Grammer Elements of Style

12

Choose a suitable design and hold to it. A basic structure design underlies every kind of writing. Either you have an outpouring, an unorganized love letter, a sonnet, or an argumentative essay that needs a specific structure to fully convey their thoughts.

6

Do not break sentences in two. In other words, don't replace periods for commas. (ex.) She was an interesting talker, a woman who had traveled all over the world and lived in half a dozen countries. Its allowed to make an emphatic word or expression by using periods. Usually used in dialogue when the character speaks in a clipped or fragmented way. (ex.) Again and again he called out. No reply.

9

The number of the subject determines the number of the verb Words that intervene between subject and verb do not affect the number of the verb (ex.) The bittersweet flavor of youth—its trials, its joys, its adventures—is not soon forgotten. A relative clause following "one of..." requires a plural verb form. (ex.) One of those people who are never ready on time. Use a singular verb after each, either, everyone, everybody, neither, nobody, someone. (ex.) Everybody thinks he has a unique sense of humor. Use a singular verb with none when it implies no one or not one. None of us is perfect. A plural verb is used with none when none suggests more than one thing or person. (ex.) None of them are coming. A compound subject formed of one or more nouns joined by and require a plural verb (ex.) The walrus and the carpenter were walking close at hand. Certain compounds, often cliches, are considered units and take a singular verb. As do compound subjects that start with each or every. (ex.) The long and the short of it is Bread and butter was all she served Every window, picture, and mirror was smashed. Singular subjects are singular even when connected by with, as well as, in addition to, except, together with, and no less than. (ex.) His speech as well as his manner is objectionable. Linking verbs agrees with the number of its subject (ex.) What is wanted is a few more pairs of hands. Some nouns are singular but end in "s" take singular verbs (ex.) Politics is an art, not a science.

11

A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical subject. (ex.) Walking down the road, he saw a woman with two children. Walking refers to the man not the woman. To refer to the woman, one must rearrange the sentence. (ex.) He saw a woman, accompanied by two children, walking slowly down the road. Participial phrases preceded by a conjunction or by a preposition, nouns in apposition, adjectives, and adjective phrases must refer to the subject of the sentence. (ex.) One arriving in Chicago, he was met by his friends. Young and inexperienced, I thought the task was hard. Rather than One arriving in Chicago, his friends greeted me at the station. Young and inexperienced, the task was hard to me.

18

Avoid a succession of loose sentences. Loose sentences are common in unskilled writing in that they are simple; they are unlikely to use complex rules and creative writing techniques. Using loose sentences creates a monotony or it gets boring.

5

Do not join independent clauses with a comma. If two or more clauses are grammatically complete and are not joined by a conjunction are to be formed into one sentence with a semicolon. Useful to show a close relationship between the clauses. (ex.) Mary Shelley's works are entertaining; they are full of engaging ideas. It is nearly past five; we cannot reach town before dark. These sentences can be equally correct to write as two separate sentences. But if a conjunction is inserted, the proper mark is a comma. If the second clause starts with accordingly, besides, then, therefore, or thus, use a semicolon. (ex.) I had never been in the place before; besides, it was dark as a tomb. A comma is preferable when the clauses are very short and alike in form, or when the tone of the sentence is easy and conversational. (ex.) Man proposes, God disposes. The gates opened, the bridge fell, the army marched through.

3

Enclose parenthetical expression between commas (ex.) The best way to see a country, unless you are pressed for time, is to travel on foot. If the interruption in the sentence is slight, commas may be omitted. But whether or not it is sight or considerable, never omit one comma and leave the other. (ex.) NEVER "Majorie's husband, Colonel Nelson paid us a visit yesterday." Dates contain parenthetic words or figures (ex.) February to July, 1992 April 6, 1987 Wednesday, November 14, 1990 Note that it is customary to omit the comma since it is quickly grasped by the reader (ex.) 6 April 1898 A name of title in direct address is parenthetic (ex.) If, Sir, you refuse, I cannot predict what will happen. The abbreviations etc., i.e, e.g, academic degrees, and titles that follow a name are parenthetic. (ex.) Letters, packages, etc., should go here. Horace Fulsome, PhD., presided. Reverende Harry Lang, S.J. No comma should separate and noun from a restrictive term of identification. (ex.) Billy the Kid William the Conqueror The novelist Jane Austen Junior (Jr.) is a restrictive term not of need of a comma James Wright Jr. Nonrestrictive relative clauses are parenthetic, as are clauses introduced by conjunctions indicating time or place. Nonrestrictive clauses are one that doesn't serve to identify or define the noun. (ex.) The audience, which had at first been indifferent, become more and more interested. In 1769, when Napoleon was born, Corsica had but recently been acquired by France. Clauses introduced by which, when, where are nonrestrictive. They add nonessential information or a statement to the sentence. The sentences are a combination of two statements that can be made independently. (ex.) The audience was first indifferent. Later it became more and more interested. Restrictive Clauses are not parenthetic and do not contain commas. (ex.) People who live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones. Here the clause is introduced by who which serves to tell which people are meant. Participial phrases (verbs acting as adjectives) and appositives require commas when nonessential and don't require commas when essential. (ex.) The insect, a cockroach, is very disgusting. (appositive) John Kennedy the popular US president is very different from John Kennedy the unfaithful husband. When a main clause is preceded by a phrase, use a commas to set off these elements (ex.) Partly by hard fighting, partly by diplomatic skill, they won the war.

19

Express coordinate ideas in similar forms. Parallel structure is used to help the reader readily understand a connection among consecutive thoughts or ideas. When repeating a statement to emphasize it, the writer may need to vary its form. Otherwise the writer should follow a parallel structure throughout the writing. (ex.) Formerly, science was taught by the textbook method; now it is taught by the laboratory method. An article applying to all members of a series must either be used only once before the first term or else be repeated before each term. (ex.) The Italians, the French, and the British In spring, summer, or winter. If each term requires a different preposition and are in succession, you must include each preposition. (ex.) His speech was marked by disagreement with and by scorn for his opponents position. Correlative expressions (both, and, not, but , but also, or, first, second, third, etc.) should be placed in a sentence where sounds the best.

2

In a series of three of more terms with a single conjunction, use a comma after each terms except the last (ex.) red, white, and blue The ending comma, the serial comma, is usually omitted in business firms (ex.) Little, Brown and Company

20

Keep related words together Confusion and ambiguity result when word are badly places. The writer must, therefore, ring together the words that are relation in thought and keep apart those that are not so related. He noticed a large stain right in the center of the rug. NOT He notices a larger stain in the rug that was right in the center The subject and its verb should not be separated by a phrase that can be transferred to the beginning. In Beloved, Toni Morrison writes about elephants. NOT Toni Morrison, in Beloved, writes about elephants.

13

Make the paragraph the unit of composition. A paragraph can be at any length. A brief description, a brief review, or a brief account can be written in a single paragraph. After it is written, examine it to see if it needs to be broken up. A new paragraph is a signal that a new step in the development of the subject has been reached. Single sentences should not be written in a single paragraph unless if the sentence is a transition. A new paragraph starts with a change of speaker in a dialogue. Start each paragraph with a sentence suggesting the topic or that helps a the transition. Using again, therefore, for the same reason can help connect two paragraphs together. The beginning of the paragraph serves to hold together the details that follow. It shows the direction the paragraph is going to take. In animated narrative, paragraphs are likely short and used to show a break, a rhetoric pause, etc. Having enormous blocks of print look formidable to readers. Breaking them into smaller paragraphs will make the text look more manageable to readers.

17

Omit needless words. Make every word matter and every sentence required to convey a specific idea. No doubt RATHER THAN There is no doubt but He RATHER THAN He is a man who This subject RATHER THEN This is a subject that Her story is strange RATHER THAN Her story is a strange one. NEVER use the fact that, who is, which was. Replace them or omit them. Wordiness is a result of going through step by step of a complex thought. Its beneficial to combine the expression.

4

Place a comma before a conjunction introducing an independent clause. (ex.) The early records of the city have disappeared, and the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed. Clauses introduced by as, for, or, nor, while, and because require a comma before the conjunction. When the subject is the same for both clauses, a comma is useful when using "but" but not useful when using "and." (ex.) I have heard arguments, but am still unconvinced. He has had several years' experience and is thoroughly competent.

15

Put statements in positive form Use the word not as a means of denial or in antithesis, never as a means of evasion. (ex.) He usually came late. NOT He was not very often on time. Readers are dissatisfied with being told only what is not; the reader wishes to be told what is. (ex.) dishonest vs not honest Placing negative and positive in opposition makes for a stronger structure. (ex.) Not charity, but simple justice. Negative words other than not are usually strong. (ex.) Her loveliness I never knew / Until she smiled on me. Statements with unnecessary auxiliaries of conditionals (would, should, could, may) sound irresolute. (ex.) Applicants will make a good impression if they are neat and punctual. Rather than Applicants can make a good impression by being neat and punctual. If your sentence admits doubt, your writing will lack authority.

7

Use a colon after an independent clause to introduce a list of particulars, an appositive, an amplification, or an illustrative quotation. Tells the reader what follows is closely related to the preceding clause. It follows an independent clause and shouldn't separate a verb from its complement or a preposition from its object. (ex.) Your dedicated whittler requires three props: a knife, a piece of wood, and a back porch. Join two independent clauses with a colon if the second interprets or amplifies the first. (ex.) There was a directness and dispatch about animal burial: there was no stopover in the undertakers foul parlor, no wreath or spray. A colon may introduce a quotation that supports the preceding clause. (ex.) The squalor of the streets reminded her of a line rom Oscar Wilde; "We are all in the gutter, but some of us are looking at the stars." Colons follow the salutation of a letter, separate hour from minute, separate the title of a word from its subtitle, or a Bible chapter from a verse. Dear Mr. Montague; 10:49 Calligraphy: Intro to Italic Script John 11:7

8

Use a dash to set up an abrupt break or interruption and to announce a long summary or appositive. (ex.) His first thought on getting out of bed—if he had any thought at all—was to get back in again. Use a dash when a more common mark of punctuation seems inadequate. (ex.) Her father's suspicions proved well-founded—it was not Edward she cared for—it was San Francisco. or Her father's suspicions proved well-founded. It was not Edward she cared for, it was San Francisco.

16

Use definite, specific, concrete language (ex.) It rained every day for a week. Rather than A period of unfavorable weather set in. The sure way to arouse and hold the readers attention is by being specific, definite, and concrete. Writing is deemed memorable when its specific details are concrete and when it makes the reader feel themselves in the scene.

14

Use the active voice since it is more direct and vigorous than the passive. (ex.) I shall always remember my first visit to Boston. I have damaged your bicycle Rather than My first visit to Boston shall be remembered by me. Your bicycle has been damaged. Brevity is a by-product of vigor.

10

Use the proper case of pronoun Personal pronouns, including who, change form as they function as subject or object.

1

form the possessive singular of nouns by adding 's (ex.) Charles's friend, the witch's hat Exceptions: ancient proper names ending in -es, -is. Jesus', consciousness', and righteousness'. Such forms of Moses' Laws, Isis' Temples are replaced with "The Laws of Moses." Pronominal possessives hers, its, theirs, yours, and ours have no apostrophe. However, indefinite pronouns take apostrophes (ex.) one's rights, somebody's umbrella It's is a contraction, its is possessive. (ex.) It's a wise dog that scratches its own fleas.