iron believed to be responsible for generating the earths magnetic field.

Outer core

If a fold in a rock layer was arched upward and leaning right, what kind of fold would it be?

Overturned fold

Which soil order would form in the Tropics environment?

Oxisol

Only eight elements make up the vast majority of rock forming minerals. Which elements are these?

Oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium and potassium (The elements that make up 98% of Earth's crust)

What occurs when magnetic minerals in lavas align their magnetic fields with magnetic north, preserving a record of that pole's location at that moment in time?

Paleomagnetism

Define the soil C horizon?

Partially altered parent material that is easily identifiable

Name the top coal-producing states in the United States:

Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Wyoming

List three fossil fuel's:

Petroleum, coal and natural gas

Although rare in the earths crust, some of the most important deposits of uranium are associated with:

Placer deposits

What has been causing the CO2 level of the atmosphere to increase over the past 200 years?

Plant decomposition, the combustion of fossil fuel's, and deforestation

What makes up the sediment that forms an organic sedimentary rock?

Plant fibers

What is a good soil conservation methods to reduce the loss of topsoil on gentle slopes that are farmed?

Planting crops parallel to the contours of the slope; planting grass in natural drainageways on the slope; leaving crop residues in place in the field (ALL of the above)

A ______ is a part of the craton that is covered by a thin covering of sedimentary rock.

Platform

Discordant

Pluton that cuts across an existing structure

Concordant

Plutons which form parallel to features such as sedimentary strata

What are often the best-preserved, most easily identifiable plant remains in sediments and can be used to interpret the Paleoclimate?

Pollen

In what spaces or voids does most groundwater reside?

Pore space and fractures

What is the term used to describe the hypothetical line the water in a confined aquifer would rise to if it weren't trapped?

Potentiometric surface

What are proxy data, and why are they necessary in the study of climate change?

Proxy data are indirect evidence of past climates taken from natural recorders of climate variability. These data are necessary because direct measurements of past climates are limited to the recent past

What kind of volcanic hazard can be triggered by the collapse of a lava dome?

Pyroclastic flow

What is pulverized rock, lava fragments, and ash erupted from a volcano?

Pyroclastic material

What is a technique where the decay rate of radioactive isotopes is measured and used to determine the age of a geologic material?

Radiometric dating

What colors do fine-grained particles or iron oxide account for in soil horizons?

Red, yellow and brown

Provide an example of the mechanical weathering process, sheeting:

Reduction of pressure on a pluton results in Concentric layers breaking off

______ is a widespread type of metamorphism typically associated with mountain building.

Regional metamorphism

What kind of fault is created when the hanging wall moves up relative to the footwall?

Reverse

Match the following igneous compositions with the correct rock: (rhyolite, pumice, gabbro, diorite, andesite & obsidian)

Rhyolite - felsic Pumice - felsic Gabbro - mafic Diorite - intermediate Andesite - intermediate Obsidian - felsic

Which rock type can contain fossils?

Sedimentary rocks

Define Lateral Continuity:

Rocks extend in all directions until they reach the edge of a basin or pinch out

Describe the fracturing and sorting of a conglomerate:

Rounded fragments and poorly sorted

How are past temperatures determined using oxygen isotope analysis?

Scientists study the relative amount of 18O from glacial samples. A higher relative amount of 18O indicates warmer temperatures, whereas a lower relative amount indicates cooler temperatures

Which eruptive material can be described as basaltic, vesicular ejecta found around Cinder cone volcano's?

Scoria

A ______ is a submarine volcano.

Seamount

What occurs when weathering concentrates minor amounts of metals scattered through unweathered rock into economically valuable concentrations?

Secondary enrichment

Define Original Horizontality:

Sedimentary layers/lava flows are deposited in flat layers

How does the volume of sedimentary rocks in Earth's crust compare with the volume of igneous and metamorphic rocks?

Sedimentary rocks represent 5 to 10% of the crust, where as igneous rocks and metamorphic rocks combined represent 90 to 95% of earths crust

What are fragments of pre-existing materials that have been broken down through the process of weathering?

Sediments

Compaction will be the most significant lithification process for which rock?

Shale

Use a scenario to describe the formation of hornfels:

Shales and mudstones are baked during contact metamorphism

What type of stress is necessary to produce the Geologic regions/features of San Andreas Fault?

Shear

An exfoliation dome forms as a result of:

Sheeting, where con concentric slabs of rock break loose in reaction to the unloading of pressure

What type of volcano is Mauna Kea?

Shield volcano

What type of volcano is Newberry Volcano?

Shield volcano

Which group of minerals makes up most igneous rocks?

Silicates

Which factor contributes the most toward plate motion at a convergent boundary?

Slab pull

When contrasting the forces slab pull with ridge push...:

Slab pull is a result of cool, dense rock overlaying warm asthenosphere and generates most of the force for subduction, whereas ridge push is the result of the elevated position of the ridge on the far side of the slab creating a decline down which the slab slides

Which low-grade metamorphic rock displays thin, parallel layers and contains very fine grains of mica?

Slate

What material would be the best natural filter, removing contaminants from groundwater over a long period of time?

Slightly clay sand

The inner core is:

Solid due to the immense pressure at the center of Earth

Why are soils in tropical rain forests not well-suited for farming?

Soluble materials such as calcium carbonate are severely leached from the soil

Which two continents did Wegener cite as having the best evidence of a close coastline fit?

South America and Africa

Which soil order would form in a humid/conifer forest environment?

Spodosol

What is the difference between stalactites and stalagmites?

Stalactites hang from the ceiling of a cave where as stalagmites grip tightly to the floor

What represents the single most common and characteristic structures in sedimentary rocks?

Strata

How will tensional forces change a rock body?

Stretch and thin the rock

If gravity pulls infiltrating water downward, what force allows water to be pulled upward at the capillary fringe?

Surface tension

What type of stress is necessary to produce the Geologic region of Basin and Range province?

Tension

What type of stress is necessary to produce the Geologic regions/features of the Grand Teton Mountains?

Tension

Which characteristics are used to determine the processes that created a rock?

Texture and composition

Which two plates are growing in size and which plate is shrinking in size?

The African plate and the Antarctic plate are growing in size, whereas the Pacific plate is shrinking in size

Where was the first large-scale commercial geothermal electrical facility in the United States, built in 1960?

The Geysers, California

The texture of an igneous rock describes:

The appearance of a rock based on the size, shape, and arrangement on the mineral grains it contains

Where are the two broad expanses of the Earth's youngest mountains (those that are younger than 100 million years)?

The circum-Pacific mountain belt (inc. Andes) and the belt that extends eastward from the Alps all the way into southern Indonesia

What is secondary enrichment?

The creation of important mineral deposits by concentrating minor amounts of metals that are scattered through unweathered rock into economically valuable concentrations

What occurs to cause a geyser to erupt?

The heat underground within a geyser causes the water to expand, and some water is forced out to the surface. Water deep within the geyser quickly turns to steam, causing the geyser to erupt

Mesosphere

The layer of Earth's atmosphere immediately above the stratosphere; where the coldest temperatures are found

Why must geologists understand the magnitude of geologic time?

The magnitude of geologic time spans billions of years and thus differs greatly from the magnitude of time people deal with on a daily basis (I.e. hours, weeks).

Define Superposition:

The oldest is on the bottom, the youngest on the top

Why do some artesian wells not flow at earths surface?

The pressure surface is below ground level

Lithification

The process that converts sediments into solid (sedimentary) rock by compaction or cementation.

What factors influence the texture of an igneous rock?

The rate at which the rock cools, the amount of silica that is present in the magma from which it forms, and the amount of dissolved gases present in said magma

What is the texture of a rock?

The size, shape, and/or arrangement of minerals in a rock

How did Crater Lake form and how does it compare to the calderas of shield volcanoes?

The summit of the composite volcano collapsed after an explosive eruption of silica-rich pumice and ash fragments; rainwater later filled this caldera. Had this volcano been a shield volcano, the collapse would have been a result of a gradual subterranean drainage of a central magma chamber

What happens when a rock is mechanically weathered?

The surface area of the rock is increased which allows a greater amount of chemical weathering to occur

Thermosphere

The uppermost/outermost layer of the atmosphere, in which temperature increases as altitude increases & are extremely high due to solar radiation

Describe the relationship between the topography of a region and the underlying structural geology:

There is no relationship between structures and topography

How will seasonal changes affect the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere?

There will be more CO2 in the atmosphere in winter then in summer

What effect did the El Chichón and Mount Pinatubo eruptions have on global temperatures?

They both emitted massive amounts of tiny particles and aerosols, which reflected solar radiation before it could reach Earth. As a result, global temperature dropped slightly while the particles slowly settled

The longer a soil has been forming, the ______ it becomes and the ______ it resembles the parent material.

Thicker; less

How can tree rings provide information about past climates?

Thickness and spacing of tree rings reflect environmental conditions

List the silicate structures according to their ratio of oxygen ions to silicon ions, from least oxygen to most:

Three-dimensional frameworks, single chains, independent tetrahedra

What is the goal of correlation?

To gain a more comprehensive view of the geologic history of a region

Which household function has the highest daily water consumption?

Toilets

Which type of fault was responsible for the devastation associated with the 1906 earthquake in San Francisco?

Transform

How can the orientation of transform faults provide information about the direction of plate motion?

Transform faults are parallel to the direction of plate motion

True or False: The more oxygen ions that are shared in silicate minerals, the higher the oxygen-to-silicon ratio.

True

At divergent plate boundaries:

Two plates move away from each other

What creates the small holes found in a vesicular texture?

Volatiles

How do volcanic bombs differ from blocks of pyroclastic debris?

Volcanic blocks are made of hardened lava, whereas volcanic bombs are made of incandescent lava

Which climate contains the optimum environment for chemical weathering?

Warm and wet

What substance makes ion migration easier in the later stages of magma crystallization, which allows abnormally large mineral crystals to form and create pegmatites?

Water

A rock with foliation running vertically and close together would have had the greatest differential stress coming from which compass directions?

West and east

What causes cavern formation to stop at one level (depth) but not continue or begin at a lower level?

When the entrenchment of stream is slow or negligible, the Groundwater level does not drop, and cavern formation does not begin at a lower level

Which method of transportation will result in the best degree of sorting with all the particles being roughly the same size?

Wind

What is the most common example of biomass fuel?

Wood

The white granite of the Idaho Batholith near Boise, Idaho contains dark grey xenoliths of metamorphic material. Which is older and how do you know?

Xenoliths because of the principle of inclusions

Are cap rocks over reservoirs of petroleum and natural gas nonporous and impermeable?

Yes

Are graphite and diamonds polymorphs because both are made up of carbon atoms?

Yes

Are lakes and streams surface expressions of the water table?

Yes

Are most sills intrusive igneous structures that displays a fine-grained texture?

Yes

Are the majority of divergent plate boundary's associated with oceanic ridges?

Yes

Can external processes driven by solar energy create the materials necessary for sedimentary rocks?

Yes

Has the use of renewable energy been Increasing for the last 40 years and expected to continue to rise?

Yes

In semiarid to arid regions, is groundwater considered a nonrenewable resource because it isn't replaced at the same rate as it is withdrawn?

Yes

Are pyroclastic materials a significant component of shield volcanoes?

Yes because they are more commonly ejected during the final stage of growth of a shield volcano, when eruptions become more sporadic

Stratosphere

the atmospheric layer between the troposphere and the mesosphere; The second layer of the atmosphere where temperatures gradually increase from bottom to top; absorbs solar radiation