Grammar terms

Parts of the Speech

1. Noun 2. Adjective 3. Pronoun. 4. Verb 5. Adverb 6. Preposition. 7. Conjunction.A conjunction is a joiner, a word that connects (conjoins) parts of a sentence. 8. Interjection. are words or phrases used to exclaim, protest or command. They sometimes stand by themselves, but they are often contained within larger structures.

Dependent/Subordinate Clause

A dependent or subordinate clause is also a group of words with a subject and finite verb, but begins with a special word that marks it as a Dep clause. there are 3 Dependent clauses: Adverb clause, Adjective clause, and Noun clause, signaled by "when, whom, and that" when I graduate (ADV) C) whom I saw (ADJ C.) that Eric is here (NOUN C) As such, these dependent clauses are not complete meanings, and may not occur alone. instead, they are always paired with an Independent clause. I leave for Spain when I graduate. (Adv C.) The man whom I saw was Robert. (ADJ C.) I know that Eric is here. (Noun C)

Indirect Object

A noun or pronoun that indicates to whom or for whom the action of a verb in a sentence is performed. With verbs that can be followed by two objects, the indirect object typically comes immediately after the verb and before the direct object. See also: Practice in Identifying Indirect Objects Direct Object Given-Before-New Principle Objective Case Transitive Verb Examples and Observations: "Instead of answering my question, he showed me a photograph of his father, the squeamish Otho." (Charles Portis, The Dog of the South, 1979) At Chartwell, Winston Churchill painted, raised pigs, and built the children a tree house in a lime tree. "Edna . . . sat and told the children a story." (Kate Chopin, The Awakening, 1899) "I had about two inches of water left, and passed him the bottle." (Bill Bryson, A Walk in the Woods. Broadway Books, 1998) "Give me a fish and I eat for a day. Teach me to fish and I eat for a lifetime." (Chinese proverb) "I bought myself a parrot. The parrot talked. But it did not say, 'I'm hungry,' so it died." (Mitch Hedberg) "I never give you my pillow, I only send you invitations, And in the middle of the celebrations I break down." (John Lennon and Paul McCartney, "Carry That Weight") "Give me my robe, put on my crown; I have Immortal longings in me." (William Shakespeare, from Antony and Cleopatra) Two Patterns "The two patterns for sentences with indirect objects are the prepositional pattern and the dative movement pattern. Depending primarily on the verb, both patterns or only one pattern may be possible. "In the prepositional pattern, the indirect object occurs after the direct object and is preceded by a preposition. In the dative movement pattern, the indirect object occurs before the direct object." (Ron Cowan, The Teacher's Grammar of English: A Course Book and Reference Guide. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2008) Ditransitives "The verbs which can take an indirect object are a subset of transitive verbs, and known as 'ditransitives.' For English, such ditransitive verbs include give, send, lend, lease, rent, hire, sell, write, tell, buy and make." (James R. Hurford, Grammar: A Student's Guide. Cambridge University Press, 1994) Prepositional Datives and Ditransitive Datives "The dative is a pair of constructions, one similar to the content-locative, the other containing two naked objects: Give a muffin to a moose. Give a moose a muffin. The first is called the prepositional dative (because it contains a preposition, namely, to), the second the ditransitive or double-object dative (because the verb is followed by two objects, not just one). In traditional grammars the two phrases are called the indirect and direct objects; linguists today usually call them simply the 'first object' and the 'second object.' The term dative, by the way, has nothing to do with dates; it comes from the Latin word for 'give.'" (Steven Pinker, The Stuff of Thought. Viking, 2007) Recipients and Beneficiaries "The indirect object is characteristically associated with the semantic role of recipient . . .. But it may have the role of beneficiary (the one for whom something is done), as in Do me a favour or Call me a taxi, and it may be interpreted in other ways, as seen from examples like This blunder cost us the match, or I envy you your good fortune." (Rodney D. Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum, A Student's Introduction To English Grammar. Cambridge University Press, 2005) Also Known As: dative case

Sentences

A sentence is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate and expressing a complete thought. In order for this definition to be helpful, you must be able to recognize a subject and a predicate, and understand what is meant by "a complete thought." Subject and predicate A sentence has a subject (what or whom the sentence is about) and a predicate. The predicate tells what the subject does or is or what is done to the subject (for example, The books were left outside). The simple subject is a noun or pronoun. The complete subject is this noun or pronoun and the words that modify it. The simple predicate is a verb or verb phrase (for example, has walked, will have walked). The complete predicate is the verb or verb phrase and the words that modify or complete it. In the following example , Ron is both the simple and the complete subject of the sentence. Shot is the simple predicate. Shot Guido is the complete predicate: the verb shot and its direct object Guido. Ron shot Guido. In the following example, man is the simple subject. The angry man in pajamas is the complete subject. Stood is the verb; stood on the front porch is the complete predicate. The angry man in pajamas stood on the front porch. In the following sentence , argument is the simple subject modified by the adjective clause that money is a burden. The argument that money is a burden is the complete subject. The simple predicate is the verb originated. The rest of the sentence is the complete predicate. The argument that money is a burden probably originated with a rich man who was trying to counter the envy of a poor man. In the short, first sentence, the subject and predicate are easy to identify. In the second sentence, you can pick out the simple subject and verb fairly easily, despite the modifiers. But the third sentence is longer and more complicated. As you begin to write more sophisticated sentences, the simple subject and simple predicate may seem to get lost in a web of modifying words, phrases, and clauses. To ensure that you have a complete sentence, you still should be able to identify the core noun or pronoun and the core verb or verb phrase. Expressing a complete thought In addition to having a subject and predicate, a sentence must be able to stand on its own. It can't depend on something else to express a complete thought. Look at the following example. He jumped. This is a grammatically complete sentence, although it's not very interesting. It has a subject ( he) and a verb ( jumped). It expresses a complete thought. You know what happened. You might want to know more about the person—who he is or why he jumped, for example. You might want to know more about the jump itself—when it occurred, how high it was, and so on. But the basic action is complete: He jumped. The next example is an incomplete sentence. It still has a subject ( he) and a verb ( jumped), but the word When keeps this group of words from being a complete thought: What happened when he jumped? When he jumped. The following sentence is still an incomplete sentence. Now, you know where he jumped, but the thought is still incomplete: What happened when he jumped high into the air? When he jumped high into the air. The next example is a complete sentence again. The question "What happened when he jumped?" has been answered: he looked as if he were flying. Even if the phrase high into the air were deleted, the thought would be complete. When he jumped high into the air, he looked as if he were flying. Sentence types By varying sentence types in your writing, you will be able to control the pacing and clarity of the paragraphs. Using a variety of sentence types also makes for more interesting reading. A simple sentence has one independent clause and no subordinate clauses. Old-growth forests in the United States are disappearing. Citizens must act. A compound sentence has two or more independent clauses, joined by coordinating conjunctions, and no subordinate clauses. Old-growth forests in the United States are disappearing, and citizens must act. (two independent clauses joined by and) A complex sentence contains one independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses. Because old-growth forests in the United States are fast disappearing, citizens must act now. ( Because old-growth forests in the United States are fast disappearing = subordinate clause beginning with subordinating conjunction; citizens must act now = independent clause) Forests that have existed for thousands of years are in danger. ( that have existed for thousands of years = subordinate clause beginning with relative pronoun; Forests ...are in danger = independent clause) A compound-complex sentence joins two or more independent clauses with one or more subordinate clauses. Forests that have existed for thousands of years are in danger, and citizens must take action. ( Forests are in danger and citizens must take action = independent clauses; that have existed for thousands of years = subordinate clause) In your writing, try to vary your sentence structures by making use of all these types of sentences. Don't string together a long series of simple sentences; on the other hand, don't always write compound and complex sentences. Try beginning with a simple sentence, or try following several long compound and complex sentences with a simple one. It can have a surprisingly forceful effect. Note the last two simple sentences in this paragraph. Because America seemed to provide limitless natural resources, we spent them freely. We mined for minerals, diverted rivers, and cut down trees, many of which had been growing for thousands of years before the first settlers arrived. Over the years, America's wilderness has given way to prosperous cities, and skyscrapers have replaced giant old trees. America has succeeded. But now we are paying the price. Sentence structure can enhance the topic or purpose of your writing. For example, short sentences with action verbs can accelerate the pace of a narrative essay, but you may need to use compound and complex sentences to compare and contrast ideas in an argument paper. Active voice vs. passive voice Use the active voice rather than the passive voice of the verb whenever possible. Sentences structured in active voice are more energetic and more concise. Look at the following examples of weak passives. Notice how the subjects and verbs determine the action in active and passive sentences: A speech was given by the delegate from Michigan, and a challenge was issued by him to everyone attending. better The delegate from Michigan gave a speech and issued a challenge to everyone attending. After the town was hit by a tornado, a call to the Red Cross was made by our mayor. better After a tornado hit the town, our mayor called the Red Cross.

Intransitive Verb

A verb (such as laugh) that does not take a direct object or complement. Contrast with transitive verb. Many verbs have both a transitive and an intransitive function, depending on how they are used. The verb break, for instance, sometimes takes a direct object ("Rihanna breaks my heart") and sometimes does not ("When I hear your name, my heart breaks"). See also: Commonly Confused Words: Lay and Lie Commonly Confused Words: Set and Sit Ten Quick Questions and Answers About Verbs and Verbals in English Ten Types of Verbs Etymology: From the Latin, "not passing across" Examples and Observations: "Autos honked. Trees rustled." (Langston Hughes, The Ways of White Folks) "Sometimes imagination pounces; mostly it sleeps soundly in the corner, purring." (Leslie Grimutter) "My heart aches, and a drowsy numbness pains My sense, as though of hemlock I had drunk." (John Keats, "Ode to a Nightingale") "Men blush less for their crimes than for their weaknesses and vanity." (Jean de la Bruyere) "Some verbs are complete in themselves and do not require any further elements to make their meaning complete: although there may be further elements in the sentence, these are not essential. This is called intransitive complementation. It involves verbs such as: appear, arrive, begin, break, come, cough, decrease, die, disappear, drown, fall, go, happen, increase, laugh, lie (tell an untruth), matter, rain, rise, sneeze, snow, stop, swim, wait, work." (Ronald Carter and Michael McCarthy, Cambridge Grammar of English. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2006) Intransitive verbs are verbs that do not take an object or subject attribute in the sentence. Also note that the verb be, when followed by an adverbial expressing place or time, is used as an intransitive verb. He is running. He is reading. He is turning around. He is in London at the moment. (Marjolyn Verspoor and Kim Sauter, English Sentence Analysis. John Benjamins, 2000) "Do not tremble in fear but become strong and courageous instead." (Yajur Veda) "Hush my darling, don't fear my darling, the lion sleeps tonight." (Solomon Linda, "Wimoweh") Pronunciation: in-TRANS-i-tiv verb

Linking Verb

A verb, such as a form of be or seem, that joins the subject of a sentence to a complement. See also: Copula Ascriptive Sentence Predicate Adjective Examples and Observations: "It is always the best policy to speak the truth--unless, of course, you are an exceptionally good liar." (Jerome K. Jerome) "How often have I said to you that when you have eliminated the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must be the truth?" (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Sign of Four, 1890) "If your daily life seems poor, do not blame it; blame yourself. Tell yourself that you are not poet enough to call forth its riches." (Rainer Maria Rilke) "While one person hesitates because he feels inferior, the other is busy making mistakes and becoming superior." (Henry C. Link) "I became a feminist as an alternative to becoming a masochist." (Sally Kempton) "These copular verbs (also linking verbs) can be divided semantically into two types: (1) Those like be that refer to a current state: appear, feel, remain, seem, sound. (2) Those that indicate a result of some kind: become, get (wet); go (bad); grow (old); turn (nasty). Be is the copula that most often takes adverbial complements which characterize or identify the subject: I felt cold; I felt a fool." (Sylvia Chalker, "Copula," in The Oxford Companion to the English Language, edited by Tom McArthur, Oxford University Press, 1992) Like the be-pattern, linking verbs may take nouns as complements. Some of the linking verbs have a little more acute verbal action than the be-equations: Everything became a mist. (C.S. Lewis, That Hideous Strength, 380) He became a castaway in broad daylight. (William Golding, Pincher Martin, 56) A simple syntactic structure--a linking verb with a noun and two adjectives--here makes an urgent point: War remains the decisive human failure. (John Kenneth Galbraith, The Economics of Innocent Fraud, 62) As predicate complements, adjectives that follow linking verbs often carry the new information and draw the stress. Argument remains inescapable. (Julie Thompson Klein, Crossing Boundaries, 211) She looked new and fresh. (Carolyn See, The Handyman, 173) . . . In these linking examples, the major emphasis tends to fall on the predicate complement or, sometimes, whatever word or structure is at the end of the sentence . . .." (Virginia Tufte, Artful Sentences: Syntax as Style. Graphics Press, 2006) Pronunciation: ling-king verb

Subordinate Conjunctions

ADVERB clauses being with a sub. conj. and take the form: Sub Conj. + subject + verb After Tom graduates Below is a list of some common Subordinate Conjunctions after although as because before even if even though if in order that once provided that rather than since so that though unless until when whenever where whereas wherever whether while why

Relative Pronouns

Adjective clauses begin with relative pronouns and take the form: RP + Sb + V whom I saw Here are the 5 relative Pronouns + 3 Relative adverbs Who, which, whom, that, whose when, where, why

Complements

In grammar, a word or word group that completes the predicate in a sentence. Two kinds of complements are subject complements (which follow the verb be and other linking verbs) and object complements (which follow a direct object). (See Examples and Observations, below.) Complements are required to complete the verb, in contrast to modifiers, which are optional.

Phrases containing verbals

Gerunds, infinitives, and participles are phrases that contain verbals. Briefly, these verbals act as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs in sentences and provide additional information. Participial phrases A participial phrase begins with a past or present participle and is followed by its objects and modifiers. Like participles alone, participial phrases are used as adjectives. Breathing the fresh mountain air, Jim realized he had found paradise. In the preceding sentence, the present participle breathing introduces the participial phrase, which includes the participle's object ( air) and its modifiers ( the, fresh, mountain). This participial phrase acts as an adjective modifying the subject (noun) of the sentence ( Jim). The soldiers, trapped by the enemy, threw down their weapons. Here, the past participle trapped introduces the participial phrase trapped by the enemy. The entire phrase acts as an adjective modifying the subject of the sentence ( soldiers). Notice the phrase-within-a-phrase here. By the enemy is a prepositional phrase modifying the participle trapped. Remember that phrases can act as modifiers in other phrases. Gerund phrases At first, a gerund phrase may look like a participial phrase because gerund phrases begin with the -ing form of a verb ( riding, seeing, talking, etc.) and can have objects and modifiers. But a gerund phrase always acts as a noun in a sentence, not as an adjective. Like other nouns, a gerund phrase can serve as the subject of a sentence, the object of a verb or preposition, or the complement of a linking verb. Unlike participial phrases, which provide additional information, gerund phrases are essential to the meaning of the sentence and cannot be removed without changing the logical meaning of the sentence. In the following example, the gerund phrase Riding the black stallion functions as a noun and is the subject of the verb terrified. Notice that the gerund phrase is essential to the meaning of the sentence. Riding the black stallion terrified Hugh. In the next sentence, the gerund phrase seeing the suspect is the direct object of the verb reported. Notice that the entire phrase, not just the word suspect, is the direct object. The police officer reported seeing the suspect. In the following sentence, the gerund phrase talking loudly and often is the object of the preposition by. The senator made his reputation by talking loudly and often. In the final example , Calling Uncle Robert is a gerund phrase acting as the subject of the sentence. Asking for trouble is a gerund phrase acting as a complement of the linking verb is. Calling Uncle Robert is asking for trouble. Infinitive phrases An infinitive phrase contains an infinitive (for example, to sleep, to have spent, to consider, to throw) and its objects and modifiers. Infinitive phrases usually function as nouns, although they can also be used as adjectives and adverbs. In the following sentence , To sleep all night is an infinitive phrase functioning as a noun and is the subject of this sentence. To sleep all night was his only wish. In the following sentence, To take an unpopular stand is an infinitive phrase acting as a noun. It is the direct object of the verb did not want. The representatives did not want to take an unpopular stand. Next, the infinitive phrase to spend foolishly functions as an adjective modifying the noun money. He had plenty of money to spend foolishly. In the following sentence, the infinitive phrase to clear her mind acts as an adverb modifying the verb drove. It answers the question "Why did she drive?" After the confrontation, she drove miles to clear her mind. Split infinitives Breaking up an infinitive with one or more adverbs is called splitting an infinitive. Splitting an infinitive isn't considered the grammatical sin it used to be, but most writers avoid splitting infinitives unless they have a reason to do so. They taught her to spend money wisely. not They taught her to wisely spend money. Sometimes, not splitting an infinitive is almost impossible. We expect the population to more than double over the next twenty years. Other times, not splitting an infinitive causes ambiguity or sounds unnatural. In these cases, don't worry about breaking the old rule; clarity and smoothness take precedence over unsplit infinitives. In this sentence, does further modify Chinese efforts or discuss? We wanted to discuss further Chinese efforts to modernize. Splitting the infinitive makes the sentence clearer. better We wanted to further discuss Chinese efforts to modernize. Splitting the infinitive makes the following sentence sound more natural. He planned to take quickly the children to another room. better He planned to quickly take the children to another room

Prose

Ordinary writing (both fiction and nonfiction) as distinguished from verse.

Essay

See saved article on grammar folder.

Composition

The process of putting words and sentences together in conventional patterns.

Independent /Main Clause

sometimes called an independent clause—must contain a subject and a verb as well as express a complete thought. Come in three varieties: "Lisa is a lawyer." Statement "Where is Tom?" Question "Go straight for 3 miles." Command

Present Participle

A verb form--made by adding -ing to the base form--that functions as an adjective. Present participles are the only verb forms that are completely regular. The present participle (also known as the -ing form) is used with a form of the auxiliary be to express the progressive aspect.

Phrases, clauses and sentences

Phrases and clauses are the building blocks of sentences. Phrases are groups of words that act as a part of speech but cannot stand alone as a sentence. The words in a phrase act together so that the phrase itself functions as a single part of speech. For example, phrases can function as nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. If you understand how different types of phrases function, you can avoid misplacing them or leaving them dangling in sentences. Clauses are groups of words that have a subject and a predicate. Independent clauses express a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. Subordinate clauses can act as parts of speech but depend on the rest of the sentence to express a complete thought. A sentence expresses a complete thought and contains a subject (a noun or pronoun) and a predicate (a verb or verb phrase). The four basic types of sentences—simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex—use phrases and clauses in varying degrees of complexity.

Prepositional Phrases

The most common type of phrase is the prepositional phrase. You'll find these phrases in sentences, clauses, and even within other phrases. Each prepositional phrase begins with a preposition (examples: in, of, by, from, for) and includes a noun or pronoun that is the object of the preposition. in the room of the people by the river from the teacher for the party The object of a preposition can have its own modifiers, which also are part of the prepositional phrase. in the smoky, crowded room of the remaining few people by the rushing river from the tired and frustrated teacher for the midnight victory party Prepositional phrases function as either adjectives or adverbs. The woman in the trench coat pulled out her cell phone. The prepositional phrase in the trench coat acts as an adjective describing the noun woman. Most of the audience dozed during the tedious performance. The prepositional phrase during the tedious performance acts as an adverb modifying the verb dozed.

Past Participle

The third principal part of a verb, created by adding -ed, -d, or -t to the base form of a regular verb. (The past participle forms of regular verbs--such as looked, worked, and wished--are identical to the past tense.) The past participle forms of irregular verbs have various endings, including -d (said), -t (slept), and -n (broken). Another term for past participle is "-en" form. The past participle is used with the auxiliary has, have, or had to express the perfect aspect. In addition, the past participle is used with the auxiliary be to express the passive voice.

Absolutes

A group of words that modifies an independent clause as a whole. An absolute is made up of a noun and its modifiers (which frequently, but not always, include a participle or participial phrase). An absolute may precede, follow, or interrupt the main clause: Their slender bodies sleek and black against the orange sky, the storks circled high above us. The storks circled high above us, their slender bodies sleek and black against the orange sky. The storks, their slender bodies sleek and black against the orange sky, circled high above us. An absolute allows us to move from a description of a whole person, place, or thing to one aspect or part. See Martha J. Kolln's "Two Styles of Absolute Phrases" in Examples and Observations, below. Note that in traditional grammar, absolutes (or nominative absolutes) are often more narrowly defined as "noun phrases . . . combined with participles" (Macmillan Teach Yourself Grammar and Style in Twenty Four Hours, 2000). The term absolute (borrowed from Latin grammar) is rarely used by contemporary linguists.

Direct Object

A noun or pronoun in a sentence that receives the action of a transitive verb. See also: Practice in Identifying Direct Objects Indirect Object Object Examples and Observations: "But if thought corrupts language, language can also corrupt thought." (George Orwell) "A poet's pleasure is to withhold a little of his meaning, to intensify by mystification. He unzips the veil from beauty, but does not remove it." (E. B. White) "Dinsdale, he was a nice boy. He nailed my head to a coffee table." (Monty Python) "Nobody expects the Spanish Inquisition!" (Monty Python) "Since Mud Pond contained drinking water I had felt confident nothing untoward would happen there. For a long while the developers stayed away, until the drought of the mid-1960s. This event, squeezing the edges in, convinced the local water company that the pond really wasn't a necessity as a catch basin, however; so they bulldozed a hole in the earthen dam, bulldozed the banks to fill in the bottom, and landscaped the flow of water that remained to wind like an English brook and provide a domestic view for the houses which were planned." (Edward Hoagland, "The Courage of Turtles") "Direct objects are always noun phrases (or their equivalents, e.g., nominal clauses). The direct object of an active clause can typically become the subject of a passive clause: Everybody hated the teacher. (active: the teacher is direct object) The teacher was hated by everybody. (passive: the teacher is subject)" (Ronald Carter and Michael McCarthy, Cambridge Grammar of English. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2006) "We tell ourselves stories in order to live." (Joan Didion) "You can't test courage cautiously." (Annie Dillard) "I could catch a monkey. If I was starving I could. I'd make poison darts out of the poison of the deadly frogs. One milligram of that poison can kill a monkey." (Gareth in The Office)

Transitive Verb

A verb that takes an object (direct or indirect). Contrast with intransitive verb. Many verbs have both a transitive and an intransitive function, depending on how they are used. The verb break, for instance, sometimes takes a direct object ("Rihanna breaks my heart") and sometimes does not ("When I hear your name, my heart breaks"). See also: Commonly Confused Words: Lay and Lie Commonly Confused Words: Set and Sit Complex Transitive Ten Quick Questions and Answers About Verbs and Verbals in English Ten Types of Verbs Etymology: From the Latin, "to go across" Examples and Observations: "I know the muffin man." (Lord Farquaad, Shrek, 2001) "We lost a daughter but gained a meathead." (Archie Bunker in All in the Family, 1971) "Parents lend children their experience and a vicarious memory." (George Santayana, The Life of Reason) "I punched Mickey Mantle in the mouth." (Cosmo Kramer, Seinfeld) "A musicologist is a man who can read music but can't hear it." (Sir Thomas Beecham) Lay and Lie "There have been some difficulties with grammar since I last wrote. Lay is a transitive verb (I lay down a case of claret every month; she laid the table), lie an intransitive one (he lies over there; she lay in bed until noon). Do not confuse them." (Simon Heffer, "Style Notes 28: February 12, 2010." The Daily Telegraph) "More exactly, we should talk about transitive or intransitive uses of certain verbs, as a great many verbs can be used in English both transitively and intransitively. Land is transitive in The pilot landed the plane safely, but intransitive in The plane landed. Carry is transitive in They carried backpacks, but it has an intransitive use in His voice carries well (= 'projects')." (Angela Downing, English Grammar: A University Course. Routledge, 2006) Among transitive verbs there are three sub-types: monotransitive verbs have only a direct object, ditransitive verbs have a direct object and an indirect or benefactive object. Complex-transitive verbs have a direct object and an object attribute. . . . monotransitive: He bought a book. ditransitive: He gave her the book. complex-transitive: She found the book interesting. (Marjolyn Verspoor and Kim Sauter, English Sentence Analysis. John Benjamins, 2000) Pronunciation: TRAN-si-tiv verb

Participle

A verbal that functions as an adjective. Adjective: participial. Present participles end in -ing (carrying, sharing, tapping). Past participles of regular verbs end in -ed (carried, shared, tapped). As linguists have long observed, neither of these terms is accurate. "[B]oth participles are used in the formation of a variety of complex tenses and can be used for referring to past, present, or future time . . . . Preferred terms are -ing form (which also includes gerund) and -en form (or -ed form) (Oxford Dictionary of English Grammar, 1994).

Collective Noun

A word that stands for a group of things is called a XXXX noun. In fact, the word group itself is a collective noun. Here are a few others: family, club, team, committee, staff, furniture, jury, Congress, audience, herd. Usually these nouns are treated as singular because the emphasis is on the action of the entire unit rather than its individual parts. The team is going on the bus. The committee wants to find a solution to the problem. But when you want to emphasize the individual parts of a group, you may treat a collective noun as plural. The team have argued about going on the bus. The committee want different solutions to the problem. If the plural sounds awkward, try rewording. The team members have argued about going on the bus. The committee members want different solutions to the problem

Noun

Part of speech that names a person, place, thing, idea, or activity. Some nouns are specific for people, places, or events; and some represent groups or collections. Some nouns aren't even technically labeled nouns as their part of speech; they're verbs acting like nouns in sentences. Nouns can be singular, referring to one thing, or plural, referring to more than one thing. Nouns can be possessive, indicating ownership or a close relationship. Regardless of the type, nouns should always agree with their verbs in sentences. Use singular verbs with singular nouns and plural verbs with plural nouns. You have to know how a noun works in order to write an effective sentence

Gerunds

Sometimes in English, a verb is used as a noun. When the verb form is altered and it serves the same function as a noun in the sentence, it is called a gerund. Gerunds A noun created from the -ing form of a verb can act as a subject or an object in a sentence. Sleeping sometimes serves as an escape from studying. The gerunds sleeping and studying are -ing forms of the verbs sleep and study. Sleeping is a noun functioning as the subject of this sentence, and studying is a noun functioning as an object. Problem gerunds Gerunds can sometimes be difficult to use correctly in a sentence. What problems can you have with gerunds? When a noun or pronoun precedes a gerund, use the possessive case of the noun or pronoun. Jana's sleeping was sometimes an escape from studying. To test for correct usage, substitute the noun in place of the gerund. For example, in the preceding sentence, replace the gerund sleeping with the noun slumber. Read these sentences aloud and listen for the difference. Jana's slumber was sometimes an escape from studying. notJana slumber was sometimes an escape from studying. Even when you think that the word before the gerund looks like an object, use the possessive case. Jana was annoyed by Bill's studying. not Jana was annoyed by Bill studying.

Singular and Plural Nouns

The term number refers to whether a noun is singular or plural. Most nouns can be either singular or plural, depending on whether you are talking about one thing or more than one. You know the basic rule of adding -s to make the plural of a noun ( one cat, three cats), and you also know that many nouns don't follow that rule—for example, sheep (singular), sheep (plural); enemy, enemies; wharf, wharves; hero, heroes; goose, geese, and so on. Check a dictionary if you're not sure how to spell a plural noun. Do not add an apostrophe + s to a singular form to make it plural, even if the noun is a family name: the Taylors, not the Taylor's; donkeys, not donkey's; taxis, not taxi's. The singular and plural forms of some nouns with Latin and Greek endings can cause trouble. The noun data, for example, is plural; datum is the singular form. Although today the plural data is widely used as a singular noun, you should keep the distinction, particularly in scientific writing. The final datum (singular) is not consistent with the preceding data (plural), which are positive. Here are some examples of Latin and Greek singular and plural words that can be troublesome: bacterium, bacteria; criterion, criteria; medium, media; alumnus (masculine singular) , alumni (masculine plural), alumna (feminine singular), alumnae (feminine plural).

Adverb

What is an Adverb? An adverb can modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a phrase, or a clause. An adverb indicates manner, time, place, cause, or degree and answers questions such as "how," "when," "where," "how much". While some adverbs can be identified by their characteristic "ly" suffix, most of them must be identified by untangling the grammatical relationships within the sentence or clause as a whole. Unlike an adjective, an adverb can be found in various places within the sentence. In the following examples, each of the highlighted words is an adverb: The seamstress quickly made the mourning clothes. In this sentence, the adverb "quickly" modifies the verb "made" and indicates in what manner (or how fast) the clothing was constructed. The midwives waited patiently through a long labour. Similarly in this sentence, the adverb "patiently" modifies the verb "waited" and describes the manner in which the midwives waited. The boldly spoken words would return to haunt the rebel. In this sentence the adverb "boldly" modifies the adjective "spoken." We urged him to dial the number more expeditiously. Here the adverb "more" modifies the adverb "expeditiously." Unfortunately, the bank closed at three today. In this example, the adverb "unfortunately" modifies the entire sentence. Conjunctive Adverbs You can use a conjunctive adverb to join two clauses together. Some of the most common conjunctive adverbs are "also," "consequently," "finally," "furthermore," "hence," "however," "incidentally," "indeed," "instead," "likewise," "meanwhile," "nevertheless," "next," "nonetheless," "otherwise," "still," "then," "therefore," and "thus." A conjunctive adverb is not strong enough to join two independent clauses without the aid of a semicolon. The highlighted words in the following sentences are conjunctive adverbs: The government has cut university budgets; consequently, class sizes have been increased.He did not have all the ingredients the recipe called for; therefore, he decided to make something else.The report recommended several changes to the ways the corporation accounted for donations; furthermore, it suggested that a new auditor be appointed immediately.The crowd waited patiently for three hours; finally, the doors to the stadium were opened.Batman and Robin fruitlessly searched the building; indeed, the Joker had escaped through a secret door in the basement.