Greek History (Quals)

heqetai

"Companions" in Mycenaean Linear B tablets. Perhaps a military caste associated with chariot warfare? In the Linear B archives, heqetai "Companions" is the only term used to describe the men closely associated with the palatial adminstration. Military and religious duties can be deduced from the tablets.

Chapter 13 Timeline

356 BCE: Birth of Alexander the Great 336 BCE: Alexander the Great becomes King of MAcedon 334 BCE: Battle of the Granikos River 333 BCE: Battle of Issos 331 BCE: Battle of Gaugamela 323: Death of Alexander in Babylon 323-281: Wars of the DIadochoi 168: Battle of Pydna 146: Rome sacks Corinth 31: Battle of Actium

The Trial of Socrates

399 BCE: charges brought by private citizens Meletos and Anytos. Socrates baited Athenians during the trial: calls Apollo as witness which discredits impiety charges, but also provokes them further. Says he knew cross-examination made him unpopular but felt compelled to put god's business first. Eventually likens the city of Athens to a fat lazy horse that he has to sting into action. Faisl to convince jurors, and after declared guilty, as customary in Athenian trials, gets to give another speech to suggest sentence. He was sentenced to death instead: drank hemlock. Only 4 years after the 30's overthrow, trauma still fresh, things are still unsettled (e.g., still figuring out what laws were still one effect). He was a scapegoat, ended threat of civil war by cleansing the city of connections to the 30.

Perseus, son of Philip V

Although Philip V was defeated, Romans faced opposition in Macedon from his son Perseus. They defeat Perseus in the Battle of Pydna in 168 BCE: Rome partitions Macedon into 4 states to try to quell threat of rebellion but doesn't seem to help. Formally annex the region in 146 instead and incorporate Macedon as a province of Rome under a Roman governor. They also sack Corinth in 146: eventually incorporate all of Greece South of macedon into the new province of Achaia. These events brought Greek philosophy, art, poetry to Rome.

megaron

An architectural form consisting of a columned porch, vestibule, and large hall with a hearth in the center. The megaron has deep roots in the Aegean region, being found first in the Neolithic villages of Sesklo and Dimini and reappearing during the Late Bronze Age as the central feature of many of the Mycenaean palaces.

proedroi

An executive board of nine men whose membership rotated at each meeting of the Ekklesia, who watched over proceedings *ADD

Orpheus cult

Another cult that, like Demeter's cult at Eleusis, offered its initiates the prospect of a happy afterlife. Many people around the Greek world initiated into this cult, which was ID'd with Orpehus, who almost succeeded in bringing Eurydike back from the Underworld. These initiates were called Orpheotelestai (initiates of Orpheus), many buried with small gold plates inscribed with texts. Initates were being offered an incantation that they were expected to use once they woke up dead: a kind of passport/attestation that they were worthy of passing into he realm of pure + blessed

Persian Religion

Greeks had trouble understanding Persian religion. Herodotus in the 5th century BCE writes that the only gods they worshipped were the sun, sky, moon, earth, fire, and water (basically, the elements), but that they added more gods as they came in contact with new peoples. Also an ethical component: Zoroastrianism. Zoroastrianism is named for the prophet Zarathustra and focused on free will, which relied on three ethical imperatives: good thoughts, good words, and good deeds. Underpinning Zoroastrianism was the belief in a just supreme being, the Sky God Ahura Mazda, believed to be in contention with the forces of evil. Darius refers to Ahura Mazda in official proclamation and puts out images of him, often shown in the form of a winged disk in conjunction with inscriptions and palace architecture. Achaemenids presented rule as an expression of divine order: divine right through Ahura Mazda

nous and aether

In Aristophanes' Clouds, play satirizes pretentiousness of Athenian intellectuals: people like Socrates made into comic caricature. E.g., Socrates hangs from a basket so he can mix his mind/intellect (nous) with the atmosphere (aether)

misotyrannos

Literally, "tyrant-hating," a characteristic ascribed to Sparta in the Archaic period and illustrated by the Spartan contribution to the expulsion of the Peisistratids from Athens.

So, what IS the connection between the Minoans and Mycenaeans?

Minoan world underwent a series of fluctuations that corresponded to the building and destruction of major palatial centers. E.g., around 1470 BCE palaces were destroyed a second time: in the generation that followed, most of palaces not used but Knossos was rebuilt and returned to its role as a center of redistributive economy, but records kept by scribes at Knossos in 14th century BCE were in Linear B: a Greek language. Follows that the rulers of Knossos in its final phase were Greek, since it would have made no sense for Cretan rulers to import Greek speaking tribes when they already had a Cretan script. If Greeks were ruling at Knossos, makes sense that mainland Greeks may be responsible for destruction of Cretan cities as a result of invasion.

How can we infer Mycenae was a society ruled by warrior aristocracy from structures found?

Monumental tholos tombs, massive fortification walls, central megarons (ruler's halls where king sat), also royal burial ground known as Circle A just inside Lion Gate. Citadel, megaron, and associated buildings for cult purposes + specialized artisanal work.

What precipitated the final return to democracy in Athens after the oligarchic revolution?

Monumental victory of Athenian fleet in 410 at the Battle of Kyzikos, over the Spartans. Spartans sue for peace and Athenians reject initial terms, but both sides pause for three seasons.

Shackled skeletons from Phaleron cemetery, Athens

More than 1500 graves found in Phaleron district of Athens. Approximately 80 skeletons from the 3rd quarter of the 7th century BCE, and 36 were buried with their arms shackled: signaling significant social tensions of the time Excavators have tentatively proposed they are followers of Kylon: Thucydides recounts an attempt by an Athenian, Kylon, to become tyrant in 632 BCE: unsuccessful and followers reportedly butchered

stasis

Internal civil conflict. A word that describes the civil strife that characterized much of the public life of poleis during the Archaic Period. The unsettled conditions of social and economic life at this time are reflected in an emphasis in poetry on statis. A period when more and more people are subject to the compulsion of a few, leading to class struggles. Factionalism on the rise. Reflected in the fact that in many states an elite can now be identified in the poetry of the time as arostoi: the root of the word aristocracy, meaning the rule of the best. Also begin to hear of entire subject groups, like the penestai of Thessaly and the karotai in Crete and the helots in Sparta.

Isagoras' resurgence

Isagoras calls on Spartans to remove Kleisthenes and dismantle the Kleisthenic system and the Council of 500. Kleisthenes slips out of Athens and 700 families were banished according to Herodotus. BUT, Athenian people rose ups nd besieged the Spartan king Kleomenes for 3 days on the Akropolis and Spartans permitted to leave Athens with Isagoras

Bronze Age landscape in Gulf of Mirabello

On Island of Crete in Eastern parts of the island: extensive survey has shown a landscape where farms and hamlets grew up around reliable water sources and arable land without any clear regional center. Despite significance of palaces, must recognize that many people in Crete did not live in or near a palace the size of Knossos or Phaistos and life was structured very differently. E.g., Vronda

The Sphakteria Campaign: How did it start?

One of the key episodes shaped by an odd combo of independent command + popular scrutiny. A campaign that began almost by accident. In 425, Athenian general Demosthenes was sailing on the W Coast of Peloponnese and was forced by bad weather to seek shelter; goes to Pylos and brought ships and men on shore. Men build a fortified camp out of boredom apparently, and Demosthenes realizes this is a prime opportunity to establish a base where Athenian forces could harry with the W. Peloponnese. In response, Spartans dispatch to dislodge Athenians. Spartans land troops on island of Sphakteria facing the bay but when they try to assault the Athenian position, lost ships and men stranded.

How did Sparta differ from other Greek states in military service after training?

Spartan military also served in krypteia in some cases, a kind of secret police not unlike paramilitary squads: functioned to terrorize the helot population, armed with knives, dispatched to patrol Sparta + kill helots after dark ADD*

Spartan Hegemony in the wake of the King's Peace

Spartans return to Persian favor and Persia doesn't care what they do as long as they stay out of Persian interests. Spartan aggression escalates in the 380s: e.g., Spartans under Phoibidas march past the citadel fo Thebes (the Kadmeia) and just decide to occupy it without a pretense.

Buddhism vs Hellenistic Age of Greek Philosophers

There were mutual intellectual interests between Greek philosophers and Indian buddhists. E.g., exploring similar philosophies. Epicurus claimed just man was most free from disturbance, while unjust full of disturbance. Avoiding disturbance/lack of disturbance called ataraxia. Also mirrored in Buddhist texts.

Colonies: Brea

We can see further how colonies function as an instrument of Athenian policy in the regulations for the founding of a colony at Brea in the N. Aegean, dating from not long after suppression of Euboian revolt. North was always a strategic interest for the Athenians because of natural wealth in mineral resources and timber. Brea, along with Amphipolis, were designed to secure Athenian presence in the region. As long as colonists sent a cow and a set of armor every four years to the Greater Panathenaia, the Athenians would be ready to render assistance. And, the colony served as a beachhead for the Athenians.

Chapter 6: The Archaic Age in Athens

Woot

Chapter 3: Mycenae: Rich in Gold

Woot!

Chapter 7: Persia

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Chapter 8: Democracy and Empire

Woot!

Turning now to early Sparta!

Woot!

Military component of Athenian lief: a contradictory feature to the egalitarian ethos of democracy

Worked against egalitarian ethos of democracy that generals could be elected year after year: the only office in the democracy that was not subject to annuality. Accordingly, a man who was a powerful speaker and a successful general could expect a long and distinguished career. E.g., Perikles. Such men tended to come from wealthy and high born families: often referred to themselves as Eupatridai, men of good birth

Xenophanes

an Ionian pre-Socratic. Complained that gods were portrayed as liars, cheats, thieves: saw this as a projection of human desire to comprehend the world around them. Xenophanes was part of a tradition of Ionian philosophers whose cosmological investigations produced remarkable results.

Tegea vs Sparta

mid. 6th century BCE: Spartans march on Tegea with fetters to enslave their northern neighbors, but Tegeans are victorious and supposedly dedicate the fetters @ the temple of Athena Alea: avoid becoming helots woot! Tegea later is brought into the Peloponnesian League successfully by the Spartan king Anaxandridas and began a garrison on Laconia's northern border, but never really lost their antipathy

corvee labor

unpaid forced labor usually by lower classes, forced upon them by the government e.g., likely a part of the Minoan economic system; unclear whether farmers contributed a percentage of their land's production or worked palace land as corvee labor.

Pinakion

wood or bronze item used like an ID card. Used in allotment machines to select juries.

erastes

the older member of a same sex relationship in Ancient Greece.

ekphora

the procession that escorted the body from home to burial In an Athenian funeral, the ekphora was the second stage (after prothesis) during which the body of the deceased was brought from the home to the gravesite.

metoikion

the tax paid by metics, assessed at 12 drachma a year (2 weeks salary for a skilled workman) The tax paid by resident aliens (metics) of Athens, which amounted to 12 drachmai per year for a man and 6 for a woman. (page 242)

phoros

tribute: the most irksome of the Athenian imperial control aspects for subjects, in the eyes of Thucydides. Sees as a major cause of defection. Tribute was the most obvious sign of the allies' subordination

krater

A vessel used for mixing wine. Often found in Minoan feasting assemblages.

engye

A word for a Greek marriage that means both "betrothal" and "contract." It was made between a man and the bride's father. Greek word for marriage: means betrothal and contract. Women serve to provide children who could inherit property of the family. A contract not between man v woman but between man and her father.

ephetai

According to Drako's law on homicide, the fifty-one ephetai served as jurors and decided whether the accused acted intentionally or unintentionally.

Why would encroaching on sacred pasture land of only a few square miles lead to a full-on trade embargo on Megara?

Megara was sandwiched between Athens and Corinth and often rankled under the influence of its Corinthian neighbors. For instance, in the first PP War in 457 BCE, Megarians joined Athenian Alliance due to annoyance over a border imposed by the Corinthians. Athenians had responded enthusiastically to this, and had built long walls from Megara to the port of Nisaia on Saronic Gulf where Athens had installed a garrison. BUT... in Epidamnos Affair, Megarians backed the Corinthians. This betrayal surely led Athens to take the action fo the Megarian decree. Athens had built facilities for Megarians for their loyalty against Corinth but could take them away and take away access to Athenian ports and harbors.

Bull-leaping

Some archaeologists have suggested this as a potential use for the central court of the palatial complex at Knossos. Cult of the bull, but ritual focused on bull-leaping performance. Has been suggested that it served as reenactment of an astronomical story explaining the movement of the stars, just as constellation of Perseus "leaps" the Bull to rescue Andromeda: reenactment of a cosmological episode? Clearly a widespread/important cult: Cretan elites wore bull leaping signet rings, also known from frescoes and terracotta figurines. Also spreads beyond Crete: excavations at Hyksos capital of Avaris in Egypt revealed bull leaping practiced there too.

The Settlement with the 30

Under the arrival of the Spartan army under King Pausanias, democracy is restored in Athens and remaining adherents to the 30 are resettled at Eleusis. A general amnesty is declared by late 403: a necessary step towards healing trauma and wounds by setting aside actions of the 30 although did not assuage Athenian anger and frustration entirely.

Solon's archonship 592-1

Unrest continued after Solon's term ended and around 591-1 BCE he was called upon to serve as archon a second time. Introduced more reforms: economic and constitutional, which had profound effects on Athenian development. E.g., Athens subjected to a census, and now divided into 4 classes based on the amount of produce yielded by their land. The classes were the Pentekosiomedimnai (>500 measures), Hippeis (>300) Zeugitai (>200) Thetes (<200)

Corinthian War

War that lasted from 395-387 BCE and was fought between Sparta and an alliance of Thebes, Athens, Corinth and Argos. Persia dictated a peace to end the war. Lysander was focused on things happening in Asia Minor and the new Persian King Artaxerxes II. Artaxerxes II ascended in 404 BCE and was immediately facing rebellion led by his brother Cyrus the Younger. Lysander and the Spartans support Cyrus against Artaxerxes II, and although Spartans were defeated in the Battle of Kunaxa, marked the beginning of Spartan aggression in Asia Minor. New Spartan king Agesilaus II pursued the same policies as Lysander (e.g., focus on Asia Minor) and in 398 Spartans march into Persian territory. Artaxerxes responds by dispatching an envoy, Timokrates of Rhodes, to stir up discontent in Greece against Sparta and to negotiate an anti-Sparta alliance of Thebes, Athens, Argos, and Corinth. Strategy was to threaten Sparta in the Peloponnese to force a withdrawal from the western satrapies. For ten years the anti-Spartan alliance fought a series of skirmishes and battles collectively referred to as the Corinthian Wars. During the CW, Lysander died at the indecisive battle of Haliartos in 395; there was also a notable decisive defeat of Spartan fleet in the Aegean at the Battle of Knidos in 394. Often seen as a coda to the Peloponnesian War: marks a return of Persia to involvement in Greek affairs after largely peaceful coexistence since the Battle of Eurymedon. There really isn't any justification for the behavior of the Spartans: legal, ethical, or strategic, but Spartans do love booty. Great King and satraps realize that Greeks could be bought: Persian gold becomes key factor in Greek international relations. Corinthian Wars end when Great King decided that peace was a more effective means to achieving goals than war: terms of peace (King's Peace) negotiated by a Spartan ambassador in 386 BCE: says that Persians will maintain the cities in Asia and the Greek cities should be left autonomous. Reveals the new role of the Great King as a power broker between squabbling states. City-state model is only so effective: were Greek city states doomed to continuous warfare?

Seisachtheia

"The shaking off of burdens"; a cancellation of debts by Solon, in order to address quantity of Athenians in debt-bondage. Details murky, but one source tells us the debts were lowered versus cancelled; our best sources, Aristotle and Plutarch, wrote hundreds of years after the events. Land was encumbered by debt and people who could not repay their mortgages on the land they were loaning were in a bad spot: many fled Athens and others had been sold into slavery. Solon's economic reforms not immediately successful: wealthy thought he went too far and poor thought he did too little: completed during archonship of 594 *ADD

Phyle

*ADD

Thiasos, oi

*ADD

pirradazis

*ADD Achaemenids utilizing an interconnected network of well-maintained roads to facilitate communication with peripheries, but also equipped with horse changing posts (a system called pirradazis) that made overland communication across ancient Persia as fast as possible

Marathonomachoi

*ADD ~192 Athenians die at the Battle of Marathon in 490. Greek for "The men who fought at Marathon". Buried in a manner befitting Homeric heroes in a communal tumulus called the Soros, considered heroes by the Athenians in full sense of the word: deeds earned them honored place in afterlife, received cult offerings in commemoration of superhuman accomplishments. Not long after the battle, Athenians add an inscription to the stoa below the temple of Apollo at Delphi: dedicate spoils from Battle of Marathon. Celebration of this event continues for centuries.

Why was the Epidamnos Affair so important? (2 reasons)

1. Original conflict between oligarch and democratic factions Epidamnos was irrelevant to Athenian decision to become involved. Didn't really seem to care that they were supporting the people against the democratic faction: instead compelled by prospect of an alliance with one of the largest navies in Greece. 2. To the Corinthians, Athenian involvement was ominous: the theater of operations in the Ionian Sea was just beyond the entrance to the Corinthian Gulf and was an area of interest to the Corinthians. An unwelcome intrusion into the Corinthian sphere of influence. Corinthians were also pissed because Corcyra was their own colony and Epidamnos was therefore kind of a grand-colony: Athenians need to butt out of other people's business.

Beginning of Iron Age

1000-700 BCE, often referred to as the Geometric Period because of preference for Geometric designs in pottery.

Late Bronze Age period

1600-1200 BC

Middle Bronze Age

2000-1600 BC

Lower town at Mycenae

30 hectares, outside walls of palace. Protected by fortification walls with at least 5 gates. Housed domestic, commercial and administrative buildings. Beyond the citadel as a whole, have also found evidence for roads, dams, bridges, and various building complexes. Reminds us that Mycenae was the center of a thriving urban environment with specialized manufacturing and trade carried on under the protection of the happening within walls of the citadel: not a lone, isolated mountain citadel.

Early Bronze Age

3000-2000 BC

Chapter 2: Early Greece and the Minoans: The Labyrinth and the Minotaur: Basic Timeline

38,000-3000 BCE: Franchthi Cave 5000-3200 BCE: Late Neolithic Sesklo and Dimini 3100 BCE: Beginning of the Bronze Age 1900 BCE: First Cretan Palaces 1700 BCE: Destruction of First Cretan Palaces 1650 BCE: Second Cretan Palaces 1628 BCE: Eruption of Thera 1470 BCE: Destruction Horizon of Second Cretan Palaces 1450 BCE: Linear B first recorded at Knossos 1200-1100 BCE: Movements to interior of Crete

Chapter 12 general timeline

404-403 BCE: Battle of the Thirty Tyrants at Athens 399 BCE: Execution of Sokrates 395-387: Corinthian War 387-6: King's Peace 379-8 BCE: Formation of the Second Athenian Confederacy 362: The Battle of Mantineia 359: Philip II becomes king of Macedon 356-346: Third Sacred War 338 BCE: Battle of Chaironeia 336 BCE: Assassination of Philip II

Timeline of Chapter 11

435-433 BCE: Epidamnos Affair 433/2-430 BCE: Siege of Potidia 431: Outbreak of Peloponnesian War 430: Outbreak of plague at Athens 425: Capture of Spartans on Sphakteria 421: Peace of Naxos 415-413: Sicilian Expedition 411 BCE: Oligarchic Revolution at AThsn 404: Surrender of Athens

The Classical Period (general dates)

480-338 Athens in the Classical period: dealing with recovery from the Persian Wars but also the rise of influential statesmen like Perikles and and Kimon, whose rivalry would precipitate fundamental changes in the orientation of Athenian policy, as Sparta replaced Persia as the focus of Athenian hostility.

Chapter 7 General Timeline

525-456 Aischylos 497-405 Sophokles 485-406 Euripides 450-386 Aristophanes 454: Transfer of treasury from Delos to Athens 447-438 BCE: Construction of the Parthenon 437-432: Construction of the Propylaia 431 BCE: outbreak of the Peloponnesian War 421-407: Construction of the Erechtheion 404: End of Peloponnesian War

The Mykonos pithos of a Trojan Horse

7th century BCE: slightly late but reminds us that stories in epic cycle were alive in the Greek imagination long after any historical events connected to the stories were finished. Points to the importance of Homer's stories, a key feature of Greek Iron Age. c. 670 BCE>

The Dipylon Master + Workshop

8th century BCE Athens: middle of 8th century BCE saw production of dozens of monumental terracotta funerary markers by Dipylon Master and workshop. Vessels sometimes are over 1.5 meters (5 ft) tall and were put over graves of the elite. Regularly show ekphora and prothesis. Male graves: kraters. Female graves: amphorae.

medimnos

A Greek unit of measurement, which in Attica amounted to 52.5 liters or 14 US gallons. Solon used this unit of measurement to categorize 4 classes

terracotta figurine of a centaur from Lefkandi, c. 920 BCE

A centaur from The Toumba cemetery at Lefkandi. Some think it represents Cheiron, a centaur who raised Achilles. We can't know this but tells us it was a richly imaginative age. Monsters and hybrid creatures of Greek myth are vividly present in the Iron Age. Lefkandi on the edge of the Mycenaean world: later myths. locate centaurs in Thessaly. The north never really loses its reputation for wildness.

How does the Cyrus Cylinder complicate our understanding of the Achaemenid dynasty in Persia?

A clay document on which the king Cyrus the Great recorded ancestry: claims to be descended from the Anshanite king, Teispes. Based on this, it has been suggested that Cyrus and his family were Anshanite or Elamite and not Persian. May conceal struggles and disputes over Persian kingship that are hidden from us.

The Capture of Amphipolis in 357 BCE

A location of interest to the Athenians: Philip captures it and offers it back in exchange for the coastal city of Pydna, closer to Macedonia. Athens betrays their ally Pydna by yielding it to Philip, but then he ALSO keeps Amphipolis Athenians lacked the means to put up large forces in the field at this time and were risk averse. Philip using this to his advantage. Pydna gave Macedon a port on the Thermaic Gulf, and Amphipolis gave Philip a base from which to move on Mount Pangaion in 356 BCE. Although he was called to intervene in a local dispute, Philip took control of the gold and silver mines of Mount Pangaion and renamed the place Philippi. The addition to the Macedonian treasury is said to have amounted to 1,000 talents a year.

heroon

A monument constructed in honor of a hero, as, for example, in the case of the Early Iron Age building at Lefkandi.

Lysander

A new Spartan commander in the Aegean who was already familiar due to serving in 407-6 BCE. Also had friendly relations with the Persians and drew on Persian money to refurbish the Spartan fleet, Set out attacking Athenian holdings in the Aegean and even got close to Attica: Lysander knew the key to defeating Athens was destroying its hold on the Hellespont and starving the city into submission. Ended up establishing a base at Abydos in Asia Minor accordingly, in the Hellespont.

koinon (pl. koina)

A political federation based on the communities of an ethnos, attested from the Archaic period and rising to prominence in the 4th century. Examples include the Delphic Amphiktyony, the Kalaurian League in the Saronic gulf (a primarily religious network) Koina could also serve as regional unions. E.g., the Greeks of Ionia met at the Panionion in the sanctuary of Poseidon at Cape Mycale near Miletos to deliberate on issues of interest to all the member states.

Demosion Sema

A public cemetery just beyond the Dipylon Gate where bones of Athenian dead collectively were interred: egalitarian spirit of Athenians present in death. A state cemetery where all citizens who died in war were buried; the location of the famous funeral oration by Perikles.

Phratry

A religious fraternity. At the first Apatouria festival after the birth of his male child, an Athenian father would introduce the baby to other members of the phratry. The same boys would be reintroduced when they were about 18, signaling their acceptance by the phratores (phratry brothers). After introduction into the phratry as a youth, the young Athenian would usually serve as an ephebe, a hoplite in training. These ephebes served as the border guards of Athens for two years. Upon return from the border, they were able to take up their place as soldiers and citizens. In a real sense one entered the citizen rolls through his father's religious fraternity. Phratries play many roles, both at a familial level, individual level and communal level: e.g., if a young man's father died they could attest to the man's citizenship

rhyton (rhyta pl)

A ritual vessel with a spout used in libation ceremonies. During LBA, Minoans and Mycenaeans noted for their use of rhyta in the forms of bulls and other animals' heads.

niello

A substance made of copper, silver and lead sulphite used to produce the black highlights usually found on Mycenaean daggers. Especially notable examples were discovered in Grave Circle A at Mycenae.

Cabotage

A system of port to port trading relying on a simple principle: goods increase in value as they become more and more exotic (indicated by Uluburun shipwreck). Natural conditions of Eastern Med favored a system designed to move goods a considerable distance: e.g., a turquoise ingot is not difficult to transport by sea, but becomes highly prized when it reaches a place where there is no local source of production. Seaborne trade characterized by the movement of ships and goods along the coast from one port to the next in succession.

Lawgivers in Archaic Age

Across communities, in the Archaic period there was a response to the threat of stasis in the form of rule of law. Replacing customary law administered by elders and priests with written legal codes. Often semi-legendary figures (e.g., Zaleukos of Epizephyrian Lokri, Charondas of Katania, Lykourgos in Sparta). Lawgiver typically comes in to settle civil strife but faces a test of the code.

Hellenistic Period

After Alexander's death, Greek art, education, and culture merged with those in the Middle East. Trade and important scientific centers were established, such as Alexandria, Egypt.

The Death of Darius

After Gaugamela, Darius fled east into Central Asia. Alexander continues a relentless pursuit but a Persian nobleman Bessos killed him and took his place before Alexander could kill him ~330 BCE. Alexander catches up with bests and mutilates and crucified him: avenged death of last Great King, legitimizing his role further.

Chapter 13

Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age

The image of Alexander

Alexander's image was closely controlled. He chose the Sikyonian sculptor Lysippos (390-300 BCE) to produce his official portraits. Physical style was copied by successors: hair parted in the middle and combed back and off of the face (Anastole); slight tilt of eyes and far away look to invoke yearning (pothos)

Pylos

Also allows us to see the ways Mycenaean society was organized. Here, as at Korphos-Kalamianos, we encounter a form of social organization somewhat different from Mycenae. The Mycenaean site at Pylos is also sometimes called Nestor's Palace: Palace of Nestor not protected by fortification walls, not unlike Cretan palaces and also like Cretan palaces, functioned as a center of redistribution. Indicates that goods were stored and dealt out to population. Linear B tablets found here indicate some rooms had specialized functions. E.g., Rooms 7+* were full of Linear B tablets, archive rooms. Room 19 full of cups, 43 had a terracotta bathtub, Room 38 held records of perfumed oil which may have fallen from floor above. Destroyed around 1200 BCE.

Demokritos and Leukippos

Also pre-socratics. Postulated that the universe was made up of tiny particles much smaller than can be seen by eye, moving in space. Particles so small they couldn't be cut: dubbed them invisible (atoma)

wanakteros

An adjective found in the Linear B tablets denoting a commodity as associated with the wanax, roughly equivalent to English "royal." Also refers to some workers: royal workers? An adjective found in the Linear B tablets denoting a commodity as associated with the wanax. Roughly equivalent to the word royal.

Alexander continues east into the region of modern day Afghanistan: why?

Ancient sources include romantic tales of him wanting to outdo Herakles by capturing a fort located on the rock of Aornos. But more likely that he was exploring feasibility of marching further east. Precious trade goods like silk and spices were brought along trade routes later known as the Silk Road, across the Pamir Mountains, bu t to conquer the lands on the eastern Chinese side of these mountains would mean a massive investment of time and men. Also, a harsh landscape: a dangerous venture. But rather than risk it, Alexander established a series of outposts on the Western side of the mountains, garrisoned with veterans. These garrisons were called Alexandria. The goal of these garrisons was to tax trade coming overland: but many of these garrisons grew into settlements. However, the Greek veterans sent to secure the region and trade were not willing settlers and after Alexander's death there were uprisings amongst veterans who wanted to come home. Political domination of the region was therefore tenuous, especially after Alexander's successor Seleukos I ceded the far eastern provinces to the Indian prince Chandragupta Maurya.

Delos and Peisistratos

Annexed the island of Delos, thereby bringing the most important sanctuary in the Aegean firmly under Athenian control.

Athenians after the Peisistratid Dynasty were wary of one man accreting power: how did the government try to control for this?

Annuality + collegiality! All official posts like magistracies or Council membership was held one year only, and those serving were always a part of a larger board of officials to help further dissipate power. Reflects deep ambivalence felt by Athenians towards powerful individuals. Also, in the council: once someone was selected as a councillor, they were not eligible for selection again for at least ten years: in practice, the vast majority of Athenian men must have served as councillors at least one time in their lives.

ethnos (ethne, pl)

Another type of social organization emerging in the Iron Age. Aggregates of communities asserting common ethnic identities. Many ethne formed political federations called koina (singular koinon). E.g., the Aitolians of W Greece at Kalydon and Pleuron all claimed to be descended from a common ancestor, Aitolos. An aggregate of communities that professed a common ethnic identity such as the Aitolians or Arkadians who all claimed descent from a common heroic ancestor

Why did Sparta fail to capitalize on newfound Aegean prominence + exploit victory in the Peloponnesian war?

As Athens struggled through the civil war and the reign of the 30, Sparta was free to exploit their victory in the Peloponnesian War, but squandered the opportunity. Partly due to demands of foreign policy: Lysander was focused on things happening in Asia Minor and the new Persian King Artaxerxes II. Artaxerxes II ascended in 404 BCE and was immediately facing rebellion led by his brother Cyrus the Younger. Lysander and the Spartans support Cyrus against Artaxerxes II, and although Spartans were defeated in the Battle of Kunaxa, marked the beginning of Spartan aggression in Asia Minor. New Spartan king Agesilaus II pursued the same policies as Lysander (e.g., focus on Asia Minor) and in 398 Spartans march into Persian territory

The Rise of Laws

As gods emerge as central focus of Archaic communities, kings decline in importance. Communities take the first steps towards establishing regular codified laws. Sovereign decisions of a community gain importance rather than decisions of the basileis. E.g., at Dreros in the mountains of Crete: in the 8th century BCE, built an early temple to Apollo, community also known for passing and writing down perhaps the earliest inscribed law in Greece. Community here is establishing the rules by which the legal authority of the community would be exercised. Here we see an interest in reducing power of a single individual with term limits as the "kosmos". Drastically differs from basileis.

Alexander's campaign into Asia in 334 BCE

As the captain-general of the League of Corinth, Alexander had received a mandate to carry the war against the Persians into the enemy's territory. He crossed the Hellespont with an army numbering 30k infantry and 5k horse: began a 10 year campaign of conquest. Persia was a large, lightly ruled territory. Because of satrap system, which guaranteed a flow of tribute to the center and the fact that they only really had defenses to deal with uprisings/tax revolts under commanders, they were an easy target for a well-organized Macedonian force. Even though small, were superior int tactics and military technology.

Thetes

Below Pentekosiomedimnoi and Hippeis and Zeugitai: the lowest class in Solon's 4 classes. Poorest class, typically subsistence farmers. <200 measures. *ADD

Zeugitai

Below Pentekosiomedimnoi and Hippeis: "yoke men", farmers who could afford a pair of oxen. >200 measures of produce yielded. Solon's 4 classes *ADD

If Mycenaean Greeks among Sea Peoples, can we attribute them alone as the downfall?

Both victims and aggressors if so: internal conflicts and drought could have led to some bands of Mycenaean Greeks joining groups who had taken to the sea.

India and Alexander

By 327 BCE, Alexander turned South to the Indus Valley. He had a relentless urge to fight other kings: conquers Taxiles and faces off with last major foe Porus at the Jhelum River. The Battle of the Hydaspes was fought between Alexander the Great and King Porus in 326 BCE. Region was already the home of an ancient and venerable civilization, and his confrontation was fully unjustified. His men were starting to realize this. Once Alexander defeated Porus, he made plans to descend further into the Indus Valley, but men appalled at the prospect of more fighting and rebel, refuse to continue.

koine

Common Greek: Hellenistic Age saw emergence of this new form of Greek. Called such because it was spoken widely around the Eastern Med. Greek at the time served as a universal language.

Acrocorinth

Corinth's well-fortified acropolis high above the city

Kyria Ekklesia

Each month, one of the meetings of the Assembly of Athens was labeled kyria or "authoritative," at which matters of great importance were debated.

Graveyard at Tsepi in the plain of Marathon

Evidence for Bronze Age interconnectedness, dating from Early Helladic Periods I-II (3200-2200 BCE) 64 graves in neat rows; rectangular graves are lined with river stone or schist, covered by slabs. Indicates that the entire cemetery was planned. Pottery assemblages indicate connections to the Cyclades, and presence of litharge (a form of lead oxide) is early evidence of cupellation and smelting of lead and silver. Trading with Aegean islands?

Sesklo

Evidence of continuing revolution of complex societies. A Neolithic society in Southern Thessaly, c. 5th-4th millennia BCE (~5000-3000 BCE). Evidence for mudbrick huts and growth of domesticated crops of wheat/barley. Earliest houses primarily wattle and daub but replaced by mudbrick on stone socle. Sesklo marks introduction of pottery into the Greek world: notable for terracotta female figurines which may indicate religious activity / fertility cult. An agro-pastoral village: people lived by farming and herding, usually sheep, goats and pigs, but some hunting and gathering supplementing diet. BUT, compared to previous earlier communities like Franchthi or the Alepotrypa cave on the Bay of Deros, growing complexity of Neolithic culture.

Current understandings of Troy post 1988: Kolb

Frank Kolb opposes Korfmann's reconstruction on the basis that there have been few luxury items found at Troy and no archive, unlike other great palatial centers of the LBA.

Politeia

Greek for the arrangement of laws and the extent of the franchise--more or less limited--equivalent to a state's constitution. The emergence of more popular democratic leaders like Ephialtes and Perikles, various reforms relating to eligibility/pay/strengthening of power of the Kleisthenic Boule: both suggest that by mid-5th century BCE, the polite or constitution of Athens was growing more thoroughly egalitarian with each passing year. Also partly due to number of people involved in running of Athenian Empire: Aristotle notes that at the eight of empire, 700 magistrates had to be dispatched from Athens to supervise affairs in allied states alone (particularly overseeing the collection of tribute)

What other evidence points to Troy as a big/important city?

Hattusa, the Hittite capital, repeatedly makes mention of the site of Wilusa in diplomatic correspondence. Wilusa is Hittite version of Greek toponym Ilion (Troy)

Athens vs Naxos

In 470/69, Athens puts down a revolt by the island of Naxos, an allied state which had tried to quit the Delian League. Athens really asserting their power.

Apeiron

In Anaximander, "the unlimited," the basic stuff of the universe.

Erastothenes

In Hellenistic period, calculated the circumference of the earth by measuring angle of a shadow cast by a stick at Alexandria at the same time the sun shone directly on a well 5,000 stades away at Aswan, casting no shade. Expressed this distance as an arc of a circle by which he could measure circumference: within 10% of the correct modern figure.

Corinth as a proto-city

In Iron Age, a cluster of villages near the site of the later agora. The area witnessed a rapid increase in population: a rising number of wells and burials demonstrate this. Pottery from Corinth was traded far away: vigorous Iron Age commercial life. Profited from location on intersection of Corinthian and Saronic Gulf. Colonies were dispatched from Corinth led by Archias to Syracuse in Sicily and by Cheriscrates to Corcyra, modern Corfu. Both colonial families were from the same artistocratic family, the Bacchiads, reflects the oligarchic control of the emerging city.

What was the relationship between Persia and Sparta at this time?

In Persia, Darius II Ochos had ascended to the throne in 424 BCE after a year of bloody dynastic turmoil that saw the death of two of his older brothers. At the beginning of his reign, Ochos stayed out of Aegean affairs but in 413 Athenians gave aid to a rebel Amorges, and earned the Great King's anger. Because Athens had given aid to this rebel, the Persian kings and satraps began negotiating with Sparta and culminates with Persian satrap Tissaphernes signing a treaty with Sparta according to which Sparta would regard the king's enemies as their own. Sparta now found itself serving as an instrument of Persian policy in W Asia, in return for which their navy was paid for by Persian gold

Broad summary of Spartan governmental structure

In the 7th century BCE, Sparta fixed upon a proto democratic form of government that retained kings as war leaders and heads of state but stated that final legislative power was in the hands of the Damos. At a later time, probably in the 6th century in aftermath of Messenian wars, aristocratic power and privilege reasserted control of Sparta and used the threat of helot revolt to fashion a closed political and military elite.

Athenian's wide discretion + multiple fronts during Archidamnian War

In the course of these campaigns, Athenian commanders operated with wide discretion. E>g., Phormio in the Corinthian Gulf, Laches in Siciily, Nikias in Aegean, Demosthenes in W Greece; all able to form alliances and basically choose where and when to campaign with minimal supervision from Athens. Result: Athens found themselves operating on multiple fronts at any one time. Led to commanders' decisions being closely scrutinized at home. When the Athenian generals in Sicily returned to Athens, Pythodoros and Sophokles were banished.

The Library of Alexander

In the style of pharaohs like Ramses, Alexander's body was surrounded by buildings housing holy writings and sacred texts. Under Ptolemy II (308-246), the complex expanded as texts from Athens and elsewhere were added. One of the greatest institutions fo the ancient world. Owes origins to Greek inflections of Egyptian practice. Emerged in time as premier cultural institution of the Hellenistic Age. Head librarians were Callimachus and Theocritus.

Chapter 7

Inclusion and Exclusion: Life in Periklean Athens

What do Linear A + B reveal about Knossos's economy?

Indicate Knossos was the center of a redistributive economy (Bennet reterms as mobilization economy: see other set of flashcards). A redistributive economy is a complex system of based on a regular accumulation of surplus of staple goods; that surplus could be used to support specialized craftsmen and to support farmers in times of crop failure or food shortage. Pithoi found inside the palace to hold staple goods. Also there was a presence of manufactured items like perfume, spears, and chariots: palaces as centers of production and manufacturing. Just as palaces were center of religious life, also heart of complex economic system. Luxury items at this time might include gold, silver, copper and tin (used to make bronze: copper and tin). System appears to have relied upon control of the population by the palace, in an economy based on reciprocity. Peasants might give up a certain number of days as corvee labor (digging irrigation channels, constructing walls, bringing in harvest) in return for food and supplies from palace's surplus as payment and as emergency rations.

Solonian laws for weak and disadvantaged

Later sources preserve scattered details of a series of laws dealing with the care of the weak and the disadvantaged. Solon believed that orphans and heiresses needed to be supported and in the latter case provided with dowries. Also enacted laws that the archon would oversee such cases.

Peloponnesian League

League created and led by Sparta that consisted of Spartan and their allies: Spartans managed this alliance of Peloponnesian states, much more leniently than Athens w/their allies. Except for wartime levies, no tributes imposed, and all met with equal voting power in a congress. Interestingly, those members who were more distant (e.g. Elis to NW and Corinth in NE) treated with much more respect than those close by; the cities of Arkadia immediately north of Lakonia (namely Tegea and Mantineia) were much more precarious. Two rivals in Peloponnesian Wars: Peloponnesian League vs Delian League (dominated by Athens).

homoioi

Literally, "equals"; the word used to describe full Spartan citizens or Spartiates, who had all completed their education in the agoge. Equals"-A citizen of Sparta (adult male whose parents were from citizen families): Spartiates saw themselves as of equal status

What was Peisistratos' style of rule?

Maintained laws and held elections every year; did not actually undermine development of Athens. Predictability + regularity needed for prosperous development was actually enhanced rather than hindered. Helped the middle class reach prosperity which can lead to democritization through middle class prosperity expansion: e.g., appointed rural magistrates which made it possible for citizens to engage in litigation without having to travel to and from the the city center, which had previously favored the rich. Also made low interest loans for the poor and introduced a 5% tax on produce (which set public finances on a firm footing, alongside his silver mining in the Attic territory of Lauren and the northern Agean at Mt Pangaion). Also used capital works to enhance infrastructure and create jobs for craftsmen and laborers.

Current understandings of layers of Troy up to 1988

Many phases of occupation on the same site. Troy I: EBA, as early as 3rd mil. BCE. Trojan War's traditional date corresponds to Troy VI or VII around 1184 BCE, but Troy VI has no indication of warfare. HOWEVER, Troy VII could have been the result of siege and attack: or at least was the consensus until 1988.

Mycenae's palace frescoes

Many rooms at Schliemann's Mycenae were decorated with frescoes, reflecting preoccupations and self image of Mycenaean elites. E.g., at Tiryns, hunting scenes like boar hunt scenes or female processions in chariots. At Mycenae, processions of women on foot. at Pylos: singers performing accompanied by a lyre, bull lead to sacrifice, gruesome battle scenes of Mycenaean warriors slaying their enemies

The reality of the arrangements of Triparadeisos

Most satrap territories had to be reconquered after the death of Alexander if they were to be held by successors, known as the Diodochoi. his led to constant refiguring of alliances and fresh wars. Wars of Diodochoi would last a generation. In the time of the wars, both Philip Arrhidaios and Alexander IV die. Philip is executed by Alexander's mom Olympias in 317 BCE, and in 310 Alexander IV was murdered by Kassander at 12. Now the bloodline of Philip and Alexander was gone. Most Diodochoi assume the title of king: the Hellenistic Kingdoms.

exegetai

Officials who were responsible for the oral legal traditions of a community; they gradually lost significance as laws came to be written down. See also Hieromnemones

ekecheira

Olympic truce

misthos

Payment for service on a jury. Not long after the opening up of the archonship in 458-7 to the Zeugetai, probably between 454-1 BCE< Athenians also introduced misthos (payment for service on the juries). Jury payment was only one of a series of such expenditures undertaken by the state. Along with the citizenship law, the phenomenon of payment for service not only reflects a broader application of democratic practice in the mid 5th century, but also seems o have arisen from the rivalry between Klimona nd Perikles. Perikles uses this an an attempt to ingrate himself with the people, a means of bribing the masses, as he was pitted agains the reputation of Kimon. Misthos was paid out of the dikastikon (the fund that paid for jury service)

Philip and Parmenion, 336 BCE

Philip demonstrated his intentions in 336 BCE: dispatched his subordinate Parmenion to secure a bridgehead at the Hellespont for the Graeco-Macedonian army he intended leading into Asia. A first step towards the Persian campaign.

genos

Pl. gene. Related households were aggregated into clans known as gene. *ADD

Anaximander

Presocratic Ionian c. 610-546. Speculated that the universe was comprised of 4 elements: air, water, earth, fire. 4 constituent elements did not arise from just one base substance but were constantly interacting with each other while beneath them was a primeval principle of chaos. The elements moved in a vortex position, resolving into opposites of hot v. cold, wet v. dry. Opposites are boundless: apeiron. The universe was created with this motion.

Chapter 10

Religion and philosophy

Roman Sack of Tarentum

Romans sack Tarentum in 272 BCE: Signals extension of Roman sphere of influence into Southern Italy but also the Hellenization of Roman culture as goods, arts, people from Greek world are brought to Rome.

Other important magistrates beyond the three archons

Six other important magistrates supervised the running of the law courts, known as the Thesmothetai: "Law Setters". Responsible for seeing that law was enforced (not for drafting law). Ina addition to major magistrates, also a wide variety of more junior magistrates who oversaw everything from public auction of confiscated goods (Poletai), the use of legitimate weights and measures in the marketplace (the Agoranomoi), to the monitoring of grain supply to prevent price fixing (Sitophylakes). Each year magistrates who handled public funds had to give an account of their expenditures which was then reviewed by the state's accountants, the Logistai, who published the results of their audits.

doeroi/doerai

Slaves at the bottom of Mycenaean social pyramid (Linear B). Worked fields and did a great deal of manufacture. In the Linear B texts, refers to enslaved people. Term shows up in both sacred and profane contexts. As in historical Greece, slaves seem to have been an integral part of the Mycenaean economy.

How did Solon encourage a diversity of skills in the Athenian community in his second archonship?

Solon offered citizenship to foreign craftsmen who came to Athens

Cambyses

Son of Cyrus the Great, who succeeded him in 530 upon his death. He only ruled until 522, but was remembered for undertaking the conquest of Egypt.

What did Sparta look like as a settlement in the Archaic Period in Greece?

Sparta looked different from other Greek city-states. The city's center was physically unimpressive, a loose amalgamation of 5 vilalges (Limnai, Pitana, Kynosoura, Mesoa, and Amyklai). Other cities like Athens probably had similar amalgamations at their origins but eventually unified (synoecism) while Sparta doesn't seem to have had civic buildings/city center before the Roman period. Even Thucydides remarked that Sparta's architecture belied the city's strength. Synoecism in Athens culminated in a fully developed city center.

medized

Switch over to the Persian side; *ADD

Manipulation of Egyptian religion by the Ptolemies

The Ptolemies present themselves as pharaohs with names carved in cartouches. Create monumental sculptures of themselves in this guise and carve cartouches into pharaonic temples. Suggests to people that Macedonians latest dynasty was within a long history of pharaonic dynasties. Festivals honoring Egyptian gods were held according to the same religious calendar as in pharaonic times. Ptolemies won support of the priestly caste in this way whose authority was critical to stability. In Alexandria, go further and create a wholly new god, Serapis

Background of the Seleucids

The Seleucids were the 2nd of the major Hellenistic kingdoms, founded by Seleukos Nikator (358-281 BCE), a general in Alexander's army. He was awarded Babylon in the division of spoils of Triparadeisos but was driven out in the wars of the Diodochoi by Antigonus. However, he took Babylon back with the aid of Ptolemy in 312. Once he was re-established in Babylon, he aggressively annexed all the way to Syria and into upper satrapies. By 281 death, empire was 3 million sq kilometers but ceded the farthest eastern provinces to Chandragupta Maurya for 500 war elephants. Established new cities like Antioch and Seleukia but territory shrinks over the next two centuries.

diekplous; periplous

The diekplous was a trireme maneuver in which an attacking trireme changed angle of attack to try to sheer off the oars of the enemy vessel: required weeks of training to accomplish the periplous: the trireme circles the enemy boat to ram from behind: requires a combination of skill, strength and speed

dromos

The passageway leading to the entrance of a Mycenaean tholos tomb.

katharsis

The process by which an audience, by being forced to contemplate the unthinkable, is cleansed of worst impulses and fears. Aristotle sees katharsis as key to effective drama. E.g., Oedipus's mistakes allow audience to feel catharsis.

synoecism

The process whereby multiple small communities -- typically villages -- coalesced into a single polis with an urban center and a single, unified political system.

Homeric Poems and the Iron Age

The world depicted in epic poetry does not resemble palaces of Minoan Crete or fortresses of Mycenaean mainland. Closer to the humbler reality of the Early Iron Age. Recasting stories of a dimly remembered Trojan War with local heroes whose values were like those of princes and kings.

The 4th century in Greece

Though often dismissed and seen as forgettable compared to the 5th century, a period of substantial change and development. The age of philosophers like Aristotle, and artists like Praxiteles, but also constitutional developments and experiments with peace treaties to try to break the cycle of war, a peace with Persia, an impulse towards federalism, and a Renaissance of Athenian power abroad in a more humane and less coercive way. Also will see the rise of regional powers beyond the Greek heartland like Macedonia where Philip combined military genius, wealth and diplomacy to bring all Greece under control by 338 BCE.

Hellenotamiai

Treasurers of the Greeks: Athenians elected treasures who assessed the allies in the Delian League's tribute. Tribute, according to Thucydides, was to pay for the campaign in which the Athenians and the allies would take revenge for the sufferings the Persians had inflicted on them by plundering the King's land. In reality, however, it meant that the Athenians had been handed subjects, revenues, and a justification for a continuing, open ended military operation at a single stroke.

Brief summary of Alexander the Great and what to expect in this chapter

Two years after Chaironeia, Philip dies and Alexander rises to power. Within ten years, Greek Macedonian armies conquer all of Achaemenid realm, bringing Greeks to conflict with their old foe, the Persians. Successors: the Ptolemies and Seleucids.

kleos aphthiton

everlasting glory, eternal fame. Sought by Homeric heroes and Olympic athletes.

Nestor's cup, Rhodian kotyle, Pithekoussai, c. 725 BCE

found at the Greek colony of Pithekoussai in the Bay of Naples. labelled "Nestor's cup": "Nestor's cup I am, good to drink from. Whoever drinks this cup empty, straightaway the desire of beauty crowned Aphrodite will seize." Nestor's cup was meant to be a glorious gold chalice, but here a humble terracotta cup. Reminds us of the Homeric presence in the Iron Age.

aristeia

heroic accomplishments. E.g., Diomedes plays a big role in Book V of Aeneid which might mean it derived from a separate cycle of epic poems where his aristeia was central purpose.

Hetairai

highly sophisticated courtesans in ancient Athens who offered intellectual and musical entertainment as well as sex. Professional companions; compared to pornai, prostitutes: but able to work way up to hetairai possibly.

diagnosis

identification of a disease

asebeia

impiety: while there were instances of religious persecution in the Greek world, they were usually on the charge of asebeia, and were rare. Usually aimed at controversial public figures.

Other social groups Athenian men join

phratries but also thiasoi and orgeones: religious groups consisting of men bound by a shared cult, often sacrificing to local heroes about whom we know next to nothing All of these corporate groups could own land and property, the result of which was a society in which individual men were implicated in complex networks of social engagement. On top of these, most men also a part of a tribe (phyle)

Dates of the Neolithic Age

roughly ~8000 - 3000 BCE

Thesmothetai

the 6 archons that were in charge of "laying down the law"; enforcing rather than drawing up law

Despite synoecism/agglomeration of urban community, basic unit of social life remained....

the oikos! Included often retainers + slaves in addition to family

eromenos

the younger member of a same sex relationship in Ancient Greece.

Go through Seleucids, Attalids, Achaemenids, etc. Note to self

x

Vathypetro

~2nd millennium BCE. Sometimes elites from the palace reproduce palace systems in smaller scale in the countryside. Country estate ID'd at Vathypetro: evidence for a villa, a kiln, a press for wine/olive oil.

Myrina on Lemnos

~3000 BCE, on coast of island of Lemnos. Another site indicating complex, hierarchically organized society because of presence of buildings and fortification walls. By ~2500 BCE, settlement had grown to cover an area of ~80,000 sq meters, and a population of likely 3-4 k people. Dwellings made of stone, engineered sewage/drainage systems using stone built channels running down cobbled lanes between houses.

The Battle of Mantiniea

418 BCE. Athens formed an alliance with 3 Peloponnesian states hostile to Sparta: Argos, Mantineia, and Elis. BUT, the Spartans under king Agis II defeated the anti-Spartan alliance at Battle of Mantineia. In the 2 years following, Sparta established pro-Sparta oligarchies throughout the Peloponnese in Matnineia, Argos, and Sicyon

Battle of Pallene

546 BCE: Peisistratus establishes his tyranny. He returns to Athens with his private army and defeats his enemies in the Battle of Pellene. Now once and for all tyrant of Athens: ruled by him and familial dynasty of sons for 40 years.

Chapter 10 Timeline

624-546: Thales 610-546: Anaximander 585-525: Anaximenes 570-467: Xenophanes 535-475: Herakleitos 490-420: Protagoras 485-24: Herodotos 469-399: Socrates 460-400: Thucydides 460-377: Hippocrates

elasteros

A ghost or evil spirit: what does one do to rid a house of this? Removal by specific, correct conduct: orthopraxy. A 5th century BCE sacred law from city of Selinous regards correct manner and timing of a series of sacrifices to powerful diets like Zeus Eumenes, the Eumenides (the Furies), Zeus Meilichios, etc.: all are generally associated with welfare of the family and with human fertility. Sacrifices include libations poured into the earth for the dead/chthonic deities + burned sacrifices of meat for gods. Also must do purification rituals.

Who were the Persians?

A group of people who originated further east in the Steppes of Central Asia, North of modern-day Iran. They spoke an Indo-European language, from the same language family as Sanskrit and Greek. Language and culture were different from older civilizations of Mesopotamia. Originally a semi-nomadic people who probably came out of the open steppes of S. Russia into the Iranian plateau sometime before 700 BCE. As the entered Iran, came into contact with and absorbed by marriage/conquest other nomadic groups such as inhabitants of Luristan (known for its elaborate bronze work). But, the history of Persian arrival into Iran is not perfectly understood

Theories of Mycenaean Collapse

A horizon of destruction characterizes the stratigraphy of major Mycenaean sites ~1200 BCE. Theory one: climate change and drought produced catastrophic effects on economy. Theory two: That the Mycenaean system was so coercive it led to backlash from slaves and farmers. Theory three: Foreign invasion? Theory four: Change in warfare. Emergence of mobile infantry replacing heavy chariots led to elites who had ID'd with chariot fighting finding their hold of power challenged. A closer examination suggests that each has some merit and may have played a role. E.g., tree ring data from Anatolia suggests a dry spell associated with the collapse of Hittite civilization in ~1200 BCE and likely affected Greece too. Earthquakes also happened around 1200 BCE at Tiryns, Mycenae, and Midea. There was also a flood at Tiryns which may have destroyed the lower town. Disrupted production of food, leading to the possibility of increased internal tension, which may have led to burning at Mycenae. Fires occurred outside the walls of Mycenae and there was also the burning of the citadel of Gla in Boiotia. There was also some evidence for elite anxiety: Tiryns and Mycenae had extended fortifications, suggesting the ruling class perhaps preparing to withstand seiges. Some Linear B tablets also mention "watchers by the sea": fear of attack by foreign invasion/by sea? Evidence from Egypt shows anxiety about the Sea Peoples as evidenced by an inscription from the Ramses III temple at Medinet Habu and Amarna Letters.

Propylaia

A monumental gateway made between 437-432 BCE: just as remarkable as the Parthenon in Perikles' program; second building of the program. A monumental gateway had stood at the western entrance to the Akropolis in earlier times, but the size and scale of Mnesikles' masterpiece eclipsed predecessor. Begun immediately after the completion of the Parthenon, the Propylaia was erected between 437 and 432 BCE. Uses Salamis as a visual reference point: the site of Athenian naval victory over the Persians becomes backdrop to visitors' pilgrimage to the acropolis, reminder of Athenian power.

What is a redistributive economy?

A redistributive economy is a complex system of based on a regular accumulation of surplus of staple goods; that surplus could be used to support specialized craftsmen and to support farmers in times of crop failure or food shortage. Such a system relies on delicate balance of relations between palace elites and farmers/laborers whose work produced staple items and luxury goods.

Alexander's capture of Babylon

After the defeat of Darius, Alexander captures Babylon ~331 BCE. He used shock tactics to intimidate the populace into submission in full battle order but when he actually entered, he ruled with respect. E.g., he ordered the restoration of temples, especially of the tutelary deity Bel. Also appointed Mazaios as governor, a Persian nobleman who had been satrap in W. Asia: favoring Achaemenid ruling class could allow continuity and stability. However, command of troops stays firmly in Greek hands: Greek officer, Apollodoros of Amphipolis. Whenever possible, Alexander favored continuity of local governance structured but installed local subordinates (Greek or Persian).

Lysander as divine

Although the system of decarchies was unpopular, Lysander received divine honors of Samos where he had established an oligarchic regime. Set precedent for worshipping rulers as divine, which would be picked up by Philip and Alexander.

Why is it interesting that bull-leaping was practiced in Avaris in Egypt?

Alerts us to an important feature of Minoan Crete's role in the wider Med: namely that the Cretans participated in a much broader range of cultural relations than simply with the Greek mainland or the islands nearby. (E.g., as evidenced by wall paintings in tombs of the Egyptian New Kingdom showing Cretans bearing gifts to the pharaoh). E.g., tomb of Rekhmire, dating to mid 15th century BCE: shows men in distinctive Cretan kilt and holding rhyta (large stone vessels weighing up to ~7 lbs when full) and sheets of copper in the shape of oxhides like those seen at Uluburun. Text accompanying image references "Keftiu", Egyptian name for Crete, and says they were constructing ships at the royal dockyard: Minoans receiving aid from the pharaoh with Egyptian-built fleets to help project Minoan power beyond Crete?

Death of Alexander

Alexander dies in Babylon in 323 BCE, whether of malaria, typhoid, influenza, heavy drinking, or poison (unclear). Succeeded by Arrhidaios, who took regnal name Philip III. Alexander had left behind his pregnant wife Roxane, who birthed Alexander IV, who was put in the charge of Perdikkas. Meetings were held first in Babylon and then in 321 BCE in Triparadeisos about arrangements for politics of Eastern Med. Antipater, one of Alexander's generals, named regent in Macedon and succeeded by his son Kassander. The rest of the Triparadeisos agreement distributed territories and satrapies of the Achaemenid empire assigned to various Greek and Macedonian commanders.

Who actually settled in these colonies?

Although colonists might be officially dispatched from a mother city like Corinth, meaning that the officer put in charge was appointed by mother city, reality was that colonies were settled by waves of settlers from different parts of Greece over time.

Connections of Sparta and Crete: Syssitia

Although other mainland states generally did not resemble Sparta's social organization, some institutions in communities on Crete did. For instance, people of Lyktos, according to some sources, pooled produce into system of collective messes called syssitia by having the state keep a share but dividing the rest among the households of the citizens. Could have provided a model to Spartans: not only connection, as seen in Artemis Orthia: but also they both spoke a Doric dialect of Greek, and traditions about Spartan lawgiver Lykourgos say that he travelled to Crete to learn how to draft a set of laws for Sparta. Plato says Sparta and Crete shared kindred law codes (adelphoi nomoi).

What is the major shift / distinctive feature of many Early Archaic sanctuaries?

Although temples attest to importance of religious and cult activity in the 8th and 7th centuries, we should also note a distinctive feature of many Early Archaic sanctuaries. Transformation of ruler's huts into temples of the gods e.g., at Eretria c. 800 BCE. At the site of the later sanctuary of Apolo, here the site began as apsidal huts and possibly were houses of the elite / ruler: in the Iron Age a larger building was built in the same location, called a hekatompedon (100 footer). Then it was rebuilt in early Archaic Period in 670-650 BCE and again in the Late Archaic Period c. 530-520 BCE. Similarly, we see this at Thermon in Anatolia. In the Mycenaean period, Megaron A was in use. Then in the Early Iron Age Megaron B was constructed nearby: both probably served as ruler's residences. In early Archaic period, a temple was built directly over Megaron B. Archaic temple here was made of wood and mudbrick on a stone socle, but impressive scale and painted terracotta metopes. *Ask: is this atypical? when does stone become commonplace?*

Alepotrypa Cave by Bay of Deros

Another example a cave dwelling community similar to Franchthi, in S. Peloponnese in landmass below the isthmus of Corinth. Here, current excavations have brought to light evidence for occupation of the cave in Mid-Late Neolithic from 5000-3200 BCE. Notable for burials: 161 individuals have come to light including some cremated and others buried w/inhumation in shaft graves 5 meters deep near mouth of cave.

Gournia

Another example of palatial center on a smaller scale. Includes well-constructed streets of cobblestones which separated town into quarters during BA. Palatial center to the southwest of the town. A street connected the town to the harbor: harbor allowed Gournia to access the Aegean. Ships sailed around Aegean taking goods manufactured at Gournia like bronze vessels and weapons across the eastern Med. Also evidence here for textile weaving, wine making, ceramics, stone vessel manufacture, etc.

Athenian law courts

Another feature of the Athenian governmental system was the law courts: it was these Athenians saw as crowning glory of their democracy. With juries of 500, 1,000, or 1500 men, the courts of Athens did not resemble modern law courts. Trials were conducted with minimal attention to rules of evidence or procedure, and surviving examples of court speeches include arguments and assertions that suggest trials could be brutal affairs. Reflects fear of Athenians of tyranny: scale of juries makes tempering with juries and rigging trials nearly impossible. Also, candidates for jury service were chosen by lot at random. They presented their tokens into slots of a voting machines, and colored markers then dropped down a tube beside the tokens: colors represent selection or rejection. result was the randoms election and rejection of some tokens over others. Those selected then present tokens for payment.

Assemblies within the 10 tribes of Athens

Another interesting aspect of Athenian democratic system: the practice of deliberating in an assembly that was not restricted to the Ekklesia. The ten tribes of Athens also held their own assemblies and were responsible for electing not only their own magistrates, the Phylarchs, but also the ten generals of the Athenian army (which was also assembled by tribes). The demes too also help communal meetings, conducted sacrifices according to a deme calendar, and elected own officials (Demarchs). The existence of these organization and the replication of the democratic system from local deme up to the full Ekklesia of the democratic polis are critical to the continued existence of democracy. Imagine a matryoshka doll: from deme to tribe to polis, government + civic identity build on replication of the same forms, practices and habits.

Conundrum of the Mycenaeans

Their culture appears suddenly in 2nd millennium BCE, hard to construct conditions of rise. Foreign invaders? But material culture would indicate origin. Indigenous? If so, what led to explosion of building, engineering, wealth, and display?

More broad picture of the Archaic Period

As in 8th century BCE, the Greeks experienced long, sustained contact w/ other cultures as a result of goods and ideas coming into Greece and as a result of Greek communities establishing themselves around the Med. This penetration of Greek culture becomes profound, influencing every aspect of life from Greek conceptions of the gods to dress. Greeks experienced an increase in trade in the search for resources, land, and luxury items, indicated by wide spread nature of items like Euboian pottery across the Med. The age was remarkable for a formation of a Greek diaspora extending from the Black Sea to the far end of the Med. Greeks found at Naucratis in the Nile Delta, at Cyrene on the coast of Libya, at Al Mina on the coast of Syria, in the Bay of Naples and around the coast of Sicily, up the coast of the Adriatic, around the Black Sea, etc. The alphabet adopted from northern Phoenicia exemplified the new developments occurring in Greece bc of contact w/other cultures. The widespread appearance of monsters in Greek art and myth during Archaic period surely represents some of the uncertainty that accompanied cultural change. City states were growing larger in mainland Greece and regional powers beginning to emerge (Athens, Sparta, Thebes). Internally, wealth, status, competition and rivalry (aristocratic and between communities) became more prevalent, but communities responded to these developments in different ways.

The Mutilation of the Herms

As the fleet to invade Sicily was being prepared c. 415 BCE, a disturbing incident happened wherein a group of drunk men mutilated some of the herm statues (stone pillars with head of Hermes and erect phallus used as apotropaic markers delineate commercial space of agora from the rest of the city and bring it under the protection fo the god). The event turned into rumors about plots to overthrow democracy and somehow Alkibiades was implicated and appealed to have the case heard immediately but it was deferred until after the fleet full of his supporters had sailed. Alkibiades continued to Sicily with the fleet but was summoned back shortly after his arrival: told he needed to return to Athens. Instead, he defected to Sparta and was condemned in absentia by Athenians.

The Origins of the Achaemenids

At beginning of 6th century BCE, entire Iranian region was still composed of various tribes and small kingdoms, including the kingdom of Anshan in W. Fars. It was here around 600 BCE that Cyrus the Great was born (600-530). Suceeded to the throne in 558 and established basis of Persian Empire through the conquest of the Medes (a neighboring people) over the next few years. From there, expansion continues E and W: Persian domain by the time of Cyrus's death in 530 reached from Afghanistan to E to Ionian coast to W. All of Asia Minor with the exception of the Greek cities on the coast was now subject to Persian control, and the very independent kingdoms were swallowed up into the new provinces, or satrapies, of the Persian Empire.

Socrates' involvement in political upheavals of the Peloponnesian Wars

Athens more resilient in peacetime than during or after the PP warL Athens was growing increasingly intolerant. At the same time, Socrates was kind of irking everyone. His actual doctrine wasn't necessarily a threat but rather what was threatening was his manner of educating fellow citizens. Technique called elenchos: a form of cross-examination that ends with the person admitting they don't know what they're talking about, made others feel inadequate. Charges brought against him in 399 BCE: by private citizens Meletos and Anytos. Charges included corrupting the young and that he didn't believe in the gods. People feared corruption by philosophy and sophistry. And re: him not believing in the gods: seems to be a reaction to the daimonion but makes sense given the history of charges brought against philosophers like Anaxagoras.

Architecture and Decoration at the Persian royal capital of Persepolis: the Apadana

Built under Darius's reign in the Achaemenid dynasty of the Persians. Achaemenid worldview monumentalized in a fashion designed to leave the visitor awestruck by the power and reach of the Achaemenid rulers. Earliest building within the royal complex at Persepolis was the Apadana: a vast audience hall built by Darius shortly after 518 BCE on a terrace, with 72 columns more than 60 feet tall. Imposing dimensions signal power. Also included extraordinary relief sculpture carved on the stairs leading up to the hall itself: combat scenes with lions attacking bulls, same motifs as in Hekatompedon on Athenian acropolis. Also, relief sculptures face the steps, showing various tributary groups of the empire bringing gifts to the king, distinguished by dress: a visual catalogue of groups subject to Persia including Ionian Greeks! Visual similarities with the acropolis remind us that Greeks and Persians were in close cultural dialogue with each other prior to the Persian wars as craftsmen and artists moved from the center of the Persian realm to the Med: 2 cultures were not entirely at odds. Indeed, members of the aristocratic elite in Archaic Athens had a taste for clothing and such objects as drinking cups that were associated with Eastern luxury, esp. Achaemenid bowls in beaten metal. But, Greeks likely aware of the empire growing in the eAst.

Innovations of Philip's army

By observing Theban generals in his youth like Epaminondas, Pelopidas and Pammenes while stuck in Thebes as a teenage captive, Philip able to strike up the most significant change in hoplite warfare in 300 years. Doing away with the heavy shield of the hoplite and the 1.8 meter (6 ft) thrusting spear, Philip armed the Macedonian phalanx with lighter bucklers, less body armor, and pikes (known as sarissas, which were 6 meters or 20 feet). The front three lines of the phalanx held the sarissa in front with both arms, the rear ranks held them at various elevations: created an impenetrable front to the enemy. With skirmishers and cavalry protecting the flanks, a well drilled Macedonian phalanx could destroy almost all lighter armed formations and it was not until the mid-2nd century that the flexibility of the Roman legion proved itself to be a match for the Macedonians. Men had to train ceaselessly to gain these skills but the new wealth of Philippi made this possible. Soldiers were well paid.

Hippeis

Hippeis were at the upper end of social sphere, below Pentekosiomedimnoi. Those who made >300 measures of produce from their land: "knights", cavalrymen whose wealth was enough to afford horses. Solon's 4 classes *ADD

Artemis and women

Coming of age was a particularly important moment of transformation for women; coming of age for women more closely tied to onset of menstruation, which signaled the young woman's capacity to bear children. Now close to assuming her role as a wife and mother. Religious ritual provided the medium by which a girl's social identity was transformed. Brauronia festival; young.girls dancing and sleeping in rural sanctuary at Brauron, "playing the bear" for Artemis. May have been a ritual performance pretending to become goddess' animal, but we don't possess any detailed description of the cult. Seen as a coming of age ritual: marking a transition from childhood to puberty and advertising ready for marriage or at least betrothal. Inscriptions from the sanctuary of Artemis on the Akropolis (a twin of the Brauron sanctuary) reveal that women made dedications to the goddess at later points in their lives: suggests that major life events like marriage and childhood were marked by offerings to the goddess, including precious garments, often left in her precinct. E.g., an inventory from the Artemis sanctuary on the acropolis c. 317-6 BCE: describes dedication of garments: often women's most expensive garments, some dedicated on the loom as if mid-weave.

What did the developed form of Athenian drama look like?

Consisted primarily of odes sung by the chorus, punctuated by sections of characters exchanging alternating lines of dialogue (called episodes). Exchanges of dialogue between characters called stichomythia: lent themselves to expression of opposing viewpoints. Eventually a third actor was added and costumes/robes/masks: allow them to assume different roles. Standard character types and roles recur: powerful ruler, messenger, the nurse, heroine. Chorus is also kind of a character: often ID'ed as town elders or another collective group (e.g., Corinthian women in Medea); chorus acted as a kind of everyman, offering a normative reaction, but over time offer less commentary. Plots from tragedy often pull from Trojan Wars or 7 Against Thebes cycle Drama was an aural experience; part of auditory pleasure coming from meter and poetic quality of language: masks emphasize important of hearing over sight (literally no facial expressions)

Aftermath of the Epidamnos Affair

Corinthians are galvanized by their humiliation and set about building a huge fleet and scoured Peloponnese for rowers. in response, Corcyraeans seek an alliance with the Athenians. In the Battle of Sybota in 433 BCE, Athenians assist Corcyraeans in an inconclusive battle against the Corinthians. Corinthians and ~150 ships vs Corcyraean 110. Athenians add 30 ships (ten ships and then a second force of 20 triremes): forced the Corinthians to withdraw.

orthopraxy

Correct behavior towards the gods: modified all aspects of life and guided normative conduct; could restore peace and harmony both to society and to an individual

What kind of games at the Olympics?

Games were a sacred event conducted for the glory of Zeus. Month leading up was a time of truce (ekecheira): wars suspended so athletes and spectactors could travel freely to Olympia. The stadium was found next to the sanctuary: to access the palaestra one had to cross the sanctuary past the temlpe of Zeus with statue by Phidias and the temple of Hera c. 6th cen BCE and Altis, the monumental ash altar at the sanctuary center. Athletes and spectators made sacrifice to Zeus at the Altis. Running events were the oldest events at the Olympics. Activities included stadion (sprint the length of a stadium), diaulos (sprint to end and back of stadium), dolichos (long distance race of 20 stadia), boxing, wrestling (upright and ground), pankration (a combination of boxing and wrestling), pentathlon (discus, javelin, standing jump, running,wrestlings.

Sacrifice

Greek religion retained a powerful performative component: as seen in sacrifice, had to affirm piety through action regularly. An Athenian citizen was likely to participate in some kind of communal sacrifice at least once every 8-9 days. Sacrifice could be at a local level; sacrifices and feasts could be sanctioned by families, clans, tribes, and demes: gods ever-present in the lives of the Greeks.

Sophists

Greek teachers of philosophy, reasoning, and public speaking A new breed of philosophers, e.g. Protagoras, Hippies of Elis, Prodikos of Keos. In contrast to the pre-socratics , men taught wide variety of disciplines ranging from language and linguistics, grammar, rhetoric, geometry, music theory, and eristics. Eristics: similar to debate, brought them a great deal of suspicion. They got good at arguing the weaker argument: people also didn't like that they accepted pay for teaching. Posed a threat to convention: education was previously a family matter confined to basic literacy

Sokrates' beliefs

He taught that all virtues (bravery, loyalty, temperance, justice) were all the same thing: goodness (Unity of Values) No man knowingly does wrong. Philosophy can help people to recognize what is good, and if genuine knowledge can replace ignorance people will behave well. Daimonion: believed in a little spirit, inner voice of conscience with which he carried an internal dialogue Also became famous for a technique known as elenchos: a form of cross-examination. Usually ends with the interlocutor admitting that he doesn't know what he's talking about.

The founding of Pergamon

Hellenistic kingdom founded by the eunuch Philetairos (c. 343-263). Philetairos had been put in charge of a royal treasury on Pergamon's acropolis by Lysimachos (360-281), a successor of Alexander, who had a kingdom in Thrace and controlled the Hellespont. Lysimachos was killed at the Battle of Korapedion in 281, and Philetairos takes the opportunity to assert his independence. He founds a dynasty with unusual degree of internal harmony. The Attalid kings transformed Pergamon from an insignificant fort to a cultural center rivaling Alexandria.

The Alliance of Cleopatra VII and Marc Antony

Hellenistic kings were powerless in challenging Roman encroachment: the last moment when the Hellenistic East might have become unified Mediterranean state was in this alliance. Cleopatra was a Hellenistic queen and had 3 children with Marc Antony. But Hellenistic world kind of has its last fizzle with the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE off the W coast of Greece: Romans under Octavian defeat fleets of Antony and Cleopatra, and they commit suicide. The entire Mediterranean brought under the swap of a single Roman Empire under Octavian.

How did Persia administer their empire?

If Greece was small/divided, Achaemenid Persia was vast. Unity demanded an effective administration and frequent force. Revolts on the periphery were not uncommon, also there were competing factions sometimes within the ruling dynasty. Darius ties his legitimacy to his dynastic connections and the favor of Ahura Mazda. Darius also records revolts he suppressed in regions of Persia, Elam, Media, Assyria, Egypt, Parthia, Scythia, Margiana, Sottagydia... typically ends with rebel being mutiliated. Cooperation rewarded, but revolt suppressed without hesitation. Also important to administration of empire: well maintained roads that crossed the Persian empire's territory. This facilitated communication between the Great King residing in his royal capitals at Persepolis, Susa, and Ekbatana) and the satraps (provincial governors) located on the peripheries of the empire. May have been partially exploiting a road that had already been in existence and used by the Assyrians to conduct trade in the area of modern Syria, northern Iraq, and eastern Turkey: still doesn't minimize the accomplishment of this interconnectedness, especially because it was so well maintained and equipped with horse-changing posts (a system termed pirradazis) that made overland communication across ancient Persia probably as fast as any system could go at the time.

Philip of Macedon background pre-ascension

If federations were ineffective, some considered whether a single war leader might be a solution. Philip of Macedon was an unlikely candidate for this job: born in 382 BCE, son of Amyntas III. When dad died, throne went to Alexander III, brother. In his teens, Philip was a hostage of the Ilyrians and then the Thebans, but exposure to Thebans gave him exposure to tactical thinking of Theban generals. Brother assassinated and throne went to brother Perdikkas, until he died in battle in 360 BCE. Then Philip takes the throne, now in control of a politically weak kingdom. But... will come to transform Macedon and all Greece.

Value of anthropomorphic gods

If gods behaved badly, then the same was to be expected from mortals. But also meant gods were approachable. Anthropomorphic gods could be consulted, appealed to and placated in times of uncertainty.

demosioi

Literally "those belonging to the demos," the demosioi were the public slaves of Athens, owned by the state and charged with administrative duties. The demosioi were clerks, secretaries, and street-sweepers, and some even formed a rudimentary police force.

The Battle of Issos

In 333 BCE, Alexander engaged and defeats the Great King, Darius III, in SE corner of modern day Turkey. Darius is driven from the field. Alexander captured his wife, daughter and personal baggage train, and writes to Darius and demanded that from now on the Persians call him Lord of Asia. It becomes clear that Philip's reason for the war, punishing the Persians for invading Greece, was no longer enough justification: Alexander now aimed at possessing the suzerainty of Asia. The speed of Macedonian conquests almost defies comprehension. In little more than one year of campaigning, twice defeated the Persians in open battle and more than doubled the territory directly controlled by the Greeks. BUT he still wants to go farther east, heading to Byblos, Sidon and Tyre.

Marriage of Cleopatra to Alexander of Epirus

In 336 BCE, Philip gives his daughter Cleopatra to his son Alexander of Epirus in marriage: but ends tragically. At a festival prior to the wedding ceremony, as his statue was carried into he theater behind 12 Olympian statues, Philip cut down by assassin. Suspicion fell on Olympias and Alexander due to his mother's recent withdrawal/the insult, and because his wife Cleopatra was about to have Philip's baby. The killer was a royal guard Pausanias who claimed to have been raped by Attalos but Philip deflected the complaints: rumored that Alexander encouraged the anger.

The Battle of Marathon

In 490, Darius sent ambassadors demanding Athenian submission to Athens. Athenians toss the emissaries, reputedly, into a well. Darius organizes an expedition to cross the Aegean and punish he Athenians: in September of 490 Persians land at Marathon ~30 miles from Athens. Athenians take up positions one mile inland (~10,000 hoplites) to face off against the Persians (~25,000 lightly armed bowmen and spearmen of the Persians). Persians are remaining close to their ships which were drawn up on the beach. Athenians force battle after 5 days: when center of Athenian line appeared to give way, wings surrounded them and encircled the Persians: Led Persians to falter + run. 6.5k Persians killed fleeing, survivors took to their ships. 192 Athenians died and were buried in a huge tumulus called the Soros.

Peisistratos' second attempt

In 558 BCE, Peisistratos exploits a disagreement between Megakles and Lykourgos: Peisistratos accepts an invitation from Megakles to marry his daughter. Hired a tall young woman Phye from outside of Athens to escort him back into the city as if Athena herself: dressed her in armor. But Peisistratos, after marrying Megakles' daughter, refuses to have sex with her, and is then repudiated by Megakles who then reconciled with Lykourgos. Peisistratos flees and spends 10 years in the North Aegean acquiring the means to raise a private army

choris oikountes

Literally "those dwelling apart"; a class of privately owned slaves who lived apart from their masters and worked primarily in manufacturing.

Syssitia

In Sparta, the messes or eating clubs to which each Spartiate had to belong and contribute to from his estate worked by helots. The syssition included fifteen to twenty members, who were drawn from the various age groups and lived together. Spartan communal meal between men and youths, or groups of those "eating together" (messes). Sparta's annexation of Messenia brought in fertile plains, supplying syssitia in which Spartan elites lived. The land was worked by helots, including the original owners of Messenia. This process of internal colonization made it possible and necessary for Sparta to become a society dedicated to the raising of elite warriors. Boys graduate from their adolescence into the ranks of the Spartan army along with the others of their age class. As they continued to train and served, they lived in the syssitia. Recent studies suggest that syssition had between 15-20 members from all age groups, and that new members were boys around the age of 12 who were introduced by older lovers around age of 21. The group included older generations of former lovers, adding to group cohesion / bonding. Membership of these messes required contributions from each member not only in the form of game caught by hunting but also such staples as barley and wheat: the produce of land farmed by Spartiates' helot slaves. Failure to make necessary contributions to syssition led to explusion but also could lead to demotion from the ranks of Spartiates to the lower rank of Hypomeiones (inferiors).

Logistai

In democratic Athens, the officers who served as public accountants and were required to publish a yearly audit.

How does Aristotle describe the years of 595-4 BCE and 590-589 BCE? What happened in 594?

In his Athenian constitution, lists 595-4 as a year of stasis and 590-89 as anarchia (a time of no ruler), because of civic turmoil. But in the midst of these conditions in 594, Athenians elect Solon as archon w/a mandate to address the strife afflicting Athens. Solon saw strife as a result of economic malaise: e.g., too many Athenians had fallen into debt-bondage.

Solon and Council of 400

In his second archonship; although uncertain, some sources credited tSolon with being responsible for establishing a council of 400 to advise Ekklesia (assembly) and prepare its agenda.

The paradox of democracy and empire in Athens

In order to understand how Athens reconciled democracy with outward hegemony, necessary to examine exactly how the Athenian democracy functioned and how this intersected with the running of an Empire

Presocratics

In the 6th, 5th and 4th centuries BCE, a number of philosophers and philosophical schools emerged, especially in the Eastern Greek world of Ionia. Presocratics called such because it proceeded Socrates. Inquired into cosmology: generally speculative and abstract. Also inquired into natural science and ethics. Although not explicitly political, by challenging traditional views of the gods, their rational theology offered an implicit challenge to Athenian society and Greek culture. E.g., Xenophanes complained that Homer and Hesiod told stories of the gods in which they were thieves, cheats, liars, acting immorally: saw them as a projection of our desire to make world comprehensible to humans

The First Triumvirate

In the Hellenistic East, competitions between commanders for honor and recognition led to competition in the last generation of the Roman Republic. The Senate wasn't able to mount a resistance to these competitions, and when it did try to thwart ambitions of these commanders it just drew them closer into an alliance with each other. E.g., Caesar and Pompey's first Triumvirate: Caesar, Pompey and Crassus

Stasis and tyranny after Solon

In the immediate aftermath of his role: inauspicious circumstances. Twice in the decade following his archonship Athenians experienced anarchy (a time with no archon): so much chaos that no archon was selected. When they emerged from stasis, they instead barreled towards tyranny. E.g., 582: Damasias elected archon but refuses to give up power, driven out in 580-79. Strife between competing clans + families rather than class warfare: e.g., 561: a regional clan leader Peisistratos from E. Attica tries to establish himself as a tyrant.

Spartan religion as a means to negotiate borders

In the pass leading across Mt Parnon to the contested area of Kynouria at the SW end of the Argive plain, the Spartans established a sanctuary of Apollo Maleatas. In addition to worshipping a version of Apollo who likely originated in the Lakonian territory of Cape Maleas, they held games in the gods' honor. Spartan warriors advertise their presence through dedications at the sanctuary including hoplite figurines, reinforcing message of Spartan ownership of the territory.

If competition, strife, and conflict were defining features of the age, it was also marked by increasing trade and commercial activity which also contributed to the spread and transformation of Greek culture. E.g., the pharaoh Psammetichos permitted a consortium of Greek trading states to establish an emporium in the Delta region at Naucratis. Surely no coincidence that stone cutting and sculpting of life size statues of humans (well established practices in Egyptian religion and funerary settings) now became a feature of Greek culture too.

Just a good example to have on hand.

What can pottery reveal about the history of the Aegean world in the Early Bronze Age? (Keros-Syros culture)

Keros-Syros culture: A term used to describe a number of sites in the Cyclades that show the same type of pottery / building design. Intensification of exchange that produced this homogenous culture not necessarily peaceful. This may reflect conflict: same period/region produces many depictions of longboats used by large groups of men, representing a possible assertion of power by larger communities. For instance, the Chalandriani on Syros (a larger community)

Kimon's 10 year ostracism is up in 451 BCE: then what?

Kimon returns in time to negotiate a five year peace treaty with Sparta. His return also signaled a resumption of hostilities with Persia, and shortly after the peace with Sparta was signed, Kimon led an expeditionary force of 200 ships to Cyprus. Probably an attempt to take advantage of revolts and disaffection in the western reaches of the Persian Empire from Syria to Egypt: Kimon used opportunity to assert Athenian influence even further afield, exploiting a moment of relative weakness in the hold of the Persians and Phoenicians but dies during the siege of Kition on Cyprus. Allied forces turn back and abandon further attempts to liberate Cyprus..

Early excavations on Crete: discovery of Knossos

Knossos uncovered beginning in 1900 under British archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans; originally believed to be Minos' labyrinth. Crete held a legendary place in myths of Greeks as home of King Minos and monstrous son the Minotaur, and labyrinth in which Minotaur feasted on young Athenians fed to it. Evans w/a large team of Cretan workers comes upon a vast Bronze Age palace with dozens of rooms and winding corridors.

theios aner

Literally, "divine man"; this idea emerged beginning in the time of the Spartan Lysander and contributed to the divinization of Alexander the Great. Superhuman powers of divine man: think Alexander, Lysander: neither first or last of men in this age to blend human and divine nature.

Koniopodes

Literally, "dusty feet"; the term used to describe the agricultural slaves of Epidauros.

The Second Sophistic

Libanios of Antioch was a brilliant scholar and rhetorician: he and similar orators often referred to as the Second Sophistic. Term was coined by Philostratos in recognition of the brilliance of intellectuals who combined profound learning with persuasive speaking. Testifies to the survival of Greek culture under the Romans. The Second Sophistic is a literary-historical term referring to the Greek writers who flourished from the reign of Nero until c. 230 AD

apostateres

Literally "Removers," a term used to describe a privilege of the Spartan kings and Gerontes ("Elders") in the rider to the Archaic Great Rhetra, which outlined the constitutional arrangement of the state. It seems that at some point after the drafting of the Great Rhetra the right of veto was granted to the kings and elders, an indication of the reassertion of aristocratic authority after the conquest of Messenia. "removers" in Great Rhetra's rider: if the Damos speaks crookedly, the Gerontes and Kings are to be removers.

xenelasia

Literally "driving out foreigners"; a custom of the Spartans whereby they periodically expelled all foreigners from their territory in order to prevent the introduction of radical ideas and customs.

aparchai (sing. aparche)

Literally "first fruits," which the Athenians called the one-sixtieth of the tribute from Delian League members that they dedicated to Athena.

Eleusinian mysteries

Located 12.5 miles W of Athens: mysteries took place in the Telesterion (Hall of Mysteries). Hundreds of people were initiated each year there into a mystery cult connected to the cycle of the seasons and Earth Mother. Private cult transformed into state cult paid for by Athens. Each mystes (initiate) was supposed to experience the appearance of the goddess Demeter (an epiphany) at the culmination of a ceremony held at night. Purified by fasting and possibly under influence of a hallucinogenic drug, initiation involved drinking kykeon, a mixture that may have include the fungus ergot. Initiates were primed to undergo epiphany. Cult also offered initiates the prospect of a happy afterlife by freeing their fear from death. Eleusis increased in prestige with each generation; Athens so eager to control the sanctuary, build a counterpart at Athens, the Eleusinion. Such a practice of twinning is not uncommon: e.g., the Athenian Brauronion on the Akropolis. Twinning of extra-urban with an urban sanctuary had effect of connecting/reinforcing relationship between center and periphery, a connection reinforced by processions between the two landscapes. Each year, Athenians send ephebes (young men doing their first military service) to Eleusis to bring secret sacred objects back to Athens, and then after initiates had paraded to the Piraeus and purified themselves in the sea, they and those who were previously initiated marched back to Eleusis. Along the way initiates were verbally abused at a river crossing (the ritual of the gephyrismos, "the Bridge") before reaching Eleusis and undergoing formal initiation into the mystery cult as described above. These were mass movements of people, requiring large amounts of planning/prep/and regulation by the state + religious authorities.

Agoranomoi

Magistrates who oversaw legitimate weights and measures in the marketplace

Who rises up against Theban hegemony?

Major states of Sparta, Athens, Corinth and others formed a coalition to challenge the Thebans. Two sides drew up armies in 362 outside Mantineia in Arkadia. Neither power proved capable of winning, each saw themselves as victorious. Fought themselves to a standstill. Subsequent events underscore weakness of Athens. By 355, had lost majority of important allies and makes clear that unification still far off despite federations

kinaidos

Man who allowed himself to be penetrated but was not a youth; no longer an eromenos so perceived to be wrong. Used to attack peoples' characters in Greece

How does the Sicilian Expedition play out after defection fo Alkibiades?

Many cities of Sicily refuse to open ports and Segesta ended up having nowhere near the wealth that had lured Athens to Sicily, and Athenians now looking at a campaign far from home with unclear goals under the command of Nikias, who opposed the campaign from the start. To add to this, Syracusans were well supplied and knew the land, and possessed an advantage: a cavalry that made it possible to harry the Athenians. Campaign dragged from 415 BCE into winter: Athenians sent an urgent request to Athens for more money and troops. Into the spring and summer of 414, Athenians and Syracusans engaged in construction battle with Athenians aiming to encircle the city and the Syracusans try to cross perpendicularly across the Athenian circuit wall to make their encirclement impossible. Syracusans also received aid from the Spartans, their allies: Alkibiades had sought refuge in Sparta and was advising the Spartans. As a result, they dispatched a capable Spartiate commander Gylippos to bring aid to Syracuse. Fearing a joint Spartan and Syracuse alliance, Nikias grew despondent and worried Spartans would energize the Sicilians. He tried to resign but Athenians refused to accept and sent an other army and fleet out the next Spring. Turning point in 413: On advice of Alkibiades, Spartans invade Attica and establish a fort at Dekelea. This disrupted transport of grain from NE Attica to the city of Athens and forced Athenians to give up some of their territory. Athenians occupied by developments in Sicily: a supply fleet on its way to Sicily was captured and Athenian forces at Syracuse becoming increasingly desperate. A relief expedition arrived from Athens under Demosthenes (73 ships, 5000 hoplites) and under Demosthenes Athenians storm Epipolai: but the night battle led to chaos and confusion. The Dorian battle cry of allies struck fear into them because Dorians and Ionians typically opposed, end up killing allies.

Linear B

Much more full corpus than Linear A, second writing system found on Crete, more successfully translated. Uses some of the same symbols of Linear A, scratched into wet clay but when palace was burned, became baked. Keeping track of palace's goods.

Mycenaean Lion Gate

Mycenae, c. 13th century BCE (1300-1200 BCE). Bronze Age. A monumental gateway to Mycenae with two heraldic lions with feet resting on altars, flanking columns (perhaps referencing the palace inside). They sit on a lintel block weighing 20 tons. Earliest piece of monumental stone sculpture known from Greece. Perhaps served to intimidate? The types of drills/saws used to carve lions were a same variety as those used in the Hittite kingdom of central Anatolia. Lions also similarly flank the entrance to the Hittite capital at Hattusa.

The discreditation of Pausanias, the king of Sparta

Pausanias discredited during the campaign on the Persians after Plataia; it was rumored that after taking charge of the Greek forces, he began behaving like a tyrant, exhibiting a tendency towards violence and coercion and even dressing like a Persian; also had a retinue of Egyptian and Persian bodyguards; beginning to resemble the very Persian king whose army he had defeated. Ionian cities become worried by this development: implore Athens to take command of the allied forces (which will have unexpected consequences down the line). Ionians by dialect and ancestry are closer to Athens vs Spartans, may have seemed more natural than answering to a Spartan king who was suspected of aiming at tyranny or even medizing. Pausanias is recalled to Sparta and punished after being found guilty of conspiring with Persians: walled inside a temple to starve. Experience with Pausanias further turns off the Spartans from foreign campaigns; already had been rarely inclined to conduct foreign campaigns. Now more averse to campaigns far afield. Spartans don't really contest the issue and seemingly are content to allow Athenians to take command. Athenians duly become hegemony of the alliance, usually referred to as the Delian league because the Athenians set up the alliance's treasury on Delos.

Peisistratos' expansion of the Panathenaia

Peisistratos expands festivals like the Dionysia and the Panathenaia, drawing on festivals from the Peisistratid traditional territory of Brauron. Expanded to include music and athletic contests. The games at the Panathenaia came to rival the games at Olympia, Delphi, Isthmia, Nemea, etc. In Athens, Panathenaic festival fashioned as a rival to the panhellenic festivals. Events included stadion, pentathlon, wrestling, boxing, and pankration. Also, there were men's middle distances races, the diaulos and dolichos. Also were hoplite races in full armor, in keeping with festival theme. By the 4th century BCE, musical contests included 5 separate categories: rhapsodic performance (recitations of Homeric poems by poets known as rhapsodes), singing with a kithara, singing with an aulos flute, instrumental performance of kithara, instrumental performance of aulos. Some think Peisistratid recitations of Homer may have shaped Homeric epics. Clear that in promoting a festival that was single most important celebration of Athenian identity, Peisistratos paved way for egalitarian ethos and cohesive community. Added stability.

The rise of philosophy

Philosophy presented alternative ways of understanding the world that challenged conventions.

When are first limestone and marble temples built in Greece?

Pick up in the 6th century BCE: reflects a shift in importance from rulers to gods.

3rd Sacred War

Philip became embroiled in conflict upon his return to Thessaly in 354 to help Aleuadai again in the regional conflict between ruling aristocratic families. Led to the final annexation of Thessaly in the same year by Philip and the beginning of Philip's southern campaigns. But by becoming involved not only involved in war in Thessaly but also in a broader conflict, the 3rd Sacred War. The 3rd Sacred War (356-346) was fought over control of Delphi, which had been seized by the Phokians in 356 BCE. The Amphiktyonic states, which had jointly controlled the sanctuary since the early 5th century BCE, declared war on the Phokians. After plundering Delphi and melting down dedications, the Phokian generals responded by raising a mercenary army and campaigned against the Boiotians to the east and Thessaly to the NW. Philip was actually beaten in battle by the Phokian general Onomarchos, but he withdrew and planned to strike harder down the line. Philip once again marched south in 353, and in the Battle of Crocus Field, Philip destroyed the Phokian army including Onomarchos and 6,000 men. Philip was also elected ruler of Thessaly: meant that he not only controlled the territory south of Macedon but also had a vote on the Amphiktyonic Council. This would eventually supply him with pretext to march further South. Used the win to create propaganda, painting himself as an instrument of Apollo's vengeance. Instead of continuing his march south, he continued expanding in the Northern Aegean as far as the Hellespont, and in 348 sacked Olynthos, which was in the Athenian alliance. Athenians now growing increasingly alarmed, city of Olynthos abandoned and Philip enslaved inhabitants. Then he turns back to Central Greece. This instance makes it clear that Athenians were shook and would be open to peace. At the same time, the 3rd Sacred War was still technically unfolding with annual skirmishes between the Phokians and Thebans. Philip moves an army South in 347 and Athenians been negotiations of peace to keep him from marching further. Athenians eventually obtain a treaty, the Peace of Philokrates, but basically useless. Philip also negotiates with mercenaries at Thermopylae's garrison and takes it.

Herakleitos

Presocratic who considered the constituent matter of the universe, c. 535-475. Suggested the answer was fire (vs. Thales who says water). Ionian.

So-called ban on neutrality

Recorded in Aristotle's Athenian Constitution, "When the city is in conflict, whoever takes up arms with neither side shall be disenfranchised and have no share in the city" Kind of leaves you with two options: fix it through their legal and political institutions (the Areopagus, Assembly and Council ) or complete civil war. Forcing the hand almost.

Rome in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE: A War Machine

Rome being transformed into a war machine with policy hammered out in the Senate and endorsed by popular assemblies. Roman nobility saw war as a means to winning glory and office: war was always preferable to peace. Every year there are fresh praetors and consuls who know its their year / opportunity to win place in Rome's catalogues of victorious generals. Territories under Romans provide manpower rather than monetary tribute, which helps the Romans accomplish their goals. Men increasingly loyal to commanders because their campaigns meant land and spoils.

Solonian funerary laws

Solon implemented regulations that carefully circumscribed how the Athenians buried their dead. These have recently been summarized by Josine Blok: 1. The body must be laid out for burial (prothesis) 2. The funerary procession (ekphora) shall take place the next day before sunrise. 3. The corpse is to be adorned and buried with no more than three garments. 4. In the procession (ekphora) the men walk in front and the women behind 5. Only women over the age of 60 may enter the house of the dead person and participate in the ekphora unless a relative closer than the degree of second cousin 6. Mourners shall not self inflict wounds of grieve excessively 7. No dirges or lamentations permitted at the grave 8. No ox sacrifices at the grave 9. No grave should be disturbed for another man's burial. 10. One should mourn the deceased at the Genesia festival. 11. No one is to speak ill of the dead. Some have argued this may have come into play to curb expenditures and conspicuous funerary ceremonies by aristocratic families; but not the central focus. Instead Solon appears to have put limitations on every kind of excess; may also have curbed politically charged dirges at graves in order to mitigate social tension/disorder

Who were the sea peoples?

Some Linear B tablets also mention "watchers by the sea": fear of attack by foreign invasion/by sea? Evidence from Egypt shows anxiety about the Sea Peoples as evidenced by an inscription from the Ramses III temple at Medinet Habu and Amarna Letters. Sea peoples: most historians believe that they were a loose coalition of tribes and ethnic groups who exploited tensions between the great eastern Med states of Egypt, Mitanni, and Hittites: may have contributed to Mycenaean collapse. They do not have conclusive ethnic origins. People have tried to recognize mentioned names from Egyptian sources. E.g., Peleset related to Philistines named in Hebrew Bible because Egyptian writing system lacks vowels? Tjekker as possibly from the region of Troy or E. Crete associated with the Teueri tribe in Troy or the site of Zakro on Crete. Shekelesh: Siculi from Sicily. At least some of the Sea People may have been Greek: Danu and Weshesh possibly the Danaans and Achaians, Mycenaean Greeks. Some Sea people in the Medinet Habu relief also wear Mycenaean kilts.

Kimon

Son of Miltiades: shaped Athenian leadership of the Delian League. Leadership focused on asserting Athenian interests. Quickly becomes clear that although they did indeed begin a vigorous command to cleanse the Aegean of Persians, Athenian leadership (incl. Kimon) were focused on asserting Athenian interests Will later come to face off w/Perikles

the Zanes

Statues of Zeus that were paid for by fines that cheating athletes in the ancient Olympics had to pay. The cheater's name was inscribed at the bottom of the statue. A line of 16 statues paid for by fines imposed on athletes for cheating: 16 statues of Zeus in front of the treasuries at Olympia. Athletes pass treasuries to proceed to tunnel into the stadium.

Who participated in the Olympics?

Strong association between aristocratic states and Olympic victory as seen in Pindar's victory odes (epinician poems). Olympic victories tied to aristocratic legitimacy. BUT, over time professional athletes emerge, and could be rewarded in Classical period by cash by home city or free meals for life etc. Successful Olympians in the Classical world would come to hold enormous influence politically and militarily: some even worshipped as demigods after their death.

Who was the instigator between the Persians and Greeks?

Surprisingly, not the Persians! In 499: cities on the coast of Asia Minor revolted against the Persians and the tyrants who ruled as pro-Persian puppets (Ionian revolt). Revolt culminated in the Ionians, with a contingent of Athenians, marching on and burning Sardis in 498. Complicated: the revolt was not necessarily freedom-loving Greeks trying to resist the Persians; rather, was fomented by Aristagoras, a Greek who ruled as a tyrant of Miletos. He had convinced the Persian satrap Artaphernes to undertake the invasion of Naxos but the invasion failed. Aristagoras was fearful that he might lose his own position and gave up his tyranny, declared Miletos a democracy and began stirring up rebellion in other Greek cities of Ionia. Since the rest of Ionia was convinced to revolt, though, there must have been a high level of existing discontent, but some scholars think the discontent was more about tyrants than about Persian presence specifically. Ionians ultimately defeated in the Battle of Lade in 494. Persians actually end up replacing many of the tyrannies with democracies after the defeat of the Ionians. They don't really care what the governmental structure is as long as they get tribute and Ionia is stable.

Evolving aspects of democracy in the 5th century BCE: Athenian citizenship requirement change c. 451 BCE

System of democracy functioned throughout the Classical period but did not remain unchanged: democracy continued to evolve in the 5th century. E.g., In the first generations after Kleisthenes, it had been permissible for an Athenian citizen to have a non-Athenian wife and for his sons to still inherit citizenship: Kimon (leading statesman of 1st generation after Persian Wars) was product of such a marriage. But in 451 BCE, Athenians changed requirement: now to inherit this privilege, an Athenian had to be a child of both a citizen father and an Athenian mother. Was change designed to ensure exclusivity of Athenian citizenship more generally, or was it an attack by Perikles who proposed the law, aimed squarely at Kimon, his political opponent?

The rise of the oikos

The oikos replaces the highly centralized authority of Bronze Age power centers. This is the new, predominant social institution of the Iron Age. A patrilinear family unit focused around this "big man", the head of a clan. Often, the big man styles himself as a prince, basileus, etc. Warrior elites dominate.

Lefkandi heroon

The building is a 50 by 13.8 meter apsidal building (one side semicircular) made of mudbrick walls sitting on stone foundations with postholes around indicating a porch. Interior features included a forecourt, antechamber, a large main room, and smaller storage rooms at the West end. Also known as a heroon. The entire structure was reused for a heroic burial: a warrior chieftan in armor and a woman with jewels, and four horses in pits. Horse burial is reminscent of Mycenaean world, e.g., at Dendra. Burial mound could recall Mycenaean tumulus tholos tombs? A cemetery was built up around the mound, indicating possibly kin-group claiming descent from the hero inside.

Funerary orations

The event held at the end of the campaigning season when the Athenian community met to listen to a eulogy to the dead, delivered by a leading orator. The most famous example was delivered by Perikles in 431 BCE to commemorate those who died in the first year of the Peloponnesian War. Message that all living Athenian men were honor bound to replicate the sacrifice of the glorious dead, to fight, and if necessary to die for Athens as if the city were a woman whose beauty has inspired these men to their acts of heroism; Homeric heroes fought for personal glory but Athenians fought for Athens: a distinctly democratic air to it.

Euthyna

The examination of accountability which every public officer underwent on the expiration of his office in Classical Greece- a power given to the Council of 500 after Ephialtes' reforms of 461

The Archidamian War up to death of Perikles

The first phase of war lasting from 431-421 BCE, named for Spartan kin associated with its outbreak, Archidamos. Archidamos was known for caution and wary of acting precipitously, tells them to wait a few years but the Spartans ignore his warnings and elect to go to war. Periklean strategy goes against aggressive Athenian Athenian instincts: do not undertake more campaigns but rather rely on walls to keep the city safe. Use fleet to get supplies, wearing down the Spartans by refusing battle. Athenians forced behind their own walls and become refugees within their own city. Eventually, Athenians abandon this line of defense, though: in 430, during the second year of the war Perikles died of the plague that decimated Athens nd changed the course of the war.

Sparta vs Argos in the Archaic Period

The other area in which Spartan militarization had an important effect was in Sparta's foreign relations and dealings with other states in the Peloponnese. Remember, the mountain ranges of Taygetos and Parnonas effectively separated Lakonia from Messenia to the west and Argos to the northeast. Nevertheless, regional conflict occupied Spartans throughout Archiac Period. Less successful with Argive neighbors than Messenians. Spartans particularly focused on a strip of territory to the SW of Argos on a coastal plain below Mt. Parnon, in the region known as Kynouria or the plain of Thyrea. Herodotus suggests a victory of Spartans in 6th cen BCE in this territory dispute (after a battle between their best 300 warriors) but leads to implacable hatred between Spartans and Argives for hundreds of years. Argives refused to help defend Spartans from the Persians and in Peloponnesian Wars, sided with Sparta's enemies, for example. Fought Argives repeatedly: in 7th century BCE, in 418-417 in the Peloponnesian War at the Battle of Hysiai: Spartans killed all male citizens at Hysiai. Sparta's treatment of Peloponnesian neighbors frequently brutal and confrontational

klarotai

The servile class in Crete, analogous to the helots in Spartan society and the penestai in Thessaly.

Significance of feasting in Minoan culture

The significance of the feast in Minoan culture as a crucial social institution that has become better understood in recent years as archaeologists have drawn on anthropological / comparative studies. At the feast, community is most vividly on display, opportunity for elites to advertise power dramatically, particularly in act of distributing food and wine. These patron-role feasts encouraged social bonding and can often be identified by distinctive ceramic assemblages which include kraters (bowls in which wine was presented before being poured into individual kylikes (a type of shallow cup). We also see conical cup sand bowls in high volume at feasting sites. At Phaistos, feasting appears tied to funerary rites as well as occasion of religious festivals.

Mycenaean tholos tombs: The Treasury of Atreus/Tomb of Agamemnon

The size and resources needed for them indicate they were elite, perhaps royal. Burial as a method of advertising ruling elite power: burying dead in tholos tombs outside citadel walls (**SO SHAFT GRAVES INSIDE BUT THOLOS OUTSIDE?**). For instance, Treasury of Atreus aka Tomb of Agamemnon at Mycenae. Named by Schliemann for the founder of the dynasty that included Agamemnon and Menelaus. Built around 1250 BCE, with a great corbeled chamber 14 meters in diameter, made with concentric circles of cut stone blocks rising 13 m above ground level. Tomb approached by dromos (a passageway) 36 meters long leading to the stomion (entrance) with two columns of exotic green stone on each side of doorway. The massive weight of the lintel is distributed by a relieving triangle. Then the whole tholos tomb is buried under a tumulus.

Who emerges from Spartan downfall as best situated to assert hegemony?

Thebes But their time as hegemony is even shorter than Sparta: they try to break Sparta's regional power between 371-362 under Epaminondas and Pelopidas. Boiotian armies invade Peloponnese 3x and ravage large parts of Lakonia, also take Sparta's port at Gythion, and liberated neighboring communities of Sparta (perioikoi) in Messenia and Laconia who had been obligated to provide troops to Sparta. This restricted Sparta's manpower reserves. Epaminondas even liberated the Messenian helots! Oversaw founding of Messene at the foot of Mt. Ithome: devastating impact on Sparta.

How would one characterize the shift from Bronze Age to Iron Age?

There were widespread upheavals in the Eastern Med around 1150 BCE, one consequence of which may have been to jeopardize the regular international trade and to disrupt the supply of specialty items like copper and tin for bronze making. The most vulnerable places were palatial centers where centralized power broke down. Although elite control and international trade reappear in the tenth century BCE, some changes were irrevocable. Linear B, the script (but not the language) of the Greeks, was lost and Greek would remain without a writing system for 300 years. However, oral poetry provided a link to palatial past and blended it with new society taking shape in Iron Age from 1000-700 BCE. A society ruled by elites who participated in international trade, even to the point of monopolizing the new preferred metal for weapons, iron. As Greece recovered from the collapse of the Bronze Age, a new social order would develop based on the domination of a warrior elite who modeled themselves on Homer's heroes. In the eighth century, Greek culture would face fresh challenges but the Homeric code would remain the basis for how they behaved. Basileis asserted their status as leaders and warriors while their families and households frequently fashioned an elite identity by practicing tomb and ancestor cult at sites going back to the Bronze Age.

Alexander's first confrontation with the Persians: Battle of the Granikos River c. 334 BCE

War was still far from Persian heartland, so first opponents were satraps of W Asia rather than Great King himself. At the Battle of the Granikos River c. 334 in the Triad (NW modern day Turkey), infantrymen forded the river and cavalrymen engaged Persians: once they cross the river, little resistance. Macedonians overwhelmingly victorious: then Alexander continues advancing through modern day Turkey along the coast. He takes Sardis, Ephesos, Miletos, Halikarnassos in quick succession.

Uluburun Shipwreck

Uluburun shipwreck ~1400 BCE gives evidence of a great network of maritime connections. These maritime connections thrive especially ~1700-1200 BCE; even modest settlements were probably playing a part in this network on Crete. Found off the coast of Turkey, shows a zone of connectivity across the Mediterranean: had put in at ports across eastern Med. For instance, had held Baltic Amber, African Blackwood, and ostrich shells which had entered through overland routes but once they reached a port they became a part of the great movement of goods flowing across Med. Also including things like oxhide ingots, Egyptian scarabs, etc. Reflects system of cabotage: Important to remind ourselves of the interconnected nature of Minoan sites.

the so-called "Greek Dark Ages"

Until a generation ago, end of the Mycenaean citadels seemed so abrupt people thought of the subsequent period as the Dark Ages. Sites like Nichoria in the Peloponnese suggest some people returned to a simpler herding lifestyle instead of complex, heirarchically organized state. BUT: Lefkandi shows us a more complex story. Although palaces ceased to function, worst effects were felt in a central corridor running south from Thebes and Gla down to the Argive plain, but those on the periphery of the Mycenaean world decline less dramatically and recover more swiftly. E.g., Kalapodi in Central Greece: excavation show evidence for continuity of cult at the minimum, without interruption. Also at Tiryns, there is now continued occupational evidence in the lower citadel (Unterberg) even though this is in the central corridor.

Greek Diaspora: Colonization

Vigorous commercial activity between 750-500 BCE. Greeks were trading as far north as Ukraine in the Black Sea Region, and also as far south as Egypt. In the east, sought trade contacts on Rhodes and Cyprus as well as the coast of Syria and in the west they travelled to Sicily, S. Italy, and the N. coast of the Med in the areas of modern day France and Spain. In most of these places they eventually established permanent colonies, colonies that needed land for growing crops that fed the colony's population. Different conditions contributed to colonization: population pressure at home? search for new trade opportunities? Names sometime give insight: e.g., a colony called Emporio on the coast of modern day N. Spain, Greek settlers established it. The very name means trading place, and precious metals like silver and tin were brought from the inland region to the coastal community where they were traded for Greek products. Other colonies also located in positions ripe for trade: e.g., Pithekoussai on the island of Ischia on the Bay of Naples which gave Greeks access to trade goods reaching central Italy from further north; also at Naucratis on Nile Delta: a trading place ceded to Greek traders by the pharaoh which allowed the Egyptians to maintain control over the flow of goods in and out of Egypt. BUT Pithekoussai may have also served land aims: early proof of land division.

Socrates' downfall

What was the climate in Athens in 399 BCE that an annoying but basically harmless celebrity regarded as a danger? A speech of Aischines is preserved that remarks that Socrates the sophist was Kritias' teacher, one of the 30 who put down the demos. Written a half century after the trial of Socrates, though. Socrates seems too have become the object at which Athenians pointed trauma + frustration of the 30. Sokrates became public face of the 30 particularly after the death of Kritias and dissolution of the oligarchy: especially because amnesty following the restoration of democracy made overtly politician trials impossible: but, the intellectual midwife of the 30's oligarchic revolution could still be attacked

Akropolis as a space for performing Athenian identity under Perikles

When Athens was at the height of its power under Perikles, Akropolis was radically reimagined as an expression of power and shared identity of Athenians. The Parthenon, Propylaia, and Erechtheion specifically: should be viewed as proof that in Periklean Athens, democracy, community and imperial power bound to each other through religion. Under Perikles, there was an ambitious building program on the acropolis, the showpiece of the imperial capital. Remember that the Delian League treasury was sent to Athens in 454 BCE: 1/60th (aparchai) of tribute given to Athena every year and deposited in the Treasury of Athena.... but Athenians go farther and transfer additional money beyond aparchai to the treasury of Athena, then put it to Athenian use. E.g., the treasurers of the Temple of Athena are listed on the Parthenon Building Accounts as the financial officers who paid for the building, and it was they who managed the money given to Athena from the allies' tribute. Architectural transformation of the city began immediately after the treasury was moved to Athens around 454. Under the course of a generation the Athenians had come to build Parthenon, Propylaia, Erechtheion, Nike Temple, sanctuary of Brauronian Artemis, the Chalkotheke, the Odeion, the Temple of Artemis Agrotera (on the Ilissos River), the Temple of Nemesis (at Rhamnous), and the Teleusterion (at Eleusis). The Parthenon alone was reported to cost 469 talents, more than the total annual tribute received by the Athenians at the time the Delian League was founded. Plutarch reports widespread criticism amongst allies of Perikles' misuse of money that was intended to pay for defense, not building projects.

Describe the Athenian government imposed by Lysander.

Whenever Lysander faces democratic opposition from anyone in Aegean, he imposed oligarchies of 10 men, called decarchies (we know Spartans love their oligarchies). Also employed a system of military garrisons and governors called harmosts to guarantee compliance of Sparta's new allies. At Athens this was slightly modified due to the scale of the city: arranged for an oligarchy of 30 and disbanded the democracy in 404 BCE. The Thirty: the new regime imposed by Lysander and Spartans on Athens. No better than a junta: seized property, imprisoned opponents, terrorized the city for the next 8 months. Members of the 30 even began to turn on each other: Kritias was a leader of the 30 and former pupil of Socrates (460-403 BCE) and denounced another of the leaders, Theramenes, and arranged for his execution: a climate of suspicion. The 30 targeted mostly wealthy metics particularly because they were vulnerable and not citizens and could not take legal action without a patron, were less likely to have support networks. One estimate that the 30 killed 1500 out of a citizen body of 35000.

prothesis

the dead person is laid out on a funerary bier surrounded by attendants and family. In an Athenian funeral, the first stage, during which the body was laid out in the home while members of the household mourned.

agoge

the institutions of Spartaite training in the aftermath fo the Messenian Wars made Sparta unusual in the eyes of other Greeks. Spartan boys taken from families at the age of 7 and raised with other boys their own age. This age-class system, the agoge. Boys were encouraged to steal, live by wits, and resist weakness in sources, but unclear how fabricated. Possible that the notion of boys stealing was part of an initiation: comparable to hazing experiences in fraternities. Boys graduate from their adolescence into the ranks of the Spartan army along with the others of their age class. As they continued to train and served, they lived in the syssitia. *ASK

Hektemoroi

"1/6th men", name for tenant farmers who paid a percentage of produce (probably about 1/6) to owners of land they worked. Extremely vulnerable; crop failures, marginal land, famine, drought, and sickness could drive them far into debt, leading to a loss of livelihood, land or even freedom (sold into slavery). An example of the economic malaise Solon was recognizing. *ADD

Perserschutt

"Persian rubble": damages by invading Persian army on the Athenian Acropolis of Athens in 480 BCE. Deposit of burnt and broken sculptures and pottery pulled down by Persians and reverently buried by Athenians

prytaneis

"Presidents"; the 50 members from a single tribe were known as the prytaneis; consisted of fifty men chosen by lot from each of the ten phylai, and each group of fifty (each of the 10 contingents) served as this for one-tenth of the year.

lawagetas

"leader of the people", in Mycenaean Linear B. Possibly war leader with a separate role from the king, but of a very high rank Literally the leader of the people. The term is found in the Linear B documents and seems to refer to the official just below the wanax, whose duties may have included leading the army during times of war.

Battle of Thermopylae

(480 B.C.E.) In the same year: Battle of Thermopylae. Greek forces had originally sent a force to Tempe (narrow defile between mountains and sea leading from S Macedonia into Central Greece) but backed out out of fear; Greek forces retreat to Isthmus of Corinth. Leaders of the Greek states meet and decide to assemble their forces at Thermopylae in C Greece, a narrow pass in some parts. At this point several Greek regions like Thessaly, Macedon, and Ionian Greeks had medized (changed allegiances to Persians) and others wanted to withdraw to a different location. Disagreements and tensions were weakening the Greek resistance force but Spartan King Leonidas stays with a small contingent of 300 Spartiates and 7k troops from other Greek states. Planned to use narrow terrain and a wall built by the Phokians to block Persian advance and level the playing field. Succeeded in holding the Persians for 3 days even against Xerxes' Immortals (a corp of 10k strongest/bravest Persians, according to Herodotus). Held until betrayed by a local shepherd Ephialtes who pointed the Persians to a small mountain track through the hills into a plain East of the Greeks. Leonidas learned that their position was about to be turned and dismissed the rest of the Greeks and prepared for last stand with 300 Spartiates remaining and 700 men of Thespiae who chose to stay. Fought heroically like Homeric heroes: glory prized over life, according to Herodotus. Mythologizing of events makes it hard to discern reality: scholars have dismissed it because the pass would not have even been open in 480 BCE, but cores show that the modern plain was underwater, which would have made it a choke point, as described. Leonidas was aware that more Spartans could not come because of a religious festival (Karneia), but hoped a show of Spartan force might inspire the Greeks. Once the others left, he surely knew he would not defeat all of the Persians. But a strategic consideration deserves attention: perhaps the Thermopylae campaign was a delaying tactic designed to give Greeks time to mount a defense further South on a battlefield more suited for infantry warfare. Also possible Leonidas acting on a prophesy recorded in Herodotus that Sparta could only avoid destruction if a Spartan king died.

ostrakon

*ADD

rhapsodes

*ADD

trittys

*ADD

Ostracism

*ADD A reform of the Athenian political system, commonly attributed to Kleisthenes. A process by which Athenians could expel a leading figure for 10 years. Did not lose citizenship or property: just go away for 10 years. This was a system designed to identify future tyrants and sort of dissipate their power/prominence. In the 6th month of every year the Assembly would hold vote to see if people wanted to hold an ostracism that year. If yes, it was held 2 months later. Citizens scratched names of person they wanted to be removed on a piece of pottery (an ostrakon). Even though they had the ability to hold them yearly, they were not held yearly. Only used with particular apprehension: only happened 15 times between 487 and 415 BCE.

Wappenmu:nzen + coinage

*ADD "Heraldic Coins" Earliest Athenian coins decorated with heraldic blazons known as Heraldic Coins; associations of motifs are unclear in many cases but some theorize that they represent leading families of Athens One cause of tumult affecting Archaic Athens may have been the introduction of coinage and the consequent changes of economy. Adopting coinage from Anatolia where electrum coinage goes back as early as 600 BCE, and becomes adopted in many Greek states (not Sparta). Athenians start minting in the middle of the 6th century BCE Communities begin to assert identity through coinage: e.g., turtles for Aegina but introduction of coinage caused alarm for many,

satrapy

*ADD A province of the Persian Empire; with growth of the Persian Empire through Asia Minor under Cyrus, various independent kingdoms swallowed up into new provinces (satrapies) of the Persian Empire.

magus, magi (pl)

*ADD In Persian society the magi were the priestly caste of religious experts in charge of sacrifices and sacred lore.

satrap

*ADD Persian provincial governors Administration of conquered areas put in the hands of provincial governors (Satraps) usually drawn from the Achaemenid clan who could be expected to be loyal and were required to follow the dynasty's policies of religious tolerance.

Economic repercussions of Alexander's expansion

200,000 talents entered the Greek world during his campaigns. With so much pure gold entering the Mediterranean, gold to silver standard dropped from 13:1 to 10:1. This led to inflation and fluctuating exchange rates in generations after Alexander that would impact royal economies of the Hellenistic world.

What are the three reasons that eruption on Thera can't be the cause of Minoan cultural destruction alone?

1. The Marine style of Minoan pottery isn't found on Akrotiri / Thera although earlier Minoan pottery styles are present, which suggests that the Marine style post-dates the Theran eruption (that is, that pottery was still being produced by Minoan culture after the eruption). BUT this style is found at Knossos, Malia, Phaistos and other Minoan sites: they flourished AFTER Theran eruption. Trade was not terminated by the eruption. 2. There are buildings above the ash layer at Pseira on the Northern coast of Crete and tree ring data from N America, Sweden and Ireland also suggests a later date of ~1628 BCE for the eruption. This would be too early to explain a ~1450 collapse with the burnt horizon. Shows that civilization continued well after the eruption. HOWEVER, this date could align with the rebuilding of the palaces at the end of the Old Palace period. BUT, they stumbled and recovered. Results may have been catastrophic and may have caused significant disruptions, but Cretans successfully reasserted a new period of palatial order. May have received aid from other major powers who were not so significantly affected (e.g., Egyptian pharaoh). 3. Difficulties in reconciling the eruption ~1450 with Egyptian pottery chronologies that are well established. Minoan pieces of pottery appear in contexts that would be much later, according to Egyptian chronology.

Chapter 4 Overview Timeline

1150 BCE: Upheavals in Eastern Med 1000 BCE: Beginning of the Iron Age 950: Heroon at Lefkandi 800-700 BCE: Emergence of the Polis 776 BCE: First Olympic Games 725-700 BCE: Iliad and Odyssey written down 750-500 BCE: Greek Diaspora 720 BCE: Invention of the Greek Alphabet 700 BCE: Hesiod 700-600 BCE: Orientalizing Period of Art

Chapter 3 Overview Timeline

1550 BCE: Shaft graves at Mycenae 1450: Linear B first recorded at Knossos 1450 BCE: Griffin Warrior tomb at Pylos 1425: Warrior graves at Knossos and Chania 1400-1300 BCE: Iklaina absorbed by Pylos 1250 BCE: Fortification of Mycenae and Tiryns 1200 BCE: Destruction of Mycenaean palaces 1184 BCE: Traditional date of Fall of Troy 1100 BCE: End of Bronze Age

The Battle of Heraclea

280 BCE Pyrrhus of Epirus comes to help Tarentum with 20 war elephants, 3k cavalry, 2000 archers, 20,000 soldiers, 500 slingers: but a great disparity with Romans. Romans lost 6k vs Pyrrhus's 3.5k and Pyrrhus breaks off from the Italian campaign. Pyrrhus decides to cross into Sicily to fight the Carthaginians. According to Polybius, Romans kept lists of those eligible for military service and could muster up to 250 k troops from Rome and Campania if needed; plus reserves, could mean up to 300k infantry and 10k horse. Romans relentlessly sacrifice lives to defend city.

Bronze Age (general dates)

3200-1200 BCE, ish. Rise of Bronze metallurgy in the 3rd millennium BCE Growing connectivity of Aegean world, circulation of people and goods

Battle of Gaugamela

331 BCE. Alexander faced the army of King Darius at the Battle of Gaugamela near Arbela (modern day Irbil in Iraq). The Persian army was about ~50,000-100,000 men along with elephants and scythed chariots. Macedonians had ~30,000 heavy infantry, but also some light infantry, skirmishers, archers and cavalry. Alexander advanced the line in echelon formation (a staggered diagonal): did this to draw out the Persian line and create an opening in the center. Then, they drove a wedge forward to break the Persian line, making them flee. Now has defeated Darius 2x: a kairos (critical moment): now Alexander's world rather than a world where the Achaemenids ruled a vast empire with the Greek states on its edge.

The Sicilian Expedition: Preparation

415-413 BCE The event marked the turning of Athens' fortunes. Athenians decide to undertake a massive invasion of Sicily. Sicily was a wealthy island and important producer of grain. Many of the cities were originally Corinthian colonies on Sicily, and the use of Corinthian coins indicates that the region retained ties to the mother city. Envoys from Segesta arrived to Athens with silver to try to get Athens to help them against neighboring Selinous-- The Athenians, aware of Sicily's wealth, are like, HECK YEAH. Athenians were convinced there was much more money on the island and inclined to mount an expedition. Nikias was hesitant and shared Perikles' previous defensive outlook (think back to start of Archidamnian War) but Alkibiades was pro-intervention (general). Nikias tried to dissuade the Ekklesia by inflating the cost of the force needed to subdue Sicily. This was a big whoopsie on Nikias' part: Ekklesia accepted the inflated estimate and voted for massive invasion force of 100 triremes and 5,000 hoplites. As the fleet was being prepared, a disturbing incident happened wherein a group of drunk men mutilated some of the herm statues (stone pillars with head of Hermes and erect phallus used as apotropaic markers delineate commercial space of agora from the rest of the city and bring it under the protection fo the god). Alkibiades implicated: eventually defects to Sparta (see below).

Chapter 8 General Timeline

478/7 BCE: Formation of the Delian League 476 BCE: capture of Eion and the Seizure of Skyros 470/69 BCE: Suppression of the Naxian revolt 467/5 BCE: Battle of Eurymedon 464: Revolt of the Helots 461 BCE: Reforms of Ephialtes 460-445: First Peloponnesian War 451 BCE: Perikles' Citizenship Law 449 BCE: Peace of Kallias 437: Foundation of Amphipolis

Battle of Plataia

479 BCE. Persians took up winter quarters in Thessaly, and emerge after leaving winter quarters to continue campaigns against Greeks in 479 BCE in the South. Once again we rely on Herodotus for an account of the events that year and his narrative makes clear that Greeks were still not unified: some states had fallen into hands of Persians, others had medized: Thebes for example now supplied heavily armed hoplites to the Persians. Competing voices amongst Greeks about what to do now. Some want to remain behind the wall at the Isthmus of Corinth and abandon Attica, but of course Athenians not interested in that option and their numbers means their interests have sway. Persian general Mardonios sends Alexander of Macedon to the Athenians to offer a treaty: the Athenians prolonged proceedings so that the Spartans could be on hand to hear. The terms were as follows: Persians offered them autonomy and amnesty for harming the king and a choice of any territory to add to Athenian territory, but rejected offer. The destruction of temples of the gods by the Persians made them bound to seek vengeance: duty-bound not to enter an alliance with peoples who desecrated their temples. These standoffs with Persians in some ways helping to forge a common Greek identity fashioned by danger faced. Greeks assembled at Plataia on the Slopes of Mt Kithairon close to Boiotian side of border with Attica. Persians had advanced S from Thessaly into Boiotia. A difficult spot for the Athenians because it was hard for them to get supplies easily and they had to replenish from further south: Mardonios refuses to battle for 10 days, suggests he may have been aware of their supply predicament. Numbers also favored Persians according to Herodotus: ~100,000 vs ~40,000 hoplites. However, Persians often wear linen in battle versus Athenian metal: as a result, Persians go for supply lines versus direct battle first. Persians capture Gargaphian Spring: source of Greek water supply. But Persians also helped by indecision of Greeks: Spartan commander Pausanias consistently received poor omens and refused to advance troops, which also put pressure on supplies. Greeks decided to withdraw and battle almost didn't take place: But Mardonios seeing the Greeks leaving ordered troops to cross the Asopos River. Pausanias is alerted to this and they engaged. Persians routed, Mardonios killed. Persians withdrew to a fortified camp until the Greeks fought their way in and killed them too. Only a few thousand got away.

Battle of Salamis

480 B.C.E. The battle that effectively ended the Persian war. The Greek fleet, although vastly outnumbered, defeated the Persian fleet. The theater shifts from land (Thermopylae) to water. Persians took Thermopylae and Persian navy had also gone on to fight the Athenians in the Battle of Artemision: engagement had ended indecisively and Greeks withdrew to the Saronic Gulf, closer to Athens. At this point, Athenians vote to abandon the city and evacuate women/children/elderly to Troizen. Following advice of Themistocles, all men reported to ships. Themistocles convinces Athenians that "wooden walls would remain in tact" meant ships and not the wood palisade that had once surrounded the acropolis: those Athenians who remained were slaughtered. Athenians assembled ships on a narrow neck of land called Kynosoura (dog's tail) on the island of Salamis opposite Athens and are joined by the rest of the Greek forces. Athenian leader Themistocles emerges as a hero in the Battle of Salamis: many stories of heroism, one story that Themistocles wrote to the Persian king the night before that the Greeks were planning to disperse at night so the Persians rowed all night to try to keep the Greeks bottled in the straits of Salamis but instead wiped out their rowers. If Leonidas is cast as a doomed hero like Achilles, Themistocles cast as Odysseus who survived by wits. 2 fleets engaged at daybreak: Although Greek ships were larger and recently constructed, Persians outnumbered them. Said that Xerxes watched from a throne outside the city of Athens while the city burned-- Athens destroyed on eve of Salamis. Themistocles thought engaging in narrow space would suit them better than open water and was right. The sheer number of Persian ships hindered their maneuverability and Persians abandoned their plan. Tactics and experience, according to Herodotus, put Greeks at an advantage. Persians decisively defeated and Xerxes and land forces withdrew from Attica.

Chapter 7 Overview Timeline

558-530 BCE: Cyrus the Great 530-522 BCE: Cambyses 522-486: Darius I 513: Darius I crosses to Europe 499-493: The Ionian Revolt 490: Battle of Marathon 486-465: Xerxes I 480: Battles of Thermopylae and Salamis 479 BCE: Battle of Plataia 472: Aischylos's Persians first performed

Chapter 6 Basic Timeline

683-2 BCE: First annual archon at Athens 632 BCE: Kylon's conspiracy 621/0 BCE: Drako's Law on Homicide 594 BCE: Solon's first archonship 561-528 BCE: Career of Peisistratos 546: Battle of Pallene 514: Assassination of Hipparchos 510: Explusion of HIppias 508/7: Reforms of Kleisthenes

When is the Archaic Period, generally?

700-480 BCE: characterized by increasing prosperity and social tension both between classes and between aristocratically dominated clans. Response to social upheaval in Sparta is particularly distinctive.

Chapter 5 General Timeline

706 BCE: The Foundation of Taras (Tarentum) 700 BCE: Beginning of the Archaic Age 700-675 BCE: Second Messenian War 669 BCE: Battle of Hysiai 657-627 BCE: Kypselos, Tyrant of Corinth 650 BCE: Tyrtaios 650-600 BCE: Alkman 550-500 BCE Formation of the Peloponnesian League 520 BCE: Vix Krater 480 BCE: End of Archaic Age

The rise of the polis

8th century BCE: the city state (polis) is emerging as a distinctive form of Greek socio-political life. 8th century developments contributed to formation of Archaic Greece: for instance, we see the rise of the polis, the age of the first Olympics, first overseas trade emporia/posts, beginning of a diaspora of Greeks through the Med and beyond, and rise of Greek alphabet. Smyrna on coast of modern Turkey: evidence for the rise of the city-state. Clusters of houses and specialized production areas (e.g., for pottery) suggest a growth of complex social organization. Also, Corinth!

Hesiod

8th century poet of the Theogony, Works & Days. Often explores questions of justice. For instance, indicates that judges deliberating over his case in Works & Days were easily bribed. Reflects concerns about authority in Iron Age.

Dimini

A Neolithic community located in Thessaly 5 km east of Sesklo: may have overlapped in occupation. 5th-4th millennia BCE. Community had a megaron in the center: suggestion of big man authority? The settlement was situated above a fertile plain running to the sea ~1km away, giving it access to a trade network with the wider Aegean. Earliest houses primarily wattle and daub but replaced by mudbrick on stone socle. Concentric walls 3-5 feet high may suggest central planning, but use not known: defense? retaining walls? Also known for high quality polychrome pottery. An agro-pastoral village: people lived by farming and herding, usually sheep, goats and pigs, but some hunting and gathering supplementing diet. BUT, compared to previous earlier communities like Franchthi or the Alepotrypa cave on the Bay of Deros, growing complexity of Neolithic culture.

Lysippos

A Sikyonian sculptor c. 390-300 chosen by Alexander for official portraits but also changed proportions of the head to body from older canon of Polykleitos (1:7) to a more slender 1:8. Lysippos also adapted Polykleitos' favored contrapposto stance but more fluid and dynamic.

tholos

A circular structure, often a temple, or a beehive shaped tomb covered by a corbeled arch. Massive tholos tombs found outside the walls at Mycenae.

Themistocles of Athens

A few years prior to Xerxes' invasion of Greece, Themistocles successfully argued that the silver acquired from a rich vein at Laurion be used to construct a new fleet of triremes (ships powered both by oar and by sail). This was at a time when Athens was in a state of open hostility with neighbor Aegina and Themistokles may have intended them for that war. Whatever the reason, Athenians were lucky to have a new fleet of 200 triremes and a hoplite army. Following advice of Themistocles in 480 after the defeat of Thermopylae in preparation for naval stand off at Salamis, all men reported to ships. Themistocles convinces Athenians that "wooden walls would remain in tact" meant ships and not the wood palisade that had once surrounded the acropolis: those Athenians who remained were slaughtered. Directed the Greek naval forces against Persians. Won the battle of Salamis, weakening Persian fleet.

Vronda

A hamlet at site of Vronda c. 1200-1100 BCE, Bronze Age. Evidence for non-elite lives, clusters of modest household units with consistent forms (north-facing courtyards, a core of 3-5 rooms with a large central room w/hearth and bench, often with a high concentration of cookwares and evidence of animal slaughter of sheep, pigs, etc. Here we can see stable growth with rooms added over time. Vronda also has a two room structure called Building G, with ceramic snake tubes, plaques, and terracotta figurines of the Goddess with Raised Arms. Perhaps a community shrine? Reminds us there's still a lot to learn about ordinary people in Bronze Age.

kylix

A high stemmed shallow goblet used in Ancient Greek ritual drinking ceremonies beginning in Mycenaean times and continuing through into the historical period to include the symposium.

corbeled vault

A method of construction used in tholos tombs characterized by a vault consisting of layers of stone superimposed one upon another with each successive layer's stones extending out slightly further beyond the edge of the layer below. The entire structure is held together by the mound of earth placed above it, which stabilizes the vault and counters the effect of gravity. e.g, Mycenae featured huge walls, heroic burials in deep shafts, and massive corbeled tombs.

Melos in 416 BCE

A naval campaign in 416 undertaken by the Athenians against Melos. Recounted by Thucydides as a perfect illustration of the realities that underlay both the Peloponnesian War and other wars. Melos was a small insignificant island in the SW segment of the Cycladic islands. Had been populated in the 5th century by Spartan colonists. They resisted incorporation into the Athenian empire and were neutral until 416 BCE. Athenians invade with 1600 hoplites and offer no moral or ethical justification for their presence. Power alone determined this choice. They say to Melos to submit in order to avoid worse sufferings and Melians surrender in 416/15 winter. The men are executed, and the women and children are sold into slavery.

Pentekontaetia

A period from the Persian Wars down to the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE), "fifty year period". 480-431. A time period dealing with the recovery of Athens from destruction of the Persian War til the point at the end f the 5th century when Athens is at its zenith of power. *ADD

Major problems in Philip's first few yers of reign

A pretender to the throne, Argaios, was supported by Athens: ends up killed in battle, luckily. A second issue was the need to secure borders to protect Macedon from raiding by tribes to the West and North: between 359-337, Philip married Olympias, an Epirote princess and the daughter of Neoptolemos, king of the Molossians, thereby securing an alliance with the Molossians to the W. Then married Phila, from Elymiotis, to the W. Then married Audata, daughter of Bardyllis, king of the Illyrians, ending fighting between Macedon and the Illyrians. Illyrians and Macedon had perennial problems but marriage helps to end this fighting. Using wives as diplomatic pawns to secure the western border.

liturgy

A public service in Athens: each year wealthy citizens were expected to bear the burden of a major expense for the good of the community. 3 principle types of liturgy: upkeep of a trireme (this liturgist called a trierarch), production of choruses in festivals (known as the choregos), expenses of festivals with torch races (most expensive: gymnasiarch. Each year the 10 tribes of Athens select a man from each tribe to take on expenses of these festivals.

Resistance movement against the 30

A resistance movement was organized by democrat Thrasyboulos (c. 440-388 BCE) in January of 403 BCE. Democrats assembled at a fort at Phyle in the hills north of Athens and repulsed an attempt by the 30 to try to dislodge them. More men attracted to the cause through the Spring of 403. When they had support of 1,000 men, the democrats marched on the Piraeus and defeat the forces of the 30, killing Kritias. The 30 withdraw in May to Eleusis and news reached Athens that they were hiring mercenaries: the entire Athenian populace rose up in response. Spartan army under King Pausanias came and negotiated a settlement between the two sides.

Grace Circle A

A royal burial ground just inside the Lion Gate at Mycenae, where 2 circles of stones delineate a formal burial space with 6 shaft graves containing 19 burials. Earliest graves ~c.1550 BCE and entire graveyard predates Lion Gate (~1250 BCE). Builders chose to incorporate shaft graves with the massive circuit walls in 13th century BCE and carefully articulated the area with the two rings of upright stones with cover slabs we see still visible today. Within Grave Circle A, graves were marked by stelai (grave markers) of engraved limestone with images of warriors with spears similar to those found in Egyptian temple contexts of pharaoh slaying his enemies: reminds us of interconnectedness/cultural contact beyond the Aegean. Inside the shaft graves, over 33 lbs (15 kg) of gold found in shaft graves. Shafts contain multiple burials, repeatedly reused. Burial goods suggest a warrior status: many buried with daggers, sometimes made of bronze with gold or silver inlay, using niello, probably learned from Egypt (substance combining copper, silver and lead sulphite to create black highlight). Blades are sometimes decorated with men in lion hunts, carrying figure 8 shields (a popular motif of Mycenaean wall painting) or tower shields (head to toes, recalls Homer's description of Ajax's shield). Where did gold come from? Mycenae not naturally mineral wealthy on Argolid.

Mycenaean adminstrative center in region of Lakonia

A site that illustrates the complexity of the Mycenaean economy. South of Mycenaean heartland of Argolid, excavation began 2009. A linear B tablet from a collapsed tomb at the site suggests an admin center of considerable size and power: subsequent excavations reveal ground plan of a Mycenaean palace, comparable in size to those known at Thebes and Gla and located on a hilltop reminiscent of Pylos. Could have administered "some thousands of population in and around it" The Linear B tablet (first one found): indicates large scale weaponry manufacture and storage.

dikastikon

A state fund of the Athenian democracy that paid for jury service.

theorikon

A state fund of the Athenian democracy that subsidized theater tickets for those too poor to afford the price. Citizens too poor to afford a theater ticket at major religious festivals subsidized by the state. Plutarch is skeptical; perceives this as a bribery to pander to the masses by Perikles alongside juror's wages

Solon's law against tyranny

According to Solon, anyone who tries to declare themselves tyrant will be declared "atimos": this denied the person rights to protection so they could be put to death with no penalty. BUT, only if prosecuted: due process of the law *ADD FOR ATIMOS

The Emergence of Rome

According to tradition, Rome expelled Etruscan kings in 509 BCE. Same year, Athenians expelled their tyrants (Hippias) and establish democracy.... Sandwiched between Etruscan culture to the North and Magna Graeca to the South: Romans open to cultural influence for 200 years. 1st military contact with the Greeks and Macedonians happens in the early 3rd century BCE when Pyrrhus of Epirus invaded Southern Italy and Sicily; had been invited by the people of Tarentum to help them oppose Roman expansion into Southern Italy. lands in Tarentum in 280.

What happened after Plataia (479 BCE) with the Persians?

After Plataia, the Greeks immediately undertook a campaign against the Great King in revenge: although Greeks claimed Xerxes had been defeated he wasn't: actually;lly reigned until 465 BCE, & dynasty ruled until it was overthrown by Alexander the Great more than a century later. Greeks agree to plunder Xerxes' territory and liberate the islands + coastal cities of Eastern Aegean that had been under Persian control. 1st campaign: in Hellespontine region where they capture Sestos in 477 BCE. Then, with help of Spartans under Pausanias, continue the assault on Persian positions, reaching as far north as Byzantion, close to the entrance of the Black Sea and as Far East as Cyprus.

The Siege of Potidaia

After the Epidamnos Affair, Athenian relations with Corinthians quickly deteriorate (go figure). Athens wanted to strengthen control over every part of the Aegean and suspected that the Corinthians were plotting against them. So, they single out Potidaia, a city in Chalcidike region of the Northwest Aegean. The city was an Athenian ally and a Corinthian colony with ties tot he mother city: kind of an unfortunate position to be in. In 433 BCE, Athenians ordered the city to tear down its walls and send hostages to Athens, and sent an Athenian fleet + 1000 hoplites to Potidaia. The Spartans said they would invade Attica if Athens attacked, and Potidaians were encouraged by this assurance: so they revolt against Athens. As a result, Athens began a siege on the city in return. Hostilities escalate over 3 years. Despite promises, Sparta never came, but Corinth dispatched a force of 1600 hoplites to defend Potidaia. They were joined also by mercenaries from the Peloponnese. Athenians responded with waves of reinforcements. The siege ends in 430 BCE when Potidaians, facing starvation, surrender. But, by then, war had already been declared between Athens and Sparta.

Summary of things to come

After the Persian Wars of 480s BCE, the word barbarian has an association of inferior. Victory of Greeks meant that they gained self-confidence that led to the building of architectural wonders like the Parthenon and to the composing of new plays. But downside was that the society of small city-states transformed their triumph over the Persians into an instance of triumphalism, a gaudy and at times racist celebration of all things Greek and the demonization of all things foreign.

Alexander and Tyre: Religious Tolerance

Alexander subjugates Tyre in 332 BCE: doing so denied the Persians the seaports from which they could mount a rear attack upon he Aegean and Macedon itself. A good strategical move but also allowed Alexander to test a policy of religious tolerance. The chief god of Tyre was Melqart, whom the Greeks identified with Herakles. After capturing the city, Alexander spared those who had taken refuge in the Temple of Melqart and then made sacrifices himself. Easier to relate to polytheistic religions because Greeks could find parallels to gods (e.g., Heracles). Later, when he invaded Egypt, he continued this path of tolerance: represented himself as pious and honored religious traditions of Egyptians to extent that he was perceived as pharaoh. Also clear in Alexander's visit to the oracle of Zeus Ammon at Siwah in W Egyptian desert in 332: Syncretic Egyptian Greek diety. Upon his arrival, Alexander was greeted by the priests as the son of Zeus, political theater. Starts a rumor that Philip was his human father but Zeus was his divine father. Makes us think about Lysander painting himself as divine.

kleroterion

Allotment machines that assigned jurors to the courts. Pinakion tokens were placed into baskets at the base and then later put into the slots of the machine. Black and white marbles would determine who served.

Alice Kober and Linear B (1906-1950)

American scholar who from 1930-40 transcribed 180,000 transcriptions of signs from tablets, managed to establish that words have syllabic roots with added endings and therefore found that Linear B was inflected, a feature of Greek. Later Michael Ventris deciphered Linear B, building on her work and established it was Greek more firmly b/c of toponyms + deity names: po-se-da-wo-ne / Poseidon for instance.

tell

An artificial mound formed from the stratified accumulated debris of successive human occupations. Tells are particularly characteristic of the Neolithic period in Greece. E.g., Dikili Tash in N. Greece. The site of Troy w/layers of city is also a good example.

Megara Hyblaia

An early Greek colony dispatched from Megara on the East coast of Sicily, founded !8th century BCE. A central area was set aside at its foundation for building temples of gods + agora. Roads run out from the central space, dividing community's land into a grid of approximately equal plots. Reveals that unlike organic communities of the mainland, these colonies were planned from the outset.

archagetes

An epithet for Apollo as leader of colonies: led many colonial expeditions to new home. Involvement of Apollo in every aspect of diaspora: community's foundation and existence shaped the community's Greek identity. Greeks overseas still conceived of themselves as Greeks. The epithet of Apollo that referred to his role as the sponsor of colonial foundations during the Greek Diaspora c. 750 - c. 500 BC. Typically an individual or community would consult the oracle at Delphi prior to sending out an expedition. Additionally, the two kings of Sparta were known as the Archagetai. Delphi benefited from Apollo's participation in colonization and vice versa. Droughts/famines/natural disasters figure prominently into accounts of colonial foundations, often undertaken on advice of the oracle to expiate some wrongdoing in the home country. Whether to discover where they had gone wrong or to placate the gods, communities in Archaic Greece were compelled to seek the active guidance of the gods through oracles, and especially Apollo, as god of oracular communication and god who led many colonial expeditions to their new home as archagetes.

The Delphic Amphiktyony

An example of a koinon. A federal body with members from all over Greece which administered the panhellenic sanctuary of Delphi and guaranteed sanctuary's neutrality.

What can Cycladic figurines tell us about the Bronze Age?

An example of where it is harder to interpret the evidence. Marble sculptures; mostly come to us through firm archaeological contexts like burials, and can be put in a typology, which indicates a dating around the early or late 3rd millennium BCE. Found all over the Aegean + even further afield: indication of importance. Function is unclear: schematic forms of female body less than 1 meter (3 feet) tall, with arms folded across chest, rudimentary breasts, and public triangle. Idols/object of veneration representing a cult of fertility? Or just dolls? Representing spirits of family like Hopi kachina dolls? Part of a ceremony or ritual?

Ekklesia (assembly)

An important mainstay of Greek democracy. In the 5th century, whenever the citizen body met collectively, it did so at the Ekklesia. Meetings were held 40x a year, 4x in each of the 10 months of the civic calendar. 1 meeting per month was designated the Kyria Ekklesia: at which matters of particular importance (e.g., declarations of war, proposals from foreign ambassadors) were discussed. Ordinary citizens at the Ekklesia heard reports from magistrates and city officials on city matters. the agenda of the Ekklesia was prepared by the Boule (Council). An executive board of 9 men (proedroi) whose members rotated each meeting, watched over proceedings, but anyone was allowed to speak. Meetings were held SW of the Agora in an open-air location called the Pnyx: participation was open to any male Athenian citizen, provided that the participating citizen had completed / performed his military training.

The Asklepieia on Kos and Hippokrates

Asklepios, the god of healing: toward end of 5th century BCE, popularity of the god grew dramatically. He was formally received into Athens in the 420s BCE, by a delegation of leading Athenians headed by Sophocles. A number of sanctuaries were dedicated to him and began to spring up during the 4th century. The god healed them in their sleep or diagnosed their ailments while they slept. Asklepieia appeared across Greece (e.g., at Athens, Corinth) but none rivaled Kos. Kos was an island where Hippocrates and students laid foundations for scientific medicine. The opposite of religious intervention The school of Hippocrates produced dozens of treatises that dealt with ID and treatment of diseases: developed a system of diagnosis and prognosis, but don't forsake Asklepius either. Both Asklepius priests/doctors employed diet, exercise, baths, and even surgery; Hippocratic oath swears by healers Apollo and Asklepius too. Interestingly though they also doubt value of piety in other instances: says women wrongly dedicate to Artemis to cure "pent up blood" when the only thing that can fix it is marriage and loss of virginity as an effective cure

krypteia

At Sparta, a subdivision of the ephebes who served as a kind of secret police charged with terrorizing the helots.

Hypomeiones

At Sparta, an inferior class comprised of ex-Spartiates who for whatever reason (for example, failure to contribute to the syssition) had been demoted.

ephors

At Sparta, the five ephors ("overseers") were the leading magistrates elected yearly to manage the state's affairs. They are not present in the Archaic Great Rhetra and seem to have been instituted in the sixth century BC, after the conquest of Messenia. Leading Spartan magistrates: power increasingly was concentrated in the hands of the ephors in Sparta in the Archaic Period, although there was a proto-democratic impulse in Early Sparta (Great Rhetra for example) which was suppressed.

Evidence of land survey and division in Sicily

At most of Greek colonies there is evidence for land being surveyed and plots of equal size apportioned to first settlers. Particularly clear in Sicily, which along with S. Italy was known as Magna Graeca b/c of number of cities in the region like Syracuse, Agrigentum, Selinuntum, Sybaris, and Croton founded as Greek colonies. Most of these Magna Graeca colonies were planned from the outset: some land set aside for honoring gods and land apportioned to new settlers. The act of founding a colony made it a matter of urgency that settlers received equal portions of land.

Cleopatra + Olympias drama with Philip in 337 BCE

At some point, probably in 337 BCE, between the meeting of the League of Corinth and the opening of the Persian Campaign, Philip goes back to his capital Pella in Macedonia and celebrated his most recent marriage to a girl named Cleopatra, daughter of a Macedonian nobleman. At the feast her dad Attalos raised glass and prayed for a legitimate Macedonian heir: an insult to Olympias, an Epirote princess and wife of Philip, because she had a son (Alexander): not fully Macedonian. Alexander was clearly Philip's preferred son, though: he led Macedonia's left wing at Chaironeia despite being only 18. But Olympias, offended, withdrew from court to her brother, Alexander of Epirus. For a short period Alexander and Philip were also estranged, but Alexander was back in Pella by 336 BCE and Philip was able to continue planning invasion of Persia.

Religion as the impetus for Messenian Wars?

At some point, the Spartans say the Messenians attacked Spartan girls who were going to the sanctuary of Artemis on Mount Taygetos, on the border between Lakonia and Messenia. This site was a site where both Messenians and Spartans came to worship; goddess was most widely worshipped in S Peloponnese. The Spartans also say the attackers killed the Spartan king Teleklos, so they retaliate, leading to the Messenian Wars; but Messenians say Spartan provocation began the war and that they did not attack girls but young beardless men who had entered the sanctuary and incited violence.

Tragedy at Athens was only performed under two specific circumstances; what were they?

At the Dionysia or at the Lenaia festival. Tragedians would present plays in advance for selection and magistrates select 3 tragedians for a single festival: each tragedian prepares a trilogy for performance over the course of a single day. At end of the day, a satyr play was performed (light/burlesque energy/comedy) to lighten the mood. Festiavls were not just religious events but also a competitive event: at end of three days a crown is offered to the best tragedian.

460 BCE: Athenian dispatch to Cyprus

At the same time Athens is getting active in Central Greece, still undertaking military expeditions on many other fronts. In 460 BCE: Athenians dispatch a naval expedition to Cyprus, which then was instructed to sail to Egypt to support insurrection against the Persians led by native Egyptian leader, Inaros. Although initially successful, Athenians were eventually besieged by Persian general Megabazos and their entire fleet they had with them: 200 ships, was destroyed. But then, an auxiliary fleet of 50 ships sent in 454 BCE unaware of this defeat: also destroyed.

Peisander and the Government of the 400: Enstatement

At the same time, an oligarchic coup was happening in 411, engineered by Peisander. He and his supporters installed an oligarchic government in Athen: the oligarchic government of the 400. Consciously was evoking the council and tribes that had existed before Kleisthenic reforms. The new Gov of 400 was able to gain power because of the climate of uncertainty in Athens. It was believed that na oligarchic regime would make it possible to win Persian support and furnish war with Spartans. The 400 proposed handing over the state to a broader oligarchic government of 5000, but this remained an empty promise. Thuggery and assassination became tools of the 400 against dissent.

Macedon and Greek Identity

At the time of Philip's succession, Macedon was not even regarded as a fully Greek. People of N Greece were thought to be old fashioned, and were perceived as wearing their weapons and living in villages and versus cities, even though they also spoke Greek. The Macedonians want to be considered Greek but this was disputed by many people; ends up that Greeks accept Greek identity for the king's heritage but not one else. Greeks represent high status culture to which the Macedonians and other N. Greeks aspired to. in the 5th century Macedonians patronized Pindar; in the 4th century brought Euripides to Macedon as an artist in residence; brought in Greek philosophers like Aristotle to tutor royal children. It's wrong to see Macedonian culture as a 4th century import of southern Greek arts: N. Greeks shared in a cultural repertoire of the Greeks well before the 4th century BCE with monumental architecture, plastic arts like painting and sculpture, and city-planning.

Athens vs Skyros

At the time of the Eion campaign in 476, Athens also seized the small island of Skyros and enslaved its population, a tribe known as the Dolopians. The island had no strategic significance in relation to the Persian campaign but did lay directly in a line from Athens to Lemnos and up the Hellespont to the Black Sea: the route by which grain was shipped to Athens. This seizure of Skyros makes clear that Athenians were quick to realize potential of their naval supremacy and were asserting their own interests. Outward appearances important: a religious pretext for the campaign was provided by stories that Theseus had died on the island. Kimon arranged for the bones to be returned to Athens for proper burial, masking the seizure of island with an outward show of piety. It was not unusual for Greek states to cite such religious concerns as curses and the expiation of guilt as the reason for a campaign: but truth is Athens was using newly gained power to place Athenian interests ahead of all other considerations.

Athens vs Karystos

Athenian interests made even clearer by subsequent events. Athenians overwhelm the people of Karystos, a city at the S. end of Euboia, also on a grain route from the Black Sea to Athens, in 473 BCE. City is then forced to join the Delian League, and later in 5th century BCE, Athens placed a cleruchy (a colony of Athenians who remained Athenian citizens) at Karystos to assert Athenian presence.

phratry

Athenian men usually a part of other social groups like phratries. These were brotherhoods consisting of men related by blood but over time this may have become more fictive than real. *ADD

The End of Spartan Hegemony

Athenian power proves a counterweight in 370s. Athenian navy under Chabrias inflicted a defeat on the Spartans at Battle of Naxos in 376, and in 375, navy under Timotheus recruits more allies to Athens' confederacy. Seemed like a cycle of war that wouldn't end, so Greeks started formulating common peace treaties (koine eirene). Common: that is, open to any independent state, designed to make peace between signers. Signed in 378 (King's Peace), in 375, 371, 365, 362/1, 338/7. The grim succession of these treaties shows that a common peace was never a guarantee of lasting peace, yet the repeated efforts to find a way out of the cycle of interstate conflict also show that Greeks were really trying to find a political solution to their quandary.

Aftermath of the defeat at Aegospotamoi in 406 BCE

Athenians faced prospect of enslavement or worse: Ekklesia met and undertook preparation for the siege they expected and sent Theramenes and ambassadors to Spartans to seek the most lenient terms possible of surrender. Although allies wanted Sparta to destroy Athens, Sparta was resistant to enslave a city that did so much for Greeks in the Persian Wars. Instead, make Athenians tear down their walls that ran between the city and the port (made defenseless), surrender ships (all but 12, rendered powerless), make that Athenians allow their exiles to return, and make the Athenians promise to share allies and enemies of Sparta.

Spartan and Athenian fleets in 406 BCE

Athenians fight on! In 406 while Alkibiades was absent from his command his lieutenant Antiochos forced an engagement with the Spartans and lost 22 ships. Alkibiades blamed even though he didn't do it: goes into exile. Later in the same year, Spartans and Athenians engage 2 more times. 1st encounter: Athenians under Konon defeated and survivors withdraw to Mytilene, where they were blockaded by the Spartans. Athens sends 155 triremes to help the Athenians at Mytilene, enlisting slaves and metics among crews. Then Athens wins Battle of Arginusai: succeed in killing Spartan admiral Kallikratidas. However there is a big storm afterwards that drowned many sailors in ships crippled by the battles. News of victory brought elation to Athens followed by despair about the drownings. Drownings perceived almost as worse than a loss: 6/8 commanders executed after they get back. Spartans also in bad shape after this and offer another peace, but Athenians refuse.

Architectural feats of Pergamon

Attalids employ architecture in Pergamon to proclaim legitimacy as protectors of Greek culture. E.g., Pergamon's propylon kind of mirrors Athens. The temple of Athena, like at Athens, is entered through the Propylon, kind of like how the Propylaia looks to the Parthenon. Also construct a Great Altar, a monumental altar on the lower terrace of the city. Frieze features the story of Telephos, mythical founder of Pergamon. This allowed Attalids to hone into Greek myth to legitimize their rule The steps leading to the altar show gods vs titans, a traditional Greek temple motif. Sculptures at eye level and life size: capture spectacle of Hellenistic sculpture.

The Archidamnian War after death of Perikles

Athenians look to Kleon, who has a more aggressive strategy more in line with aggressive Athenian mindset. Under Kleon: more aggressive approach. Although Athenians had to endure annual invasions from Sparta during this period, they were also campaigning in a variety of theaters of war, although at the same time also still suppressing rebellion within the Delian League. Major focus of Athenian attention was NW Greece from 428-426 BCE: Athenian armies sought to weaken Corinth's influences in the area. Also, the Athenian general Demosthenes threatened entrance to Corinthian Gulf, campaigning on Leukas and at Naupaktos, putting pressure eon trade routes on which Corinth relied. Also, Athenian seized Kythera, south of Lakonia, in 424; in the same year, also succeeded in capturing Megara. Established Athenian military presence on the border of the Corinthians.

Sestos and the Battle of Aegospotamoi c. 405 BCE

Athenians send fleet in response to Lysander's threat in the Hellespont and establish a base at Sestos (basically across from Abydos). But instead of staying at Sestos they sail past the Spartan base formation daily, inviting Lysander to engage. Unclear how things unfolded at the end. One account that 30 ships which were sent to tempt the Spartans were destroyed after which the remaining Athenian ships were caught unaware on the beach. Or, that the Athenians were out foraging for food and supplies and were caught off guard, and the ships captured by the Spartans without any fight by sea at all. Regardless, result was the same: 150 Athenian ships captured or destroyed. 3,000 men lost. The scale of defeat dwarfed anything they'd ever experienced. Becomes clear that they can't really come back from this or mount a fresh defense. The battle marked the end of the Peloponnesian War. Shortly after Lysander would sail into he Piraeus and the Athenians would begin tearing down their walls, the final symbol of the city's defeat and humiliation.

Sparta's rigid order dictated by fear of helot rebellion, but also afraid of innovation abroad. How?

Athens associated with free flow of ideas, encouraged by debate, disputation and discourse, a hallmark of Athenian democratic culture. BUT Spartan oligarchy discouraged open discussion. Aidos (reserve) was prized as a virtue, a mark of a real man, marks Spartans rhetorically (laconic). Taciturnity could be linked to suspicion of discussion. So scared of change: Spartans periodically expelled all foreignerS (xenelasia). E.g., one instance where Athens sent a force to Sparta to aid after an earthquake in 460s BCE which had prompted helots to revolt. But according to Thucydides, the Spartans were afraid of the Athenian mindset and preferred to expel them although vulnerable to slave revolt.

The Peace of Kallias

Athens dominated by Perikles after the death of Kimon. The 3rd quarter of the 5th century BCE was known as Periklean Athens: pro-Sparta, anti-Persian policies associated with Kimon were starting to look dated. Was Sparta still an ally of the Athenians? Recent history had seen Athenians and Spartans fighting on opposite sides in Central Greece. Was Persia still the common enemy of all Greeks? Possibly, but if they stay out of the way of Persia, there was a good chance Persia would mind their business too. This presents an opportunity to explore the possibility of peace with Persia. Whether a formal peace was negotiated however has become a key problem of 5th century history. Possible proof of formal peace supported by Athenian Tribute lists, records from the Delian League. A monumental stele known as the Lapis Primus: records payments made to Athena from the tribute paid by the allied states from 454 BCE to 440 BCE- Athena was given 1/60th of all tribute. There seems to be missing year of tribute: some have suggested the missing year is 449 BCE: death of Kimon was 450, which may have opened opportunity for peace negotiations with Persia, resulting in a treaty. Couldn't collect tribute when there was peace: but still needed to maintain their empire, so it looks like tribute collection resumed the following year with fluctuations pointing to increasing resentment among allied states at paying for Athens' imperial ambitions. But not necessarily a convincing reconstruction: but Thucydides never mentison a Peace of Kallias. Since Thucydides was interested in charting the growth of Athenian power from the end of the Persian Wars in 479 BCE to the Peloponnesian War's outbreak in 431, it is hard to fathom how he could leave out a peace treaty in 449 BCE that marked the formal end of the first of these conflicts. Also, reference to the Peace of Kallias don't really appear until fourth century BCE rhetoricians and orators, and their details are frankly unbelievable. One extra thing that may suggest something: Herodotus describes an Athenian Kallias who was in Susa on business when an Argive delegation came to ask whether King Artaxerxes regarded the treaty the Argives had signed with his father as still binding: Artaxerxes reigned from 465 to 424, so 449 falls in this window. Perhaps suggests that Greeks were in talks with Persia more broadly about peace + Kallias was in Susa at the crucial moment for a similar discussion. May have led to an informal understanding rather than a formal treaty.

Philip declares war on Athens + the 4th Sacred War

Athens replies to the taking of Byzantion + Perinthos by rerouting a fleet under Chares to relieve the siege and dispatching a second fleet under Phokion to render assistance. Philip then declares war on Athens officially and seized a grain fleet waiting to enter the Bosporos and go to Athens. In 338, he finally marches South. At this time, a.4th Sacred War had been instigated by the illegal cultivation of the sacred plain below Delphi by men of Lokris, which gave Philip further excuse to go South. Ordered to lead an army against the Lokrians and elected leader of the Amphiktyonic forces, but this was never more than a pretext. Coming south to Thermopylae, he continued into he Kephisos valley and advanced unopposed all the way to Elateia, a city located in eastern Phokis, well beyond Thermopylae. This made two things clear: one, he had advanced further than Delphi and had no intention of going in that direction, and two, that there was no natural chokepoint between his army and Thebes or Athens for him to be stopped. To be stopped, Philip would have to be met on the open field of battle.

Who was Athens' lawgiver?

Athens turned to Drako in the 7th century BCE: wrote law on homicide which was rein scribed in stone in 409 BCE apparently: by 409 Athens had sophisticated procedures for dealing with many legal situations like impeachment of officials and land disputes, but here turning back to their lawgiver's arcane procedure, respect for antiquity Not only do we have the lawgiver but might also have the laws

Attalids vs Gauls

Attalids face the threat of invading Gauls in the 3rd century BCE: victory of Attalos I. Attalos I used victory to justify adoption of the title of king. Kingdom remained powerful until 133 bCE when last king Attalos III bequeaths Pergamon to Rome.

The Athenian Plague

Began ~430 BCE, during the second year of the war (Archidamnian War, first part of the PP War). Characterized by fever, inflamed eyes, swollen throat, foul breath, hoarseness, chest pain, harsh cough; then came bile, retching, spasms, ulcers, insatiable thirst, diarrhea, and in most cases, death. Skeletal studies reveal it was a form of typhoid. This led to not only physical damage but also a social breakdown, according to Thucydides: city was crammed inside the walls due to Periklean strategy, which led to chaos. The death of Perikles means a lot of people turned to Kleon who offered a more aggressive strategy more in line with the Athenian mindset: new level of bellicosity in PP Wars.

The Parthenon

Building that Began the beautification of Athens: housed gold and ivory statue designed by Pheidias. Work started in 448 BCE under Iktinos, building completed in a decade. Curvature of stylobate and entasis of columns (bulge at center) create a sense of softness/organic shape The temple is both highly conventional and radically original: illustrated by sculptural program. Temples had traditionally used a limited repertoire of imagery: battles of Humans v Centaurs, Greeks vs Amazons, Gods vs Giants, Heracles' deeds, Theseus's deeds, etc. Parthenon pulls in these stock images along with Trojan War scenes for metopes of the Doric frieze on the exterior, but body complements with continuous Ionic frieze 170 m long on cella (interior chamber) wall: showed procession of the Panathenaia. Image showing procession/presentation of robe, culminates at end of cella above entrance to chamber with the statue of Athena. For the first time, a major Greek temple was adorned with friezes of figures who are not gods, giants, heroes etc: idealized versions of very people visiting, from water bearers, musicians, herdsmen, etc. Radical depiction articulated Athenian ideology of democratic but also pious sacrificial community. Also radical statue: massive, ivory + gold, in full armor. Grand and imposing with snake aegis, holding Nike, a sign of military victory; would have been dynamic, we'll lit with windows on either side of the door and torch light

Peisistratid early temple to Athena

Built by Peisistratids in the middle of the Acropolis, displayed a cult statue of the goddess. Even after the Persian sack, a part of the temple, referred to as the Archaios Naos or Old Temple, still stood. **Author also mentions a group of pedimental sculptures from the mid 6th century BCE associated with the Hekatompedon but also says it stood where the Old Athena Temple later erected: is he saying both were built by the Peisistratids but just at different times?

Sanctuary to Brauronian Athena + Peisistratids

Built during Peisistratid dynasty: essentially duplicates the sanctuary to the same goddess in the traditional Peisistratid territory of Brauron

Protagoras

By late 5th century BCE, Protagoras asserts agnosticism. A sophist. "As to the gods, I do not know whether they exist or not.". Placed humans at the center of the cosmos: man is the measure of all thigns Represents a definite break from the certainties of religious convention. If the gods didn't exist, what made Athens a community?

Rome versus Carthage

By the end of the 2nd century BCE, Rome's expanding power brought it into conflict with other great imperial presence in the W. Med: Carthage. Come into conflict in Sicily, a contact zone midway between them. Rome is victorious in the 1st Punic War 264-246 BCE, led to the incorporation of Sicily into Roman territory, their first overseas province. In the 2nd Punic war (218-202) Hannibal inflicts crushing defeats at Cannae, Trasimene and Trebbia River but Romans ultimately defeat him at the Battle of Mama in 202. So now Romans turn to the Eastern Med...

The start of the Peloponnesian War (431-404)

By the time it broke out, Athenians had grown to rely on empire for grain and revenue due to increasing control in the Aegean over trade. When war finally broke out in 431, revenue and grain was strained/threatened. In addition, there were concerns regarding unpaid tribute in arrears: insufficient tribute coming in. It's little wonder the Athenians took measures to try to strengthen their grip on their allies. In 414, Athenians make two important choices: one was to cancel tribute altogether and replace this with a 5% tax on imports/exports.Second was to require every state within the Delian League to adopt Athenian weights and measures (also meant melting coins and reminting on Athenian standards)

Athenians' warfare in 5th century and high casualty rates

Changing Athenian War practices were coupled with tolerance for high casualty rates. E.g., in 459 BCE, the Eretchtheis tribe alone lost 177 men in campaigns in Egypt, Cyprus and Megara: if all 10 tribes had similar losses, possibly 1770 across Athena tribes. This example shows us that Athenians prepared to tolerate loss of 4-5% of all adult males of fighting age in a single year.

Pithoi

Clay vessels arranged inside the magazines of the palace at Knossos, indicating redistributive economy, storing oil/wine/grain. A large ceramic jar used for storage in bulk and associated in particular with the magazines of Minoan and Mycenaean palaces.

Cleruchies in the 450s-40s

Cleruchies resemble colonies in that they involve allocation of land in allied or foreign territory to Athenians, but the clerics retained Athenian citizenship and military obligations. Kind of like a mix between a colony and a garrison. **CONFUSION: ASK. Do Athenian colonists in regular colonies not also get to keep citizenship? Cleruchies were flourishing in this period: by putting Athenians in non-Athenian territory, cleruchies constituted an effective tool for imperial control of the Aegean: attested on Euboia, on Andros, and on Naxos in a period when Athens in danger of losing the Delian league: the longer after the Persian Wars, justifications of Athenians sound more and more hollow. Hegemonial power of Athenians becoming increasingly onerous. Inserting Athenian presence in some ways helped to pacify states but in other ways created a new strain altogether: drops in tribute in states where cleruchies were received indicates that states had trouble paying their previous commitments once the Athenians came in. Likely that the best land went to the Athenians E.g., Andros before cleruchy paid 12 talents: but in 449, this drops to 6 and stays that low for years after.

The Rise of Monumental temples in the Iron Age: case study of Prinias

Closely linked with the increase in urban agglomeration in the Iron Age. E.g., Prinias in Crete: in the 8th century the site is characterized by a regularly laid out city plan with city blocks divided by streets. At the same site in the 7th century BCE, notable for two buildings usually identified as temples. Both exhibit strong Near eastern and Egyptian influences and mark the return of monumental stone buildings to the repertoire of Greek architecture. Temple A at Prinias features a sitting figure on a lintel wearing the polos headdress (typical of NE goddesses). There is also a relief of panthers that reflects the influence of North Syrian temple reliefs. The site is abandoned in the 6th century BCE and thus shows the typical features of an Early Archaic community and external influences. *ASK: Can archaic and iron age be used interchangeably? (I think archaic is ~800-480) Or does this refer to the archaic period known from pottery?*

The introduction of coinage in the Archaic Period

Coins seem to have been first minted in Anatolia in the 6th century BCE, made of electrum (an alloy of silver and gold). This allowed trade to bypass bartering: bartering hard to conduct efficiently especially when value of goods to be traded was established differently amongst parties. Also allowed traders to negotiate without rendering equivalent in wine, metal, etc. Greek accounts suggest that a Greek, Pheidon of Argos, introduced coinage by cutting iron spits into pieces, leading small denominations of Greek coins to be called obol, fro the word for a spit. But a bunch of called a drachma (a handful).

Colonies: Euboian Revolt

Colonies became a means for Athens to assert control over members of the league. E.g., in 446 BCE when Athens campaigned in Boiotia, they captured and enslaved the entire population of the city of Chaironeia, but were subsequently defeated by a Boiotian army at the Battle of Koroneia: this defeat sparked unrest amongst Athenian allies, and the Euboians go into revolt. Perikles led a major Athenian expedition to the island to suppress the rebellion: the city of Histiaia is sacked, population enslaved, land given to Athenian colonists.

Greek comedy

Comic plays also staged at the Dionysia and Lenaia in competitions. Comedy explored prevailing habits and attitudes, satirized foolishness and tested tolerance (more true of Old Comedy), while tragedy explores deepest/darkest passions. Plays of 5th century are collectively called Old Comedy, versus milder plays of 4th century BCE, like romantic comedies of Menander Comedy was a thoroughly democratic genre: plays ridicule politicians and use contemporary events like the Peloponnesian War: e.g., Lysistrata: women go on sex strike to force men to make peace. A public space, plays experienced by all communally where one goes to listen to a speaker: like jurors, vote on performance; also resembles social dynamic of a democratic assembly Aristophanes (Old Comedy) uses absurd plots/invents own words/also frequently features farting and mast*rbation

Solon's weights and measures (second archonship)

Compels Athenians to adopt Euboian weights and measures in order to increase prosperity through trade. The system was widely used around the Aegean.

Internally, wealth, status, competition and rivalry (aristocratic and between communities) became more prevalent, but communities responded to these developments in different ways. How did Corinth respond?

Corinth, for example, profits from its location by the narrow isthmus that separates the Saronic Gulf from the Corinthian Gulf, also possesses a well-fortified acropolis high above the city (the Acrocorinth), had two separate harbors (Kenchreai for managing trade to east and Lechaion for managing trade to the west). Grew wealthy as an emporium between Italy and Sicily on one hand and E. Med on other.

Xerxes' invasion of Greece

Darius died before exacting revenge on Athenians but Xerxes immediately sets about planning a massive invasion to dwarf Darius's attempt at Marathon. ~483, Xerxes begins amassing a vast army in Western Anatolia drawn from around the empire. ~480: Greece starts hearing reports of an army assembling in the satrapies of W Asia Minor (provinces of Persian empire: satrapies). In the same year, army crossed the strait of Bosporos from Asia into Europe on a boat bridge, Herodotus estimates 5 million men but writing more than a generation later and could be exaggerating. Herodotus writes that Xerxes even at one point wanted to call it off but in a dream was told he had to attack, as if willed by the gods that Persians had to be defeated. Stories written by Herodotus are written after he knows, obviously, that the Greeks will ultimately win. Could be influenced by bias of Persian hubris/overconfidence. Greeks believe power means nothing if not restrained by humility and piety and use this to interpret their miraculous deliverance as evidence that the defeat of the Persians was divinely ordained.

Current understandings of Troy post 1988: Korfmann

Debate has grown: Manfred Korfmann, a German excavator, claimed to have proof that Troy VI and VII were 10x bigger than previously thought, which would make it one of the largest trade emporia of the LBA. Korfmann also says that Troy was closer to the coast in antiquity and therefore would have profitted from the trade between the Black Sea and Aegean.

What does Isokrates propose as a solution to Greek's perennial warfare?

Declaring war on Persia: Isokrates was a 4th century BCE rhetor and public intellectual. Greeks prisoner to their own history: sees this as a way to unify.

Foundation story of Demeter's sanctuary at Eleusis

Demeter was wandering after abduction of Persephone: received by Metaneira and Triptolemos, the wife and son of Eleusian king. In reward for their generosity, Demeter rewarded Triptolemos with the secrets of agriculture.

obol

Derived from the Greek word for a spit ("obelos"), an obol was a coin worth one-sixth of a drachma.

Brasidas and the Spartan efforts after the Sphakteria defeat: Peace Treaty of 423 BCE

Despite defeat, Spartans keep at it for 4 years, knew they couldn't make peace without significant victories. Entrusted their principal effort to commander Brasidas who began a systematic assault on Athenian holdings in Thrace. Managed to capture Torone and Amphipolis as well as a string of smaller towns. So successful that the Spartans were able to negotiate a 1 year truce in 423 BCE; Spartans had hoped the pause would encourage the Athenians towards a longer treaty... alas not

Minoan religion

Despite its connections with the Near East, Crete has a unique religious character. No temples to the gods or gods' houses. Gold rings frequently show figures hovering in the air, possibly representing an epiphany or arrival of divine spirit. There has been speculation that female figurines crowned with poppies are a sign of opiates in religious practice, but we don't know much. Snake "goddess" faience figurines of women in Minoan skirts with snakes wrapped around arms also commonly found: unclear meaning. Ancestor worship? Nobody could really say. However, one thing is certain: feasting was important in both funerary and religious contexts.

So, then what WAS the end of Minoan culture?

Destruction horizon ~1450 BCE, but likely spread over 50 or so years. A generation or more of civil strife, leads to people flocking to hills, phenomenon only increases ~1200-1100 BCE. Most palaces cease to function at this horizon over a generation or more. No doubt spurred by Mycenaeans (we find Linear B on Crete at Knossos). But was it an invasion? An active process of Mycenaeanization by new overlords at Knossos? REFER TO OTHER READINGS BY BENNET. "Eruption did not directly cause destruction of palatial + sub palatial sites on Crete because they happened 50-100 years later minimum. Nevertheless, surely affected agriculture and settlement in short term, trade routes between Crete and metal sources in Attica in medium term, and probably popular confidence in rulers/divine sanction."

Dionysus's connection to plays

Dionysus was a god associated with transgression; the Great Dionysia, a festival that celebrated normative roles of men and women in society, was one festival where theater was performed for Greeks. By purging most antisocial and dangerous drives in us, the palys of the Dionysia offer the audience the prospect of a truly communitarian experience. Dionysus stands for what makes us the crudest but also what makes us orderly and capable of civilized behavior. Plays allow us to explore transgressions and human passions which threaten order E.g., Euripides' Medea, Sophocles' Oedipus

Cosmology and ordinary Greeks

Discussions of cosmology in writings of Xenophanes, Protagoras, Plato: these were products of the literary elite. It is not at all clear that ordinary Greeks shared these ideas.

Role of the Boule post 461

Drew up the agenda for the assembly (Ekklesia), reviewed the suitability of elected officials (dokimasia), scrutinized accounts of outgoing magistrates (euthyna). Also oversaw construction of public buildings/maintenance, fleet readiness (tackle, timber, sail, upkeep of triremes, commissioning of new ships). All leases, taxes and revenues that came into state coffers handled by specific boards of officials but all also answer to the Boule. Even conducted a review of horses owned by the state. Council's supervision extended to basically eery corner of the civic life, on call 24 hours a day 7 days a week. on any given day there were 50 serving councillors (prytaneis) on hand, every hour of the day for the month of service. They lived, slept, dined in the Tholos (a round building on the W. side of the agora).

Hoplite Revolution

During 6th century BCE, face of warfare starting to change: less one on one as in Homeric poems, turning to more hoplite engagements: men armed head to toe in bronze/iron. Called hoplites for the hoplon shield. Hoplites fought in formations called the phalanx. The shield of your neighbor offered protection to one's vulnerable side. Could deepen phalanx to hit enemy like a battering ram, or lengthen it to try to outflank the enemy line and come up on the sides. This kind of fighting encouraged an egalitarian ethos and a sense of dependence on other men, typically from the middle ranks of society above the Thetes but below the cavalry. Becomes the preferred formation for infantry warfare. BUT it is easy to exaggerate the innovation of hoplite warfare: may have been an evolution of pre-existing strategies, e.g., in Homer, some references to men fighting in compact ranks.

Mystes

Each mystes (initiate) was supposed to experience the appearance of the goddess Demeter (an epiphany) at the culmination of a ceremony held at night. Purified by fasting and possibly under influence of a hallucinogenic drug, initiation involved drinking kykeon, a mixture that may have include the fungus ergot. Initiates were primed to undergo epiphany. Cult also offered initiates the prospect of a happy afterlife by freeing their fear from death. Eleusis increased in prestige with each generation; Athens so eager to control the sanctuary, build a counterpart at Athens, the Eleusinion.

Achaemenid expansion and rulers after the death of Cyrus

Each of the Achaemenid rulers sought to add to conquered lands. Cambyses II spent much of his reign from 530-522 campaigning to subjugate Egypt, and Darius followed a similar policy annexing territory to the east in modern day Pakistan and to west in Libya. In 513 he also took an army into Europe and to the Danube River which he crossed by means of a bridge of boats. No lasting territorial acquisitions in this attempt but by 500 BCE Persian territorial control had reached the coast of the Aegean. In Greek cities on the mainland from Athens to Thebes, Corinth and Sparta: likely knew it was a matter of time before Persians came for them.

Rise of the rowing trireme as a reflection of democratic egalitarianism

Each trireme needed a complement of 150 men: the fleet employed a minimum of 13500 rowers throughout the sailing season. Many were citizens from the lowest class of Thetes, but slaves also deployed. collective working side by side: egalitarian ethos; but also working alongside people across all classes, between boatswains, petty officers, shipwrights, carpenters sail-makers and also magistrates being moved between Athens and across Aegean

What was the significance of Solons' new 4 classes/census?

Eligibility for the year-long eponymous archonship was limited to the top two census classes, although all classes were permitted to attend the popular assembly. Aristocratic privilege thus lightly mitigated: birth not the sole or major criterion for access to office. Or was it created in order to exclude lower classes? Really no way to know but we do know that he established a set of arrangements that made political life more predictable and orderly. (Second archonship 592-1)

Religious Tolerance amongst the Achaemenids

Empire created by Cyrus covered vast amount of territory (and therefore religions) but Achaemenid kings responded with flexible policies. For most part, religious practices were tolerated. Administration of conquered areas put in the hands of provincial governors (Satraps) usually drawn from the Achaemenid clan who could be expected to be loyal and were required to follow the dynasty's policies of religious tolerance. Cyrus was remembered in the Hebrew Bible as the liberator of the Jews in exile in Babylon; ordered that the Temple in Jerusalem be rebuilt from the royal treasuries/returned looted items taken by Nebuchadnezzar. Also expresses anger about a satrap's disrespect of a sanctuary for Apollo

The Arkadian League

Epaminondas perseuades Tegea and Maniteia in Arkadia to cooperate in founding a new city: Megalopolis, as the center of a new Arkadian League. Both had suffered previously from Sparta's aggression and were prepared to cooperate with Epaminondas. As with the Boiotian confederation, the Arkadian League would not replace the cities of Arkadia but represented another level of political affiliation designed to unify and strengthen the region Also served to contain Sparta on its borders, as with Messene. Megalopolis is not just a city, but a federal state (koinon, pl koina): federations not new but resurge in the 4th century.

Overall summary of Solonian reforms in 2nd archonship

Euboian weights and measures; citizenship to craftspeople from abroad; banning of export of grain; establishment of the Council of 400; establishes 4 classes/census; funerary laws; possibly Solonian laws safeguarding care of weak and disadvantaged; laws against tyranny; legislative ban on neutrality? Overall, the reforms don't seem to favor a traditional antagonist or any particular interest group. Underlying tendency seems to be a propensity for moderation and consistency: making governmental / economic activities as orderly, rational, and predictable as possible.

Dikili Tash

Evidence of prehistory of Greece, in North Greece. French excavate a tell (hill) occupied in Neolithic from ~6400 BCE to 4000 BCE continuously and again in the Bronze Age ~3300-1200 BCE.

Peisistratos' association w/the Agora

Example of capital works to enhance infrastructure and create jobs. Peisistratos embarked on a building project in Athens. For instance, the agora, for the first time was clearly articulated as a public space. Boundaries of agora now indicated by stelai known as "horos" inscriptions: previously the area had just been used for burials and private habitation): now set apart for public space at the heart of Athenian life. Also began work on the Temple of Olympian Zeus (although work not completed under the Peisistratid dynasty but rather revitalized under Hadrian) on the S side of the Acropolis and constructed an outdoor shrine in the NW corner of the agora for the twelve gods. Also built a fountain house in the SE corner of the agora (the Enneakrounos), supplying the area with a reliable source of water. Other buildings can be attributed to the Peisistratids as well on the agora: sanctuary to Brauronian Artemis, an early temple to Athena: proof of dramatic transformation of Acropolis under Peisistratos and sons

The Battle of the Lelantine Plain

Expresses clearly the tensions of the age in the Archaic period. On Euboia, where commerce flourished and the early cities of Chalkis and Eretria profited from trade around the Aegean and beyond, increasing prosperity also fueled competition between neighboring communities. The Battle of the Lelantine Plain, named for the fertile plain between Chalkis and Eretria was fought between the two cities in the 8th or 7th centuires BCE: was long remembered as one of the epochal events of the Archaic Age. The reason for war was, according to tradition, the struggle for the fertile Lelantine Plain on the island of Euboea. Due to the economic importance of the two participating poleis, the conflict spread considerably, with many further city states joining either side, resulting in much of Greece being at war. The historian Thucydides describes the Lelantine War as exceptional, the only war in Greece between the mythical Trojan War and the Persian Wars of the early 5th century BC in which allied cities rather than single ones were involved. Chalkis is likely victor. For much of the next 400 years, the history of Greek interstate relations would be indistinguishable from a continuous series of wars fought between neighboring cities, regions and alliances.

Mycenaean Linear B "Collectors" and "Owners"

Figures who are controversial amongst scholars. Listed in connection with land, sheep, olive oil production and slaves. Extraordinary scale of ownership: numbers of sheep in tens of thousands for isntance. Unclear social position, though: perhaps part of palace elite from families close to center of power, controlling economy as producers/traders? Suggests that authority of palace relies on cooperation from middle men. As a whole, Linear B evidence reveals a surprisingly complex and sophisticated society with many social strata and with economic activity occurring on a scale that far exceeds relatively modest palaces and halls described by Homer.

Athens vs Eion

First target of the Delian League in cleansing the Aegean of Persian presence, but also acting on Athenian interests. 476 BCE. Site of Persian garrison at Eion on Strymon River in N. Greece: expulsion of Persians was needed, but not clear motive for enslaving the entire population. BUT, the seizure of Eion did give Athenians access to timber for ship-building as well as gold and silver of Mt. Pangaion.... hm.... Later try to colonize the area 10 years later, and send 10k colonists to nearby Ennea Hodoi around 465 BC: within a short period however these colonists were massacred by the local tribe of the Edonians who saw Athenian presence as hostile. The Athenian presence in the vicinity of the Strymon River was also viewed with apprehension by the people of Thasos, a Greek island a member of the Delain League that controlled much of the Thracian mainland opposite the island.

The Mycenaean megaron

Focal point of Mycenaean citadels. Had a tripartite structure with a forecourt leading to antechamber and on into the main room where there was a central hearth surrounded by 4 columns carrying roof with a throne in the main room. E.g., we see megarons at Thebes, Gla in Central Greece, and at Mycenae E.g., at Mycenae, we see the megaron surrounded below by houses, religious buildings, and areas for manufacture of goods; entire hilltop surrounded by a fortification wall built c. 1250 BCE.

The Olympics

Founded 776 BCE by Heracles according to tradition. Same period of intense contact w/non-Greeks also witnessed an impulse towards asserting Greek identity. E.g., Olympics. Key institution for 1,000 years in determining inclusion within the community of Greeks. Games were held every 4 years in an open area at the foot of Kronos Hill adjacent to sanctuary of Zeus at Olympia. The sanctuary was in a region of W Greece far enough away from direct control of any major power, contributing to success of the Olympics. Spartans originally dominated in early years in athletic events, did not seek to take control of the sanctuary. Instead Olympia emerges as a panhellenic sanctuary, one of few places where Greeks from anywhere can mix together.Panhellenic sanctuaries critical for shaping and emergence of Greek identity. Throughout most of history, under the administrative control of Elis, the state that lies to the N of the site although for a brief period in the 4th century the nearer state of Pisa seized control of the sanctuary

Athenian diplomacy in response to Spartan hegemony

From 384-379, Athenians negotiate alliances with Chios and Byzantium, cities and islands that were key allies of Delian League. Make treaties in accordance with the terms of the King's Peace and guarantee freedom and autonomy of allied states. Almost a complete inversion of 5th century Athens bc Athenians are doing cautious diplomacy versus aggressive Spartan hegemony. Leads to tensions and unsuccessful raid by the Spartans on Piraeus in 378, led by Sphodrias: after this, Athens opens alliance to all in 377, issue a general invitation to all Greek states to join an alliance: the so-called Decree of Aristoteles. Recorded on a stele at Athens, emphasizing freedom + autonomy Very different from Delian League: agree in Decree that alliance will NOT have tributes or garrisons, and allied states had their own assembly to balance their voice with Athens: much less exploitative.

The Rise of Mycenaean culture

From middle of 2nd millennium BCE onwards, Mycenaeans develop a complex society that controlled much of southern + central Greece. Citadels built in C. Greece at Thebes and Gla, and Argolid had power centers at Mycenae, Tiryns, and Midea. At Messenia in W Greece as well: remains of another palace complex.

Brief interlude to time periods of pottery!

Geometric Period: ~900-700 BCE with protogeometric 1050-875. Orientalizing Period of Greek pottery: runs from 700-600 BCE. Archaic Period of Greek pottery: 700/650-480 BCE Classical Period: 480-323 BCE

harmosts

Governors installed by the Spartan Lysander in cities taken over from the Athenians after the Peloponnesian War. They typically commanded garrisons.

basileis

Greek word for king, which ultimately derives from a Mycenaean title referring to minor local officials. During the early Iron Age, the term was applied to the ruling elite of burgeoning communities, and by end of Archaic period, it was often applied to religious officials of the polis as was the case with the Archon Basileus at Athens.

Nostoi

Greek word for stories of "homecoming" after the Trojan War. Stories that tell of return of heroes from Troy, but are tales of shipwreck, betrayal, and death. For instance, Agamemnon, killed by Klytaimnestra. So, even if epic poems express an elite ideology suitable for princes claiming descent from homeric heroes, also reflects dissatisfaction of rule of kings. Iron Age concerns over power and authority

Who succeeds Darius after his death in 486 BCE?

His son, Xerxes

Hisarlik mound in Turkey

Had been partially explored by British Frank Culvert but Schliemann had the resources to really excavate. In 1872-3, with an army of laborers, uncovered a series of layers including Roman, Classical, and Bronze age levels which he named the layers of Troy. "Priam's treasure": a copper shield, copper cauldron with handles, a silver vase holding 2 gold diadems, 8,750 gold rings, 6 gold bracelets, gold goblets, 2 gold cups, a copper vase, silver cups, copper axes, copper spearheads, etc.

Thebes vs Philip

Having heard Philip took Elateia, Demosthenes suggests that Athens join forces with old enemies, the Thebans. In August of 338, the two armies met near the village of Chaironeia: but both Athenians and Thebans destroyed. 1,000 Athenians killed, and Thebans routed: the Sacred Band (elite Theban regiment) died and was buried beneath the Lion of Chaironeia.

Philip and Byzantion + Perinthos

He bides his time in attacking Athens though. Instead, shifts his attentions north and west, campaigning for several years as far north as the Danube and founding cities in the region. In the west, consolidated power by attacking the few cities that still held out against him. To East, he laid siege to cities of Perinthos and Byzantion, threatening to cut off Athen's grain supply. Athens replies by rerouting a fleet under Chares to relieve the siege and dispatching a second fleet under Phokion to render assistance. Philip then declares war on Athens officially and seized a grain fleet waiting to enter the Bosporos and go to Athens. In 338, he finally marches South.

hoplites

Heavily armed infantrymen who drew their name from the large circular shield (hoplon) that they carried. Hoplites fought in a close formation (phalanx) which encouraged the development of an egalitarian ethos among those wealthy enough to afford their own equipment.

Heinrich Schliemann (1822-1890)

Heinrich Schliemann is to the Bronze Age Aegean as Arthur Evans is to Bronze Age Crete. Worked at both Troy (Hisarlik) and Mycenae. Was accused of falsification, theft, manufacturing archaeological material. However, changed our understandings of Homer's Troy from fiction to a possible reality. Excavated Hisarlik in 1872-3, using the Iliad as a guidebook to the topography of the heroic world. BUT: Frequently faked records and embellished accounts of work to promote himself.

How do Herodotus and Thucydides reflect shifts away from conventional belief (e.g., Sophists)?

Herodotus writing in the 5th century was the first historian to offer a sustained inquiry into he causes of a major war from the recent past. His work is detailed and comprehensive, and has gods playing major role in the work: e.g., explains storms sent by gods to destroy the fleet of Xerxes for his hubris and make Greek + Persian numbers more even: they had activated heaven's retribution (nemesis) But Thucydides was different: a record of Peloponnesian War, but said work would be a record of the war. Rejected Herodotus's style of storytelling: said it may be less pleasurable because it lacked legendary and fabulous; human nature may mean similar things: occur in future and therefore this man element was called "the human thing" (to anthropion)

Athenians in the course of 5th century

Historians have often debated whether or when the Athenians became harsher in their treatment of the Allies of the Delian League over the course of the 5th century, but the pattern of Athenian rule was apparent from the start. Seizure and massacre are the vocabulary of empire, and Athenians spoke this from the very beginning (e.g., Eion). Even in its first decade of existence, Delian League was little more than an instrument of Athenian policy. By the time of the battle of Eurymedon, fought sometime between 467-5 BCE (when Kimon destroyed a Persian fleet of 200 triremes) the Delian League had transformed itself into an Athenian naval empire.

Recap: factors to consider about Athena warfare pre-Peloponnesian War

Hoplite revolution, high tolerance for casualties, high rates of military engagements, strength of navy that brought about reorientation of military operations after the Persian Wars. Naval warfare especially egalitarian: rower needs nothing but hands and oars, shifted class basis of military forces in favor of lower classes. Lower class brotherhood of the trireme vs the egalitarian middle class hoplites: broadly, a shift away from heroic, Homeric, land-based single combat.

In the first 20 years after the Persian Wars, the Athenians had projected their power across the Aegean and had vigorously prosecuted the Persians. They had eradicated Persian influence from the Aegean and had established mechanisms of empire. but by mid-450's, Athenians faced a different political landscape abroad in which Persia was no longer an immediate threat. Where does this put the Delian League?

If Persia was no longer an immediate threat, Sparta no longer an ally. Thebes and Megara also don't love Athens and are closer neighbors. Also, resistance was on the rise: Egyptian disaster had cost Athenians dearly in both men and ships-- in the aftermath of the Egyptian failure, the treasury of the Delian League was moved off of the island of Delos to Athens. This was a necessary precaution because in the aftermath of this disaster, revolts were breaking out in allied states such as Miletos and Erythrai, which the Athenians suppressed.

How did Peisistratos establish himself as tyrant? (First attempt)

In 561, a regional clan leader from E. Attica tries to establish himself as a tyrant at Athens. Herodotus maintains that at the time theree was strife between factions: men of coast led by Megakles and men of the plain led by Lykourgos (not that one). Peisistratos forms a 3rd faction and tore clothes and entered the agora, claiming rivals attacked him. Asked Athenians to authorize the formation of a bodyguard of club-bearers who he used to establish himself as tyrant. Expelled later by the combined forces of his opponents, though.

Early colonization in 8th century BCE

In 8th century BCE we see rise of first trade emporia/posts. Evidenced by Corinth. Colonies were dispatched from Corinth led by Archias to Syracuse in Sicily and by Cheriscrates to Corcyra, modern Corfu. Both colonial families were from the same artistocratic family, the Bacchiads, reflects the oligarchic control of the emerging city.

Early Iron Age houses

In Early Iron Age communities, simple apsidal houses are typical. Often consist of a single room. Nichoria and Eretria but also at old Smyrna on other side of Aegean. In other locations like Athens, Argos and Corinth, multiple hamlets appear to have existed in close proximity to each other and point to competing clans, each dominated by a chieftan. Most scholars would see this as a society comprised of a warrior elite controlling larger numbers of dependent farmers. Not by coincidence, weapons and warrior figurines commonplace in this period.

Archons

In addition to the Ekklesia, the democratic system also depended on various boards of magistrates to supervise the affairs of the city. Most important magistrates are the three archons, literally the three "rulers" of Athens. One was in charge of the army: the Polemarch or War Archon. A second was the chief priest of Athens and conducted sacrifices on behalf of the community: Basileus, or King Archon. A third and most important was the head of the state for one year of office: the year was named for him, referred to as the eponymous archon. Athenians modified the way archons were chosen as early as 487 BCE: before this, only men from the top two classes of Solon's census ratings were eligible and were elected to office. After 487 however, rather than standing for popular election, candidates submitted names to a list of eligible candidates, from which the winners were chosen by random selection (klerosis ek prokriton). Then in 458-7: The archonship was then opened up to men from the third rank of Solon's four classes (the Zeugitai), making the archonship more egalitarian and democratic. No longer the pinnacle of an aristocrat's public career, now available to a great many ordinary Athenians.

General contrast of Athens vs Sparta in Archaic Period

In contrast to Sparta's suppression of dissent/rigid hierarchical system, Athens responded to the Archaic criss not by emphasizing exclusion and hierarchy but by creating an open an inclusive society: but road to this was tricky. The state experienced a prolonged period of crisis until Solon c. 640-560 BCE began the process of constitutional and legislative reform in the early 6th century BCE, but even so civic instability returned after his departure and dominated by tyrants for more than 40 years (Peisistratos and sons). However, Peisistratos ruled mildly + oversaw period of prosperous growth and subsequently quelled the aristocratic rivalry that had threatened society. After tyranny ends Kleisthenes is elected which allows them to avoid a return to civil unrest: institutes a systematic constitutional reform that remained basis of Athenian democracy for hundreds of year

Alexander as Zeus Ammon: iconography

In imagery, Alexander appropriated the god's ram's horns, advertising his connection to Zeus Ammon as divine father explicitly.

Why did tyrants become prevalent in the Archaic period?

In many places kingship was abolished but in many communities tyrants emerged to counteract effects of destructive aristocratic rivalry

What did military training in other Greek states look like?

In most Greek states, young men underwent military training during late adolescence that was designed to prepare them for taking their place in hoplite phalanx of citizen warriors. Such youths known as ephebes and term of service might involve specialized training and particular service: e.g., at Athens, served as border guards for two years after training.

The Peace of Nikias

In spring of 421, after 10 years of war, 2 sides signed a 50 year treaty. Named after a conservative aristocratic general who emerged in the eyes after Perikles' death as a leading advocate of peace. Treaty terms included the return of contested territories, but Spartans refused to give back Amphipolis and Athens wouldn't give back Pylos.

Rise of commanders' influence, illustrated by Pompey's background

In the 2nd century BCE, Greek east was persistent problem, but the rise of power of commanders and their influence threatened the republican nature of Rome. Pompey illustrates this: he campaigned for 3 years in the Greek east, then presented the Senate in 64 BCE with 480 million sesterces and a redrawn map fo the east which would have brought in 340 million sesterces in annual revenue, doubling taxes of the Roman state. The Senate explicitly rejects this settlement (known as the eastern acta) because they don't want to ratify accomplishments of one man and acknowledge his status.

Symmories

In the 4th century BCE, individual trierarchs replaced by a board of men who shared costs: 1200 men in 20 symmories of 60 each. In fourth-century-BC Athens, twenty boards of sixty men, each called symmories, were instituted to share the burdens of financing a trireme, an important liturgy.

Athenian synoecism in the 7th century and 6th century BCE

In the 7th and 6th centuries BCE, the city changed from a series of hamlets and villages scattered around the south side of the Acropolis to become a more unified urban agglomeration. Athenians attribute this synoecism to Theseus, envisioned as a semi-mythical founder figure

Iron Age Interest in Tying to The Past

In the 9th and 8th centuries BCE, it became common for people to reuse old burial sites and tombs or to venerate the original occupants with dedications in much later periods. E.g., the Menidhi tomb in Attica: the first burial is c. 1400 BCE and is richly adorned with jewelry, weapons, and an ivory lyre, but burial chamber intact in antiquity. The dromos leading to the tholos held pottery in a continuous sequence from the Iron Age to the Classical Period. Tombs were the physical evidence of a heroic past.

klerosis ek prokritôn

In the Athenian Democracy, from 487 BC archons were randomly selected from a list of candidates, a process described as klerosis ek prokritôn.

Poletai

In the Athenian democracy, officers responsible for public auctions of confiscated goods.

Sitophylakes

In the Athenian democracy, officials in charge of monitoring the grain supply to prevent price-fixing.

The Boule

In the day to day running of the state, the most important institution of Athenian democracy was the Boule, the Council of 500 established by Kleisthenes. Shifted over the course of its history: originally was comprised of 10 tribal continents of 50 men per tribe but in various occasions in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods, the Council grew or shrank as the Athenians added to or subtracted tribes from the original ten, and adjusted the size of the Council accordingly. However, from inception in 508 BCE under Kleisthenes and for 200 years thereafter, it remained a council of 500: a high degree of administrative stability In the early 5th century BCE, the Council met on the West side of the Agora at the Bouleuterion , but later in the hall built behind it, the New Bouleuterion Members of the council of 500 were appointed by lot and each deme within a trittys and tribe was allocated a fixed number of candidates it supplied each year, and from this pool, the tribe would then select by lot 50 councillors to serve as its tribal continent for the year. Because there were 10 tribes, and contingents of 50: 500. The 50 members from a single tribe were known as the prytaneis. Each of the ten prytaneis served for 1 month of the 10 in a year. Once someone was selected as a councillor, they were not eligible for selection again for at least ten years: in practice, the vast majority of Athenian men must have served as councillors at least one time in their lives. ROLE (post 461): drew up the agenda for the assembly (Ekklesia), reviewed the suitability of elected officials, scrutinized accounts of outgoing magistrates (euthyna). Also oversaw construction of public buildings/maintenance, fleet readiness (tackle, timber, sail, upkeep of triremes, commissioning of new ships). All leases, taxes and revenues that came into state coffers handled by specific boards of officials but all also answer to the Boule.

Bacchiads of Corinth

In the early part of the Archaic period, Corinth was firmly under the control of a single aristocratic family, the Bacchiads. The Bacchiads supplied first kings, then later magistrates, as well as colonial leaders founding new colonies. However, in the middle of the 7th century BCE, a single unelected ruler Kypselos seized power and ruled as tyrant.

What are the differences between Athenians and Spartans pre-Peloponnesian War in the 5th century?

In the late 430s BCE, the Athenian navy was projecting Athenian power into each corner of the Aegean. The relentless growth, exaction of forced tribute, and suppression of rebellion scared and alienated many of the island states of the Aegean and contributed to the emergence of a land-based coalition of states in the Peloponnese as a counterweight to the power of Athens. Sparta and Athens are polar opposites on each side of this: Sparta speaks Dorian Greek and differs from Ionian Greek of the Athenians, exercise hegemony by land via a professional army of Spartiate warriors vs sea; Spartans also restrict full citizenship to Spartiate elite and Athenian democracy of 5th century by contrast extended participation in the Assembly to every male citizen. Sparta doesn't really have an interest in territorial expansion beyond Lakonia and Messenia and Athenians love to seize territory, sending out colonies and cleruchies. Sparta also not a big fan of coinage while Athenians love their owls; becomes currency of the Aegean.

Kypselos

In the middle of the 7th century BCE, a single unelected ruler Kypselos seized power and ruled as tyrant. This pattern was repeated across many parts of Greece where tyrants used the social and political tensions of the age as opportunities to take control of their communities. Tyrants not necessarily negative: recent scholarship points to a more nuanced approach. Many tyrants acted as lawgivers and their rule often relatively benign. In some cases (as is the case of Athens to be discussed later), tyranny put an end to regional factionalism by providing a generation or more of stability: freedom from political upheaval and increasing economic prosperity. BUT Their presence speaks to political upheavals and tensions across Greece in the Archaic period.

Contexts of shaft graves in Grave Circle A

Inside the shaft graves, over 33 lbs (15 kg) of gold found in shaft graves. Shafts contain multiple burials, repeatedly reused. Burial goods suggest a warrior status: many buried with daggers, sometimes made of bronze with gold or silver inlay, using niello to create black highlight, probably learned from Egypt (substance combining copper, silver and lead sulphite to create black highlight). Blades are sometimes decorated with men in lion hunts, carrying figure 8 shields (a popular motif of Mycenaean wall painting) or tower shields (head to toes, recalls Homer's description of Ajax's shield)

Philip and Athens: pre-Chaironeia

Instead of continuing his march south, he continued expanding in the Northern Aegean as far as the Hellespont, and in 348 sacked Olynthos, which was in the Athenian alliance. Athenians now growing increasingly alarmed, city of Olynthos abandoned and Philip enslaved inhabitants. Then he turns back to Central Greece. This instance makes it clear that Athenians were shook and would be open to peace. At the same time, the 3rd Sacred War was still technically unfolding with annual skirmishes between the Phokians and Thebans. Philip moves an army South in 347 and Athenians been negotiations of peace to keep him from marching further. Athenians eventually obtain a treaty, the Peace of Philokrates, but basically useless. Philip also negotiates with mercenaries at Thermopylae's garrison and takes it. He bides his time in attacking Athens though. Instead, shifts his attentions north and west, campaigning for several years as far north as the Danube and founding cities in the region. In the west, consolidated power by attacking the few cities that still held out against him. To East, he laid siege to cities of Perinthos and Byzantion, threatening to cut off Athen's grain supply.

Polis religion

Institutions and mechanisms that provided the glue that kept Athens together: a system of beliefs and practices often referred to as polis religion. A religion that bound the city together as a community: the polis in turn shaped Greek religion. Religious ritual exerted a strong normative influence over the Greeks, offering them ways to behave that confirmed their piety and pleased the gods, while religious actions also reinforced the cohesion of polis society.

Anaximenes

Ionian Pre-Socratic philosopher. Postulated that air was the basic substance of the cosmos and that air differenced in essence and in accordance with its rarity or density. When air is thinned, it becomes fire, and when it is condensed, becomes wind and then cloud. When condensed more, becomes water, then earth, then stone.

Thales

Ionian Presocratic philosopher. A succession of thinkers began with with the basic constituent matters of the universe (e.g., Anaximander, Anaximenes, Herakleitos). For Thales, solution was water. Asserted that the earth floated on a bed of water: previously, the traditionally Greek notion was that the earth was surrounded by Okeanos versus sitting on it. Also said living beings came into being from sun evaporating moisture and that all living beings were related

The Greek colonization debate

Is this idea of a metropolis sending an expedition authorized by a charter from Delphi + led by a colonial founder a retrojection from later times as communities sought to gain legitimacy by telling foundation stories? Myth and history are hard to untangle.

What happens when Kleon takes over as commander of the Sphakteria campaign?

Kleon promised to capture Spartans within 20 days or kill them on the spot: actually succeeded. 420 Spartan hoplites had been sent to Sphakteria and 292 surrendered and sent to Athens: 120 of the surrendered were Spartiates. The loss of 120 Spartiates was a calamity. Showed Athenians could extend their power far into Peloponnese.

Which camp are most archaeologists in: Kolb or Korfmann?

Korfmann: They also note that features he found like ditches and fortifications around the lower city are consistent with major defensive works to impede chariots

Korphos-Kalamianos

Korphos-Kalamianos: A recently excavated Mycenaean site that has added to our understanding of the Late Bronze Age. On Saronic Gulf. Indicates that Mycenaean settlements were not always organized around palaces and citadels. Has a harbor and a town, defended by wall: 60 buildings and 120 rooms have been identified by UPenn. Outside of the town was a smaller settlement with terrace walls and fortified enclosures: possibly associated with pastoral resources.

kleroi and plethra: land division

Land in Greek colonies would be divided into lots (kleroi) by plethra (plethrai are 97-100 Greek feet). Kleroi: Lots of land assigned to colonists. Plethra: Units of measurement equivalent to 100 feet in length or 900 meters square. Used to describe plots of land assigned to colonists, e.g., at Corcyra Melaina.

Lefkandi / Lefkandi Heroon

Lefkandi. An Early Iron Age site on the island of Euboia, the largest 10th century (1000-900 BCE) building excavated in Greece is located here: a heroon, an example of the type of long hall described in Homer e.g., Menelaus's royal building. Evidence of big man society emerging in Proto-Geometric Period (a subdivision of Geometric).

geronsia and damos

Linear B terms pointing to social organization separate from the Mycenaean palace. Refer to a council and corporation of landholders, but both reappear in Classical Greece. Damos comes to mean both village and the people, eventually forming part of the term that denotes a new king of government in Classical Greece (democracy). Geronsia: the Mycenaean word used to describe certain councils and occassions. Damos: also demos. In Attica, a Greek word probably related to the root meaning divided, originally associated with land tenure in Myc. states and later broadening its scope to include the community at large and and acquiring its more familiar meaning of people.

the Reinvention of Writing

Linear B which had been used for transactions/recording transactions falls out of use with the loss of the palatial economy of the Late Bronze Age but around 720 BCE Greeks borrow/adapt script from NW Semitic. This was a writing system used in the region of Al Mina on Syrian coast where the Greeks traded, and would have been familiar wherever Phoenicians traded because they were from the same region. Thus makes sense that some of the earliest written Greeks turns up where Greeks and Phoenicians traded like Syria and Sicily. The practice caught on quickly, e.g., at Methone on the Thermaic coast where dozens of vessels are inscribed w/Greek names. *Okay, I'm lost. who did they get writing from? Syrians or Phoenicians or could it be either?

drachma

Literally "a handful," which originally referred to a handful of obols or metal spits that served as the earliest money of Greece. After coinage was adopted in the sixth century BC, the drachma was one of the standard units of the currency system. One drachma was a day's wage for a skilled workman in Classical Athens.

Pentekosiomedimnoi

Literally, "500-measure men," the highest class under the Solonian constitution of Athens, whose origins may go back to the Early Iron Age. Under Solon's laws, only the Pentekosiomedimnoi and Hippeis could hold the archonship.

eunomia

Literally, "good order," the value that the Spartans believed characterized their society and which they attributed to the legendary lawgiver Lykourgos.

metropolis

Literally, "mother city," the Greek word used to describe the city from which a colonial expedition had originated. For instance, Corinth was the metropolis of Syracuse in Sicily. The mother city who sent formal colonial expeditions

stomion

Literally, "mouth"; the entrance to the chamber of a Mycenaean tholos tomb, located at the end of the dromos or passageway.

Gymnetes

Literally, "naked ones," which was the term for the agricultural slaves of Argos.

oliganthropia

Literally, "shortage of human beings," which was the bane of Sparta beginning in the Classical period. Aristotle attributed this state of affairs to Spartan women.

aristoi

Literally, "the best men", this term was used to describe the elite of an ancient greek polis, especially during the Archaic period. A term referring to the elites, often appears in poetry in the Archaic period: reflects class struggles/factionalism on the rise. cf. to rise in terms for subject groups. But, interestingly, where we have precise info about civil disorder, it is primarily amongst these elites. Some historians therefore see Archaic societal divisions as horizontal (class) versus vertical (status)

Eupatridai

Literally, "those descended from good fathers," as men from the wealthy and highborn families of Athens called themselves.

Other examples of early Greek lawgivers

Lykourgos, Zaleukos, Charondas, Solon: best known. Their stories have very formulaic patterns: e.g., there is an initial crisis, there is an appointment of a lawgvier, there is a testing of the new laws, and a departure of the lawgiver. Suggests that establishing the laws w/the help of a semi-divine lawgiver was a stage of social development. Greek law at first was highly procedural: e.g., penalties for what happened if law not enforced but not necessarily laying out underlying principles. The writing down of laws also altered the operation of law in Greece: now an emphasis on law versus the expert. Those who knew the laws through memory and could expand on them lost importance between 800-500 BCE as law increasingly written down (known as the exegetai or hieromnemones)

How have some scholars read the rise of monster iconography at the same time as Greek colonization?

May be tied to demonization of indigenous people cast as monsters/inferiors. Rise of monsters in the Greek imagination, Cyclops, centaurs, Sphinxes, etc. Reflection of the non-Greek world around them? Involvement of Apollo in every aspect of diaspora community's foundation and existence shaped community's Greek identity: a mentality of us vs them emerging as Greeks encounter other people across Mediterranean.

Sparta and the Messenian Wars

May indicate one reason why the Spartans are so at odds with the rest of mainland Greece. A series of wars the Spartans fought with their western neighbors, the Messenians, beginning as early as the mid to late 8th century BCE. Exact dates difficult to establish, but foundation of Spartan colony of Taras at Tarentum in S. Italy key to establishing dates because foundation appears to be dated archaeologically to immediately before 700 BCE, and Spartan tradition said founders were Spartans known as the PArthenioi, men who were born to Spartan women while their husbands were away during the Messenian Wars. Apparently, their questionable legitimacy and status were a source of tension at Sparta and led to them being deported to Italy. Regardless of validity of this aspect of story: allows us to date Messenain Wars to late 8th century sometime before 700, reasonably. Left Sparta virtually the only Greek territory in which one ethnic group became permanently overlords of another: through internal colonization, enslaved Messenians and reduced to status of helots (serfs), which led to Sparta becoming a state with readiness for warfare. The 2nd Messenian War was fought in the 1st quarter of the 7th century BCE, proved to be a turning point for Spartan internal development. This is because it was in this war that they decided to subjugate Messenians: practice before this was to raid neighbors in summer campaigning months and war was essentially able to come to an end. Instead of this, they annexed Messenia to Lakonian territory, now have a constant threat of helot uprising. Also leads to creation of Spartan elites, Spartiates. For more than 300 years, Spartans acted like absentee landlords.

helots (in Spartan c

Messenian Wars also shaped Sparta's development: left Sparta virtually the only Greek territory in which one ethnic group became the permanent overlords of another neighboring group. Through a process called internal colonization, the Spartans enslaved the Messenians. Reduced Messenians to the status of helots, or serfs.

phalanx

Military formation consisting of ranks of closely packed, heavily armed infantrymen.

Akrotiri

Minoan settlement on the modern island of Santorini (Thera in antiquity), destroyed 1628 BCE by volcanic eruption. Town of Akrotiri was a flourishing settlement and may have been founded as a Minoan colony. Overlooked the caldera of a volcano. Notable for finely decorated private and public buildings & wide provenance of associated finds: a cosmopolitan merchant harbor? High quality of frescoes, many exploring opposition (boxers in building Beta with antelopes about to lock antlers adjacent, for example; sparring male sparrows in building Delta. Others have motifs of splendors of nature, like crocuses and lilies. Some have looked into the images as an age progression showing rituals marking the life cycle, others are more explicit religious scenes (e.g., gathering crocuses to present to a goddess attended by a gryphon; other images of women making supplication and burning incense). Pyroclastic flows of the eruption would have kicked up massive tsunamis. Thera is 90 miles from Crete: reasonable to suggest that Crete felt some impact of explosion and tsunamis that ensued. Perhaps other residual effects like blocked sunlight, disrupted weather patterns, earthquakes, etc. Some thought this may have led to death of Minoan culture esp when tied to Greek myth of Atlantis in Plato's Timaeus, but doesn't seem to be the sole cause. Previously, eruption was thought to be ~1450 BCE which also would have fit well in theory of Minoan destruction because of the burnt horizon of Minoan palaces in ~1450 BCE. People made it out that Minoan culture collapsed, weakened the state of the ruler, and Mycenaeans took advantage of the situation. Excavated in 1967 by Spyridon Marinatos.

Metope of Perseus killing Medusa from Temple C. at Selinunte c. 530-510 BCE

Monster energy on temples in colonial settings (here Selinunte in Sicily). Perseus decapitating Medusa: reinforcing sense of difference between Greeks and others.

The administration of Seleucid empire

Must maintain goodwill of priestly families: restoration of temples. But territory is vastly bigger than Egypt, and with many nationalities and languages. This is complicated compared to the more homogenous subjects of the Ptolemies. The Seleucids allow some territories to remain virtually autonomous as long as they supplied the Seleucids with troops, horses, camels, etc. But Aegean and West Asia were especially tricky because this is where Seleucids are constantly having to establish control: instead, treat Greeks as benefactors, benefactions become principal mode of competition in Hellenistic kingdoms; kings would give things like grain during famine, building projects etc: allowed kings to position themselves well as Greece's philanthropic benefactors. Delphi, Delos and Athens were main recipients of this generosity.

Second complex civilization to emerge in the Bronze Age Aegean

Mycenae

wanax

Mycenaean Linear B term for a king The term used in linear B texts that refers to the ruler of the state. In later Greek, in the later form anax, it is used especially of the Homeric heroes and deities.

koreter

Mycenaean Linear B term for a person with authority over a district, like a governor. The Mycenaean term describing governors of the various districts that make up the states centered upon Pylos.

telestai

Mycenaean Linear B term, probably landholders but may have been religious officials. The Mycenaen term used to describe men who were significant landowners and may have held religious duties.

Negotiations of 371

Negotiations held in 371 BCE between major powers for common peace, but take an odd turn. One the eve of the signing of the treaty, the Thebans asserted that they were signing on behalf of all of Boiotia, not just Thebes. Their insistence was based on the fact that Boioitia was a federal state with a set of federal institutions and that Thebes represented all Boiotia in the negotiations. But to some (esp Spartans), it was wrong for a state to sign on behalf of others, a rejection of the autonomy of those states. The Spartans insisted that Thebes sign only for Thebes bu that was seen as a rejection of their leadership of the federal state of Boiotia. Talks collapsed, Sparta marches on Boiotia to undermine the Thebans: at the Battle of Leuktra, Spartans beaten by the Thebans. The Spartan hegemony is over.

Where did Mycenaean grave gold come from? Mycenae not naturally mineral wealthy on Argolid.

Newest theory that best fits evidence: In 16th century BCE, local people in Romania were mining gold in large quantities and trading it for bronze goods, like Aegean style swords (a bronze sword of the Mycenaeans has been found in N. Romania). When we consider gold quantities at Mycenae alongside presence of amber from N. Europe, and taken in conjunction with Aegean bronze in Romania: points to sudden formation of highly profitable exchange networks between Southern Greece and the Danube basin in the 16th century BCE. Attests to a rich web of interconnections between Aegean and central and northern Europe: Mycenaeans better placed to exploit this than the Cretans. While Crete focused on south and East, into Med and Levant, Mycenaean Greece looking to the north, prior to 1600 BCE. Eventually this will change in LBA

How does the night battle play out?

Night battle ended in a rout. Then Demosthenes and Nikias couldn't agree on a common plan: Nikias refused to withdraw immediately because he interpreted a lunar eclipse as a bad omen for departure. But the 27 day delay emboldened the Syracusans and gave the allies time to come to their aid. They Spartans/Syracusans engage Athensin the harbor of Syracuse: break Athenian line and kill Athenian commander Eurymedon. In a second and final naval engagement, again the Syracusans are successful against the Athenians: Athenians try to withdraw by land and March out from Syracuse but over the next 6 days they were harassed until they surrendered. Demosthenes and Nikias executed, survivors imprisoned. Most non-Athenians sold into slavery and a few Athenians escaped death. marks end of Sicilian expedition: 413 BCE

Resuming of Campaign in 422: Significance?

Northern campaign resumed in 422 BCE with Kleon commanding a force of 1200 hoplites and 30 ships in the hopes of capturing Amphipolis back for the Athenians: they key to Athens' control of the north. But, in the battle for the city, both Brasidas and Kleon die. Outcome: a Spartan victory, but to Thucydides, the greater significance was the death of the two men most opposed to peace. So, in early spring of 421, the 2 sides signed a 50 year peace treaty, the Peace of Nikias

Was loss of territory a reflection of Seleukid weakness?

Not really: what need is there for undertaking expensive business of controlling vast amounts of relatively unproductive land when you could concentrate on key notes within a trade network? Key to Seleucid wealth was in controlling and taxing luxury goods. Ptolemies develop the Red Sea port at Berenike and the Seleucids concentrate on Palmyra and Dura Europos where caravans emerged from the desert.

Skarkos on Ios

On the island of Ios, ~3000 BCE. Shows signs of buildings/fortification walls that could only be the work of complex, hierarchically organized societies, although there are no signs of the monumental central buildings of the mainland. Here we have evidence for buildings of two stories with stone-paved floors, drainage systems: clearly the work of a centrally organized society.

2 contradictory features of Athenian life in the Classical Age: Ambiguity and tension between democracy and empire

On the one hand, democracy is more firmly established as a result of a series of reforms designed to maximize the number of citizens playing an active role in the democracy: go to lengths to ensure that power was diffused broadly across sectors of society, like random selection, rotation of office, and annuality which guaranteed that egalitarian ethos prevailed. On the other hand, Athens quickly assumes the role of hegemony of an alliance of Greek states eager to continue war w/Persia. They emerge as an imperial power, lead a coercive system of imperial hegemony abroad that relied on garrisons, military governors, tribute, the suppression of dissent and revolt, etc.

Tensions in Alexander's army ~320s BCE

Once Alexander defeated Porus c. 326 BCE, he made plans to descend further into the Indus Valley, but men appalled at the prospect of more fighting and rebel, refuse to continue. Alexander returns to Babylon in 324 BCE but army tensions only rising further. Macedonian officer class treated each other as brothers (the elite cavalry regiment was known as the Companions), but Persian subjects were used to performing proskynesis (bowing in front of superiors) which was offensive to Macedonians who thought they were all equals. This was exacerbated by Alexander's pretensions to divinity. In 324, Alexander also arranged a mass wedding of 80 elite cavalrymen of the Companions to high ranking Persian women, but his plan to breed a master race of Greek-Iranian people was not pleasing to his men. After his death, men repudiated their Persian brides. In fact ,Alexander's attempts to introduce Persian customs infuriated his men: and in August 324 BCE they mutinied. Alexander tries to stage a reconciliation at Opis, close to modern day Baghdad, where he announced that many of the veterans were being discharged with enough wealth to make them the envy of everyone in Macedon: but this made his men feel like they were despised by him and that he thought they were unfit for service.

Menander (Greek King)

One of Alexander's successors Seleukos I ** (WHO TF IS THIS?) ceded the far eastern provinces to the Indian prince Chandragupta Maurya. These Graeco-Baktrian kingdoms would last no longer than about 300 years, but the fusion of cultures in this region produce a Graeco-Buddhist art of the region of Ghandara. It was here that a Greek king Menander would convert to Buddhism. A Greek king who reigned 165-130 BCE, converted to Buddhism: won lasting glory not only as a conquerer but as a sage known as Milinda. This recalls the fluid interplay of identities Alexander cultivated in conquered territories (e.g., in Egypt vs in Greece proper).

Why did the Greeks remain addicted to conflict in the Archaic Period?

One of the most salient questions scholars must address. It may be that the very same agonistic culture expressed in athletic events and encoded in the heroic values of epic emphasized individual worth to such a degree it worked against the emergence of loyalty to any group beyond family, clan and immediate communities.

The League of Corinth

Organization of Greek cities led by the king of Macedonia for the purpose of attacking Persia, created 337 BCE.

Dates of Paleolithic + Mesolithic periods (just for review)

Paleolithic: 2.5 million years ago to 10,000 BCE Mesolithic: ~10,000-8000 BCE

Chapter 12

Panhellenism and the Rise of Philip

The fall of Tyranny in Athens

Peisistratos dies in 528 BCE: succeeded by sons HIppias and Hipparchos, who rules until 514 BCE. Hippoarchos is assassinated in 514: during Panathenaic preparations: in 5th century, speculation amongst sources that it was purportedly based on a lover's quarrel. Thucydides says that apparently Hipparchos made sexual advances on an Athenian aristocrat Harmodios, who rejected them. Hipparchos spites him by barring Harmodios's sister from serving in the festival. Then Harmodios and Aristogeiton assembled during the next Panathenaia and kill Hipparchos, the first Peisistratid they see. Hippias goes on to rule 4 more years until driven from the city by Spartans and an Athenian clan claiming to have been in exile under the tyrants. After the expulsion of the tyrants, Athenians celebrate tyrannicides Harmodios and Aristogeiton

Mycenaean industry and labor

Perfume on an impressive scale and textile were major Mycenaean industries. Linear B tablets record oil manufacture: oil mixed with herbs and fragrant things. Also, specialized metalworkers made silver, gold, copper vessels and jewelry; also were potters, scribes, weavers, artists, etc. also part of palace personnel.

How did hoplite warfare impact democracy?

Perhaps greatest impact of hoplite warfare was in arena of democracy. New armies of men unrelated by blood fighting side by side contributed to the solidification of group identity. People becoming invested in their states. But although hoplites found in every Greek state, remember not every Greek state became a democracy. Athenian democracy used warfare as an extension of policy and to assert Athenian hegemony. The Athenian demos voted to undertake a new campaign on average every 2 to 3 years and at height of power Athenians frequently engaged in sieges for a full year or longer. Rising confidence of Athenian democracy resulted in increased inclination to wage war. Mansfield and Slaughter: states transitioning to democracy start wars more often than established democracies or authoritarian regimes; Reiter and Stam write that democracy also wins wars: 90% of those they initiate and 80% overall

Persian governmental system versus Greeks

Persian king: an all powerful ruler, a figure that did not exist currently in the world of competitive Greek city states (esp. as kingship had been abolished in many places). Tyrants had never extended rule beyond their own Greek territory, so Persians were something new to them: whoever sat on the Achaemenid throne represented something unique, a king of kings, whom they referred to as the Great King or simply the King

Philip and Thessaly

Philip asserts his dominance in Thessaly, South of Macedon. Perhaps ~358 BCE in his earliest part of his rule. The area was rich in farmland and pasture and at the time of Philip was divided into four regions dominated by large aristocratic families. One of these families, the Aleuadai, called on Philip for help. Philip ends up with two new wives, Philinna and Nikesipolis, who came from opposing sides of the region's conflict.

Aftermath of the victory over the Greeks at Chaironeia in 338 BCE: What did Philip do next?

Philip united Greeks in a crusade against the Persians after this, just as Isokrates had said. He went to Corinth and convened a meeting of representatives of the Greek states to plan an invasion rather than blatantly issuing orders as a conquerer. Knew that a common enemy could unite the Greeks and allow Philip to repackage his hegemony as the captaincy of a grand Hellenic alliance, the League of Corinth

phyle

Plural phylai. Literally, "tribes"; one of the subdivisions of an ancient Greek polis, such as was the case in Sparta, where there were three, and Athens, where there were four in Archaic times but ten under the democracy. See also obai.

Ephialtes and the reforms of 461 BCE

Politician on the rise after Kimon's ostracism, associated with a series of reforms but a shadowy figure. Focus of his attention was the Areopagus, an ancient council made up of lifelong members (unlike the Kleisthenic Boule); the Areopagus had an advisory role and served as a homicide court. Ephialtes strips some of its unspecified extra powers; unclear what they were but Aristotle insinuates a series of extra powers. The nature of them is debated: a good argument is that the focus of his attacks was Areopagus's ability to examine candidates' suitability (dokimasia) and review performance of outgoing magistrates, transferring this power to the Council of 500. Beneficial step towards democracy: the Areopagus was made up of ex-archons, therefore made up of some of the most prominent Athenians, but was also not accountable to either the Ekklesia or any other democratic body. Essentially was an oligarchic holdover: as democracy grows in confidence, this oligarchic stage is swept away. Reforms mark full emergence of Kleisthenic Council of 500 as the Athenian center of power in the Athenian state Role of the Boule (post 461): drew up the agenda for the assembly (Ekklesia), reviewed the suitability of elected officials, scrutinized accounts of outgoing magistrates (euthyna). Also oversaw construction of public buildings/maintenance, fleet readiness (tackle, timber, sail, upkeep of triremes, commissioning of new ships). All leases, taxes and revenues that came into state coffers handled by specific boards of officials but all also answer to the Boule.

Great Rhetra

Preserved by Plutarch in 1st century CE, purporting to be an oracle given by Delphi to lawgiver Lykourgos when he sought oracle for aid in establishing a constitutional code for Sparta. Some dismiss as fiction, others see it as an "authentic" document of the 7th century BCE. Divides state into phylai (tribes): tribes are a part of later Spartan organization (all male members in Sparta's later history are members of one of three tribes): could indicate tribal divisions were also a part of early Spartan social organization. Obai (division into villages) may also be tied to early Sparta. Also established the Gerousia: a senate, made up of Spartan elders. Councils like this were a common feature in Archaic communities. Great Rhetra, then, may be a guide to the constitutional arrangements adopted in Sparta in the Archaic period. Although, difficult to imagine what social tensions fueled pressure to shape a constitution. Eunomia as a way to moderate aristocratic competition, channeling it into institutions which were fixed? Two features very important. First: there is no mention of the magistrates known as the ephors, five of whom in later periods were elected each year to administer city affairs. Secondly, Great Rhetra states clearly that sovereign power resides in the Damos, or the people. If the document were a later fabrication, why are ephors missing? Suggests authenticity In other words: early Sparta was on a path towards democracy and could have evolved closer to government of Athens if not diverted.

Empedokles

Presocratic philosopher from Sicily., Postulated the existence of a blissful sphere from which the cosmos was born due to action of cosmogenic forces of love versus strife. Sees gods as little more than allegories: e.g., love is Aphrodite, speaking of a transcendent principle.

The rise of the Ptolemies

Ptolemy I Soter was a trusted Companion (elite Macedonian cavalryman) of Alexander and a bodyguard of Alexander. He deployed enormous skill in navigating power and politics in the Hellenistic Age. For instance, he realized Egypt could be sealed off from much of the Mediterranean world because the West part was desert and the East was desert/Red Sea, the South was non-navigable cataracts, and the N was the Nile delta. Movement was basically up and down the Nile, and could be easily controlled. Ptolemy gained legitimacy through his connections with Alexander: raided the funeral procession of the King's body from Babylon to Macedonia and took the corpse to his new capital at Alexandria where he installed the body in a monumental funerary complex.

Philip's move on Mount Pangaion in 356 BCE

Pydna gave Macedon a port on the Thermaic Gulf, and Amphipolis gave Philip a base from which to move on Mount Pangaion in 356 BCE. Although he was called to intervene in a local dispute, Philip took control of the gold and silver mines of Mount Pangaion and renamed the place Philippi. The addition to the Macedonian treasury is said to have amounted to 1,000 talents a year.

How did Alexander legitimize his traipsing through Asia?

Really it became sort of military adventurism but he strove to legitimate it: propaganda where he made himself out to be a liberator, a second Achilles. Was said to have kept a copy of the Iliad by his pillow, inspired by Homeric models. This version targeted to Greeks and Macedonians. But to Egypt and Babylon he presented himself differently, as a legitimate successor of earlier dynasties, freeing subjects from the yoke of Persian rule.

Erechtheion

Rebuilding of Acropolis deployed similar orders and designs to make the acropolis coherent and harmonious visually: this is made clear through the Erechtheion, which is the best example of desire to keep Acropolis coherent, although very peculiar. Begun in 421 BCE during the hiatus of the Peloponnesian War on N side of the acropolis: area teeming with religious associations near to the Old Temple of Athena which had been burned by the Persians but back room still in use in 5th century as a treasury chamber. Area also had an olive tree + spring of brackish water: seen by Athenians as proof of contest of Athena and Poseidon. Here the Athenians also worshipped some of the oldest founder heroes. E.g., Erechtheus, Kekrops, + daughters Here, Pandrosos and Aglauros The building housed the olive wood statue of Athena (xoanon): most sacred location on the acropolis, where Athenians sought Athena's help. How does one design a building for it then?? Especially in a spot with so many cult and sacred associations. Solution: on the E. Side of the temple, cella devoted to Athena Polias + housed xoanon, believed to have fallen from heaven and given new peplos woven by arrephoroi every 4 years. To the W but 3 m lower: 2 chambers that didn't communicate with the cella at all: but instead approach by a porch, uncertain use but we know the Erechtheion housed cults of Hephaistos and early Athenian hero Boutes. N. Porch accommodated the cleft in the rock where Erectheus was struck by Zeus' bolt-- ceiling of porch nearby also given a hole in the place of one coffer to show the path taken by the bolt. To the S, another porch: caryatid columns on the face. Symbolic libation bearers over the tomb of Kekrops: also seems that the porch was built to touch the foundations of the Old Athena temple: Erechtheion replicates part of the old temple (the peculiar inner layout), showing that it is a renewal of the ancestral building. Successfully accommodates multiple cults with cohesion. Under PErikles, democracy found a visual language for expressing power, pride and common identity of all Athenians

Proto-Attic Amphora (Archaic) from Eleusis c. 670-650 BCE showing Odysseus blinding the Cyclops and Gorgons chasing Perseus

Reflects worldview emerging in the Greek consciousness via colonization: beyond Greece there are monsters

Civil strife after the expulsion of Hippias

Regional aristocratic factions re-emerge: city faced a return to clan based political violence that had afflicted Athens in time of Solon. Avoided worse and avoided a return of violence because of Kleisthenes, the head of the Alkmaionid clan

The End of the Reign of the Government of the 400

Reign of tyranny came to an end with the extraordinary event outside Athens: on Samos, where Athenians established a base of operations to suppress revolt of Chios and MIletos, Athenian fleet and army became embroiled in a civil war between oligarchs and democrats on the island, taking the side of the democrats. When Athenians on Samos heard about the 400, they declared they would defend both eh Athenian and Samian democracies and rejected communication with the 400. Swore to defend Samos's democracy and continue the war with Sparta. Even though Athenian democracy was suspended in Athens, at Samos it was still present: Thasyboulos and Thrasyllos held democratic assemblies on Samos. This democracy even successfully recalls Alkibiades to Athenians' side, who insinuates he may be able to get the Persian King on the Athenian side. Meanwhile, Spartans take advantage of Athenian chaos and sail to Euboia to engage a scratch fleet of Athenian ships and capture 22 ships + kill/capture crew. News of the disaster hits Athens and 400 are deposed: replaced by the 5,000: a constitution of 5,000 is drawn up. The 5,000 were drawn from those who could supply selves with armor: that is, hoplites. Thucydides remarks that Athens was better governed under the 5000 than at any other time in his life but the arrangement didn't last long and full democracy restored soon after

Orgeones

Religious associations documented in Athens from the Archaic period onward; they saw to the rites of a god or hero. *ADD

How did Achaemenid kings regard people of their territory?

Saw their empire as a domain made up of distinct nationalities and ethnic groups held together by royal authority to which they pay tribute.

Schliemann's excavation at Mycenae

Schliemann turns attention to Greece in 1876 after the excavation at Troy. Excavations at Mycenae bring forth evidence for advanced, complex Bronze Age culture on Greek mainland c. 2nd millennium BCE. Homer describes Agamemnon as coming from Mycenae, and here we have proof of a wealthy fortress with huge walls, heroic burials in deep shafts, corbeled tombs. Walls remained partly visible, so had never completely faded.

Franchthi Cave

Seasonal occupation dating back to 18,000 BCE in the Paleolithic in the Argolid. Here, people subsisting on hunting/gathering. After 11,000 at the site, evidence for lentils, almonds, pistachios, vetch. After 7,000 BCE, evidence for oats, barley, gradual exploitation of coastal resources near the cave (fish bones found including deep-water species like tuna). Cave occupation through to end of Neolithic, ~3200 BCE. At Franchthi, obsidian from the island of Melos found, used to make arrowheads, blades, and scrapers: evidence for interconnectedness.

city-state

See polis. Polis: The Greek word refers to city-state. and refers to an autonomous community of citizens.

Serapis

Serapis (Σέραπις, Attic/Ionian Greek) or Sarapis (Σάραπις, Doric Greek) is a Graeco-Egyptian god. The Cult of Serapis was introduced during the 3rd century BC on the orders of Ptolemy I of Egypt as a means to unify the Greeks and Egyptians in his realm. Serapis was fabricated by the Ptolemies in Alexandria: blended from Apis and Osiris, but resembled a version of Greek Zeus and/or 4th century BCE Asklepius. A mix of Egyptian and Greek manufactured to appeal to all: frequently shown wearing a kalathos, a symbol of fertility.

Methone in N. Greece: significance

Settled ~730 BCE by Euboian settlers. There, dozens of vessels have been found inscribed w/Greek names and verses have been found in a rectangular structure labelled by Greek archaeologists as "Underground": perhaps originally a storage facility but ~700 BCe had become a rubbish dump including pottery like transport vessels and drinking cups associated w/symposia from around the Greek and Phoenician world. Methone was positioned with access to a rich interior: rich in timber, metal resources from Macedonia, and point of entry for trade networks across the Aegean. Inscribed vessels indicate this interconnectedness: Chian transport amphorae, Euboean skyphoi, Dipylon oinochoe from Athens, etc. In some cases, labelled in order to indicate ownership but in others transport vessels labelled. Could indicate most pertinent uses for alphabet: symposium and trade.

Arguments for why Kleisthenes organized tribes in such a weird way?

Some scholars have argued it was gerrymandering so that Kleisthenes could seed Alkmaionid families through the demes and exert influence. However, spreading Aklmaionid membership could have had the opposite effect of dissipating power. Others have considered the military aspect of the reforms: road networks had to be established to facilitate movement of tribal units to Athens from demes, which could be an interest in long term military preparedness (in terms of getting to the city quick). But not clear what his intentions or motivations were because there wasn't really a foreign enemy at the time to have real need for military forethought. Most clear option: Kleisthenes saw local and regional rivalries as the bane of Athens, reforms address this directly. By separating demes from neighbors, made it harder for established aristocratic families to organize block votes of dependents. Tribal system may have also encouraged intermingling, creating a sense of Athenian collective identity at the polis level.

In the 440s, what is Athens up to?

Some scholars see this decade marking a hardening of the Athenians' attitude towards their allies (or more accurately their subjects) as they sought to re-establish firm control of the League. Athenians seeking to confirm control in the Aegean, including intervening with superior military and naval forces, founding colonies, establishing cleruchies in allied territory, imposing Athenian weights and measures, and making the allies subject to Athenian courts in legal disputes.

Spartan governmental structure in the Archaic period

Sparta retains kings much longer after most Greek city-states abolished them or reduced role to ceremonyial. Sparta ruled by two royal families, the Eurypontids and the Agiads, kings who had real power b/c one of the kings nearly always led the army. These kings were known as archagetai, "leaders". Expression occurs in the Great Rhetra, preserved by Plutarch

The Helot Revolt in Sparta ~464 BCE + Athenian involvement

Sparta's helot population revolts and withdraws to Mt. Ithome after an earthquake in S. Greece in 464. Spartans prepared to lay siege to them but at the behest of Kimon, whose aristocratic family had long seen Sparta as a natural ally, the Athenians (who were experienced with siege warfare) offered the Spartans assistance. The prospect of a slave revolt was enough to unite them initially but Spartan soon grew apprehensive at the presence of so many brash Athenians in their m midst: fearful of planting seeds of democracy, so Athenians dismissed This insults the Athenians: they ostracize Kimon as a result, which paved the way for Perikles' supremacy. The vacuum of power in Kimon's absence led to newer and more radical politicians with even more democratic agendas on the rise, like Ephialtes

Spartiates

Sparta's warrior elite. Their rank, privilege and status depended on the continuing subjugation of another Greek ethnic group (Messenians). Spartiates also unpopular amongst other citizens of Sparta: in the 4th century BCE, Kinadon (a disaffected Spartiate) was arrested by state's magistrates (ephors) and asked who was part of his conspiracy, and he said any of the lower classes gladly would've eaten a Spartiate raw.

Spartan religion in the Archaic Period

Spartan religion points to the emergence of a distinctive Spartan culture. Amyklai: at this village, for example, the Spartans engaged in the worship of a hero Hyakinthos and the god Apollo. Constructed an extraordinary monument designed by Bathyles of Samos in the 6th century BCE: had a massive throne, maybe echoing a furniture piece. Altogether, an unorthodox architectural creation. Pausanias says it was decorated with wood panels of myth scenes and there was a 14 m tall statue of Apollo inside (46 feet) Also, the Spartans celebrate Helen where elsewhere she is associated with negative aspects of the Trojan War: she enjoyed the status of a heroine and goddess, and received offerings with Menelaus at the massive Menelaion shrine, 5 km SE of Classical town of Sparta. Cult worship of both Menelaus and Helen continued for hundreds of years. Also, odd activity at the Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia at Sparta. 100,000+ lead figurines of hoplites, women, and animals. Probably dedications given to the goddess by soldiers, hunters and women in recognition of her help. Also terracotta masks with grotesque faces suggesting demons. Probably associated with secret societies of young men? Nearest parallels for masks are not from mainland Greece but from Cyprus or Punic sites. Artemis Orthia also wears the polos crown, not unlike Phoenician goddesses: connections of Sparta to East. Some suggest that the cult was brought to Sparta by the Phoenicians but other see connections to Crete (small ivory plaques depicting her are possibly connected with workshops on Crete). Artemis Orthia's cult also associated with weird rites: boys are charged with stealing cheese from altar but savagely whipped while trying to do so: the blood would appease the goddess. If the whippers go too light, her statue would become impossible to hold due to the weight: This scene is possibly represented on a Lakonian kylix. Even their temples are weird: not peripteral like most Greek temples, also simpler, less ornamental.

Sphakteria Campaign Pt 2

Spartans send ambassadors to Athens to sue for peace, but Kleon speaks against the possibility of armistice and the talks are abandoned. Athenians keep up with the blockade of Sphakteria because it only has entry/exit from two channels: easy to blockade. Spartans take every measure to get supplies to their men on shore, and even told the helots to run on the blockade from the seaward side with the promise of freedom. As the siege goes on, Kleon faced criticism for halting peace talks, but Kleon deflects the blame onto his political enemy Nikias and claimed if he was in charge he could have ended the siege, so Nikias offers to resign command to Kleon. Kleon put it off but eventually puts his money where his mouth is.

What brought about the "wasteland of Spartan culture in subsequent Classical period"?

State of permanent warfare internally against helot populations skewed development of Spartan society. Gradually goes from vigorous cultural traditions in Archaic period to wasteland in Classical period. E.g. prior to Persian Wars, Spartan craftsmen distinguished themselves in metalwork (e.g., Figure of a Running Girl c. 520-500 BCE, Figure of a reclining banqueter, c. 520 BCE, both in bronze). Also excelled in ivory: Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia notable for dedications carved from ivory (relationship to Crete?). Also literary traditions: Alkman's 7th century BCE hymns for girls' choruses, one of which seems to combine cosmic + erotic; Tyrtaios encapsulated Spartan martial ideology in poetry: war as only way to win glory

Kleisthenes' tribal system

System of 4 tribes turns to a complex system that broke up many power-clusters: now 10 tribes. Electoral map of Attica so to speak was redrawn. The new system fixed every Athenian male citizen to the deme (community, town, village) in which he was born. He could move and own land elsewhere but deme remained his place of registration. At time of Kleisthenes' reforms, there were 139 demes. Some were large and others small: small ones were aggregated into clusters and treated as a single unit. Each unit (whether an aggregate cluster or a single deme) was called a trittys (pl trittyes) meaning 1/3. All 10 tribes made up of 3 trittyes: one from the city, one from the coast and one from the plain. The 10 tribes were fundamental to political and military life: army was now mustered by tribes. Also, the new council of 500 (which drew up the agenda of the assembly and oversaw day to day running of the state) was made up of 10 units of 50 councillors: each selected from 1 tribe. This basic political map created by Kleisthenes endured as well as institutions as outgrowth of system of tribes/trittyes

Athens vs Thasos

The Athenian presence in the vicinity of the Strymon River was also viewed with apprehension by the people of Thasos (island nearby), a Greek island a member of the Delain League that controlled much of the Thracian mainland opposite the island. Quarrel eventually arises between Athens and Thasos over mineral resources of the region and Athenians defeat Thasos in a sea battle. Thasians surrender and are forced to tear down their walls and hand over their ships and possessions on the mainland. Later, Athens tries to colonize the region again in a renewed attempt and founds Amphipolis around 437 BCE. (becomes a key battleground later, in the Peloponnesian War). The Delian League had already begun to show signs of internal division.

oiketai

The Greek term for household slaves, who wove cloth, cooked, and served as attendants of the master and mistress; their lot was typically better than that of agricultural slaves.

oikist

The Greek term for the founder of a colony. The oikist typically consulted the oracle of Apollo before embarking on the expedition, and it was not uncommon for the colony to award him divine honors after his death. The founder of a colony who distributes land to those who follow him; frequently becomes a revered figure and given divine honors in the colony they founded. E.g., Cyrene in Libya: in the marketplace, the Greeks erected an altar for sacrifices to the memory of Battos, a Theran who led the 1st colonial expedition to N Africa

How did the Roman war machine jive with Greek diplomacy?

The Hellenistic side in the 3rd century was very much centered on an international relationship via continuous negotiation, gift giving, alliance, marriage, invasion, etc: approached international politics of East Mediterranean with fundamentally different aims than the Romans. E.g., Antiochos III marches into Greece in 192 to liberate the Greeks and extend territory. But by contrast, the Syrian War fought by Romans against him for glory (for Roman commanders Manieus Acilius Glabrio, Lucius Cornelius Scipio). This difference is made clear in the Peace of Apamea: signed in 188 BCE after the defeat of Antiochos. The Romans take 15k talents but annex no territory. One early 2nd century, resistant to the idea of directly ruling stretches of non-Roman land. The Romans also defeated Philip V in 196 but leave Greece free.

What was the final event between Athens and Sparta that precipitated formal declaration of war?

The Megarian Decree An old fashioned border dispute. In the late 430s, Perikles charged the Megarians with farming the sacred land on the border between Megara and Eleusis at the W. edge of Attic territory. Athenians imposed a trade embargo on the Megarians as a result: known as the Megarian decree. In 432, Corinthians convince the Spartans to hold a congress in Sparta so that Peloponnesian allies could air their grievances. Megarians complained that they were excluded from ports and markets of the Athenian Empire. Spartans send embassies to Athens in an effort to avert war: ambassadors said war could be prevented if the Athenians lifted their embargo on the Megarians, but Perikles cautioned Athens against doing this: ultimatum would just be replaced with another one.

The Panathenaia

The Panathenaia helped foster a sense of Athenian identity, was an all-Athenian celebration commemorating Athens' victory over the Giants in cosmic conflicts that came before the Olympian order was established: every 4 years it is celebrated as the Greater Panathenaia. It is open to all citizens of Attica regardless of region of origin: all Athenaioi, Athenians. The Panathenaia included a procession through the heart of the city and on up to the Akropolis. Hundreds of Athenians took place in the procession as marshals, water carriers, weavers, cavalrymen, and wranglers. Culmination of the process was the presentation of a new robe (peplos) to Athena. Cattle also sacrifices after being led up tot he Acropolis: meat distributed to thousands of families who had participated. It was an occasion to celebrate the cohesion of Athenian identity. Distinctive for Panathenaic amphorae as prizes: distinctive for offering valuable prizes in addition to crowns. Oil from the olive trees sacred to Athena was packed in distinctive amphorae and given to winners who could either keep the oil or sell it.

Chapter 11

The Peloponnesian War

"Mycenaean"

The entire civilization of the Bronze Age Aegean is collectively called this, but Mycenae did not rule the entire region.

How did the Ptolemies reconcile dual nature of a Greek-Egyptian kingdom economically?

The Ptolemies exercised strict control of population and economy, and a powerful manipulation of Egyptian religion, with the goal of maximizing revenues for the crown. Economy inherited in Egypt was a planned economy: royal estates and temple properties alike were worked by peasants owing a debt of corvee labor to the crown, in addition to a percentage of produce. This had long been a part of Egyptian society. The regular inundation of the Nile means it was possible to somewhat predict production, so the Ptolemies refine the system of close state control by setting production targets and sending officials to supervise. The Ptolemies instructed officials about every imaginable topic: high degree of micro-managing. But, the Ptolemies also make a few changes: e.g., new crops like grape and garlic introduced, and redistribute land in Fayyum region to former military officers and bureaucrats. While Egyptians have small plots, Greeks had estates.

archagetes (Sparta)

The epithet of Apollo that referred to his role as the sponsor of colonial foundations during the Greek Diaspora c. 750 - c. 500 BC. Typically an individual or community would consult the oracle at Delphi prior to sending out an expedition. Additionally, the two kings of Sparta were known as the Archagetai.

Cause of Peloponnesian War

The fundamental cause of conflict told to us by the Athenian general Thucydides (who lived through the war, participated and was exiled due to failure to secure the Athenian outpost of Amphipolis in N Greece from Spartan attack by general Brasidas). He says that the threat of Athenian power rising sent fear through Spartans and alarmed them, which can be seen through a series of events like the Epidamnos Affair, the Siege of Potidaia and the Megarian Decree. But more accurate cause of war was that Athenian power scared Corinth and Corinth goaded the Spartans into action.

Areopagus

The governing council of Athens, originally open only to the nobility. It was named after the hill on which it met (the Hill of Ares, just below the Akropolis of Athens and to the NW). This was a council made up of ex-archons, and the main governing body of Athens until the reforms of Ephialtes (461 BCE) stripped it of most functions. *ADD

Linear A

The highly developed, hierarchically organized society of Minoan Crete did produce a writing system: Linear A. A syllabic and ideographic system employed by scribes to record goods coming in and dispatched at palaces: little more so far than receipts and requisition lists. None found at Knossos of literature, legal documents, history etc, though: unlike Egyptian + Assyrians

Why do historians think it could be somewhat possible Alexander was involve din the assassination?

The longer Philip lives, the less secure Alexander's position becomes, especially, if he keeps having more sons. At the time, the child of Philip's older brother Perdikkes III, Amyntas IV, had asserted his claim: so did Attalos and Cleopatra. Amyntas had more claim because Philip had been his regent, and he was now old enough to claim the throne, but Alexander ruthlessly took out his competitors, killing Amyntas, Attalos, his daughter Cleopatra + her son (Philip's heir), etc. Also showed force to other rivals: when Thebans revolt after rumors that Alexander had died campaigning on Macedonia's Northern Borders, he sacks the city: 6k dead, 30k sold in slavery. Asserting his place.

Pheidippides

The man who ran from Marathon to Athens to announce the Greek victory over Persia in the Battle of Marathon (490 BC), and then died. May be a conflation with another pre-battle story of an Athenian running to Sparta for help.

The Dekelean War

The name for the end of the Peloponnesian War from 413-404. After the disastrous end of the Sicilian expedition in 413 BCE: seemed Athens was on the brink of defeat. But over the next 7 years although setbacks continued, city struggled on. Alkibiades advises the Spartans to continue using the fort at Dekelea to disrupt life in Athens, Made it impossible for Athenians to bring grain supplies overland from Oropos to Athens: all grain had to brought to the Piraeus by sea. Also, Sparta starts investing in naval operations in the Aegean after Athenian defeat in 413, commission a fleet and continue building ships until 409-8 BCE. Spartans also bring in disaffected Athenian allies with fleets, like Chios: use them to try to choke off grain from Piraeus too.

What will we see from Sparta in this period, generally?

The response to social upheaval in Sparta is remarkable and distinctive. Contrary to expectations and the usual image of Sparta as a military state, there is evidence in the form of an early constitutional document entitled the Great Rhetra for a distinctive proto-democratic impulse in early Sparta. However, it will be suppressed and power will be increasingly concentrated in the hands of the leading magistrates known as ephors and top echelons of Spartan society. Messenian Wars also shaped Sparta's development: left Sparta virtually the only Greek territory in which one ethnic group became the permanent overlords of another neighboring group. Through a process called internal colonization, the Spartans enslaved the Messenians. This effectively turns Sparta into a state with a dominant ideology of permanent readiness for warfare in which all Spartan institutions were devoted to training warriors.

Two major features of Periklean Athens

The rise of drama: one of the most significant Greek cultural innovations, in some ways by form and nature reinforces the egalitarian ethos of Athenian democracy Secondly, transformation of the Acropolis: begun under Perikles, whose leadership of Athens defined the period. Acropolis was the primary location in Athens where the Athenian community defined its identity, memorialized its past, and exalted itself as a democratic empire.

penestai

The servile class in Thessaly, analogous to the helots in Spartan society and the Klarotai in Crete.

Athenian conflict in Central Greece after disgrace of Kimon: 1st Peloponnesian War

The sphere of Athenian influence was primarily the Aegean, but ascent of Perikles and cadre of leaders in the generation after Kimon coincided with a new and aggressive policy towards other states located in many different regions. The first was central Greece. The disgrace of Kimon had turned public opinion against Sparta: Athenian attempts to extend their influence into central Greece also brought them into conflict with Thebes. Leads to a period of fluctuating hostilities and variously pitched battles between Athenians and Spartans and Thebans on the other side. These campaigns, although fought primarily in Boiotia, are collectively known as the first Peloponnesian War: but result inconclusive. First Peloponnesian War: 460-445. Confusingly, the subsequent conflict from 431-404 isn't called the 2nd Peloponnesian War, but rather just the Peloponnesian War.

Dorkis

The successor to Pausanias put forth by Sparta: Ionians refused to accept the authority of Dorkis and Spartans chose not to contest further: seem content to allow Athenians to assume command. Athens becomes hegemony of the new alliance, usually referred to as Delian League.

hierosyna

The term used to describe the portion of a sacrifice reserved for the priest.

The origins of drama

Theater was a key institution in Athenian life: through comedy, tragedy and satyr plays, Athenians gave expression to a complex worldview. Plays were performed as parts of festivals in honor of Dionysos, and were witnessed by most of the citizen population. They were civic and religious events, but also communal. Origins of Athenian drama go back to the 6th century BCE; probably lie in the agricultural festivals celebrating harvest. On round threshing floors, lines of women and men would perform songs and dances called dithyrambs in honor of Dionysus, the god of wine and nature. According to legend, Thespis of Ikaria (a deme in N. Attica) was first to add a speaking part (later known as protagonist) and later a second character added (antagonist): transition from choral performance to drama begins

What was trade like in Neolithic and Paleolithic Greece?

These Paleolithic and Neolithic communities did not live in isolation, able to trade over long distances. At Franchthi, obsidian from the island of Melos found, used to make arrowheads, blades, and scrapers: evidence for interconnectedness. Melos is 150 km (93 miles) away. Confirms that even in Prehistoric times people were in contact with other communities including those reachable only by boat.

Darius I

Third ruler of the Persian Empire (r. 521-486 B.C.E.) who took over upon the death of Cambyses. He clearly ruled as an absolute monarch, modeling his authority on the Great Sky God Ahura Mazda. Images from the reign of Darius depict him as either larger than ny other human or placed above the other figures to visually suggest others were subordinate.

What was Sparta's response to rising tension of Archaic Age?

Throughout the history of Sparta, citizens boasted of being hostile to tyrants (misotyrannos). INStead, Spartans claimed their political and communal life was based on eunomia, or good order, which they attributed to the work of a sei-legendary lawgiver, Lykourgos However, Sparta also goes on to fashion a social and poltical contract that diverged sharply from trajectory followed by other Greek communities: emphasis on a strict social hierarchy at the top of which was a warrior class known as Spartiates. Geography has an influence: Sparta located on the banks of the Eurotas River and is overshadowed by Mt. Taygetos: a steep ridge that separated Lakonia off from Messenia in the west. But to the NE, Mt Pamon separates Lakonia from the Argive Plain. Physical isolation helped foster a greater sense that Sparta was unique while other cities fell prey to tyrants: Spartans apply themselves to a strict code of conduct generations of warriors. Or so they believed... can get a better idea by turning to the archaeological record

Epidamnos Affair

Thucydides traces the beginning of conflict to a civil war c. 435 BCE at Epidamnos between oligarchs and democrats. Epidamnos had been a colony of Corcyra, well-located for access to trade up and down the Adriatic coast. Civil stasis: both sides of the fight sought outside help. Democrats turn to Corinth and the oligarchs were supported by Corcyra, even though the Corcyraeans were a colony from Corinth. With the conflict escalating, focus of attention moved from Epidamnos to Corcyra: Corcyraeans defeated a Corinthian fleet and forced Epidamnians to surrender. The Cocyraeans treated prisoners brutally and slaughtered all prisoners with the exception of the Corinthians.

What does Lefkandi reveal about the Iron Age economy?

Tombs contain scarabs, seals, gold, jewelry, faience vessels, and iron weapons. Indicates a trade network reaching Phoenicia and Egypt. The Eastern Periphery of the Mycenaean world had recovered.

The effect of the rise of coinage in the Archaic Period

Traditional notions of wealth (e.g., based on land) that could be passed down now challenged: monetary exchange threatened to replace aristocratic birth as the highest good one could acquire.

What was war like pre-late 5th century BCE?

Wars were previously fought under certain rules of engagement. Campaigning was seasonal, lasting from April until September, and much of fighting was skirmishing: pillaging land of the enemy and raiding typical. When fights did actually happen, you basically fight until one side broke and the ones who ran away dropped their shields while pursuers stop to strip the dead. Few battles actually end up with a ton of people dead as a result. Casualties typically limited. Archaic warfare also typically waged by armies levied by the aristocratic leaders of the state who promised incentives or land to followers: not necessarily state armies. E.g., Peisistratos defeats enemies at the Battle of Pallene in 546 BCE with a private force of friends, allies and retainers. Battles also often based on desire for land or land related issues prior to Persian Wars: most wars escalations of border disputes: e.g. Spartans vs Messenians vs Argives (neighbors to west and north)

Summary of what we've learned so far....

We have seen a gradual increase in complexity of Greece's prehistoric communities. As they grew in size, they appear to have become more stratified with growing degrees of connectivity between them (measured by appearances of trade goods and pottery styles from far apart locations). Hundreds of communities kept in close proximity by the water. Intensification of Neolithic will lead straight to the hierarchical social order in Bronze Age, e.g., first on Crete.

Diodochi

Were the rival generals, family and friends of Alexander the Great who fought for the control of Alexander's empire after his death in 323 BC. The Wars of the Diadochi were the turbulent opening of the Hellenistic period.

Why did the Athenian state care about Eleusis?

Why did Athenian state care so much about mystery cult with a private initiation? Eleusis is located 12.5 miles west of Athens; Eleusis is incorporated into the political structure of Attica as a deme, but the sanctuary of Demeter specifically remained under the control of two local clans, the Eumolpidai and the Kerykes. The growth of the sanctuary's significance can be charted in the period enlargement of the sanctuary, especially the Telesterion (the hall of mysteries, where hundreds of people were initiated each year into a mystery cult connected to the cycle of the seasons and the worship of the earth mother). Each enlargement further contributed to the conceptualization of the cult of Demeter as a state cult, paid for by the Athenians, instead of a private cult of a clan. Site of Eleusis had a strategic significance on W. side of Attica near the border with Megara, long-standing enemy of Athens Also, in claiming Eleusis was home of agriculture and a territory favored by the gods, Athenians could claim that it was in their territory that events took place that made all civilized life possible.

Overview of what's to come this chapter

Will explore the Peloponnesian War, the most traumatic episode in the history of the Greeks of the Classical Age, examining origins of conflict, suggests that Corinth was the state most responsible for setting Greeks on course to war. Also presents Sicilian Expedition not as a military defeat only, but also as a disaster brought about by misunderstanding and miscalculation. Athenian political ascendancy comes to a close at end of 5th century BCE as a result of disastrous war between Athenians + allies versus Spartans + allies (Peloponnesian War: 431-404 BCE): shaped the future direction of Athenian and Greek affairs one of the causes of Peloponnesian war was also tied to changing nature of war itself: prior to late 5th century, it was conducted under certain rules of engagement

Chapter 5: The Archaic Age in Sparta

Woot

Chapter 4: The Iron Age

Woot!

Women in Sparta

Xenophon and other sources say Spartan women were more powerful than most women. Aristotle says that they could own, inherit, and administer own property. There also were claims that Spartans practiced polyandry where women had more than one husband-- sources from 4th century BCE indicate men could father legitimate kids with Spartan women who weren't their own wives. In antiquity, non-Spartans saw women as promiscuous and too confident and saw them as Sparta's downfall, said Sparta suffered from oliganthropia (lack of men). More likely that polyandry reflects selective breeding and eugenics: shared wives between brothers meant less lines of descent and pressure to split up property. Militarization of Spartan men may have also led men to delegate more control to women.

Lerna

a Bronze Age site at the head of the Argolic Gulf. Had 6 phases of occupation and construction. ~2500 BCE we see a monumental corridor house style building: a type also seen on Aigina, an island in the Saronic gulf, and in Thebes, as well as other sites in Argolid. Corridor house structures feature a 2nd floor, staircases: suggests control of labor and centralized authority. *** HOW? The main building at Lerna was surrounded by a double ring of defensive walls, and when it was later destroyed by fire, the people constructed a circle of stones around the ruin and erected a tumulus over the center.

prognosis

a forecast of the probable course and outcome of a disease or situation

How did Solon guarantee a stable food supply in Athens in his second archonship?

a guaranteed food supply was critical to stability of the community: Solon banned export of grain trade from Attica, focusing attention on Athenian self-sufficiency. Because Athenians were unable to export wheat or barley, Athenians look to olive oil for export and become famous for this export.

diolkos

a limestone road across the Isthmus separating the Saronic Gulf from the Corinthian Gulf, may have been used for trans-shipping between the two bodies of water. A canal not dug successfully until 19th century CE Connected the two ports of Corinth at Lechaion and Kenchreai.

tumulus

an artificial mound of earth, often associated with commemorative contexts in the archaeological record. See also "tell". E.g., the tumulus build over the central defended structure at Lerna. Possible commemoration of a powerful chief? Or rather, was this kind of building used for something else like a communal building?

Vapheio Cups

c. 1400-1350 BCE Found in a tholos tomb S of Sparta. Depicts bulls captured and tamed, gold. Style and execution points to master artisans. Many scholars believe one is Cretan and one is Mycenaean. Subtle technique differences and composition suggest they were not manufactured together. Plausibly has been suggested that the cup with the rampaging bull is an answer to the bull calmly tethered/tamed. Calmer as Cretan, harsher as Mycenaean?

Greek slavery

doulos, pl douloi: slave Slaves were everywhere in Ancient Greece: agricultural workers and miners known as douloi worked fields and dug silver out of the ground. Used to generate revenues. In Attica and in many other parts of Greece, the agricultural workforce was largely made up of slaves. At Argos, called Gymnetes, at Epidauros Koniopodes, at Sparta: helot population; Thessaly: penestai Evidence from Athens points to a great range of nationalities: the presence of non-Greek slaves probably made t easier for Athenians to regard their slaves as little more than income earners. It is probable that there was a strong ethnic overlay to the slave/free distinction operating in Periklean Athens. Also were household slaves (oiketai): wove cloth, cooked, waited in attendance on master/mistress of house. Another class of slaves known as choris oikountes: those who dwell apart. Appears to have been semi-independent craftsmen such as shoemakers, whose labor and products supported both themselves and their owners: privately owned. Also were public slaves: demosioi: helped day to day running of Athens as clerks, secretaries, streetsweepers, and even a rudimentary police force. Slavery was a feature of Periklean Athens just as it was in most ancient Med societies. Moses Finley argued that leisurely pursuits of elite men: philosophy, poetry, etc. only possible due to reliance on a broad class of unfree people whose labor made time available to the society of slave owners. In answer then to the question: was Greek civilization made possible by slave labor, answer is yes.

Khania/Chania excavations

excavations by the Dutch institute in 1990 uncover Linear B tablets: some come from later than 1425-1375 BCE (the dates usually assigned to Knossos tablets) and at least one was written by a scribe at Knossos: makes clear that the Mycenaean Period on Crete may have continued until 1250 and overlapped with use of Linear B on the mainland. The site was called Kydonia under the Mycenaeans. DNA studies from warrior graves at Chania indicate a population influx from the Peloponnese and Central Greece too!

Aftermath of Persian Wars

hard to separate fact from fiction in accounts like Herodotus: e.g., Herodotus likely exaggerated discrepancies in army sizes. Account reflects stories that grew up generation after the Persian wars when many states vying for credit: E.g. in Apollo's sanctuary Pausanias dedicated a gold tripod atop a massive bronze serpent column claiming individual credit for Persian defeat but rest of Greeks objected and engraving replaced with a list of Greek states who participated. Stood outside temple for 800 years until removal by Constantine to Constantinople. Also barbarian changed from a term for those with thick accent to those inferior: sense of Greek racial superiority, art reflects increasing xenophobic attitudes towards the East.

Hellanodikai

judges or officials of the Ancient Olympic Games Literally" the judge of the Greeks, who were in charge of organizing, administering, and judging the Olympics games every four years. The Hellanodikai. They determined who was eligible to compete in the Games and the most basic requirement for which was that the man in question was a Greek.

hekatompedon

literally a 100 footer, the term used to describe an early temple on the Athenian Acropolis dating to the 6th century BCE. Associated with the Peisistratid tyrants. and may not have been located on the site of the Parthenon.

Eusebeia

piety; the Athenians regarded eusebeia as their most distinctive quality: but this required affirmation through action regularly. An Athenian citizen was likely to participate in some kind of communal sacrifice at least once every 8 or 9 days.

metic

resident aliens who paid a tax to live in Athens; but rarely had the opportunity to become citizens. Much of trade and manufacture in Periklean Athens was done by metics. Paid metoikion (tax), and required to register in an Athenian deme with an Athenian patron. ~10,000 metics isn 4th centuries BCE Athens Some metics were people who moved to Athens to pursue opportunities; others are former slaves who upon manumission acquired freedom.

Knossos' palatial ground plan

~2nd millennium BCE. Society that inhabited Knossos clearly sophisticated and complex: reflected in ground plan of site. Regularity, strict adherence to axial design. The access to the center is restricted and controlled, paralleling similarly designed palaces known from Ugarit in Syria (also dating from mid-2nd millennium BCE). Evidence that Cretan culture is participating in a wider world of complex, hierarchical states. Sense of power emphasized by decoration: corridors directing people towards central plaza decorated with frescoes depicting processional human scenes, charging bulls, etc. Controlled access combined with sumptuous fresco and heraldic gryphons flanking the throne: powerful central authority. As a whole, displays highly theocratic character. Unclear if more of a court-complex without someone actually residing there (e.g., a ceremonial/ritual center) or something closer to our modern understanding of a palace. Property also included baths, and a lustral basin for purification: refined elites living in comfort possibly as evidenced by baths, but also ritual functions of lustral basin (also, other rooms found with finds suggesting ritual functions). Similar ground plans appear at Malia, Phaistos, and Zakros, other major Minoan sites. Consistency of this planning is signfiicant: suggests a homogeneous Cretan culture.

Kleisthenes' rise to power

~508: Makes a pact with the people in exchange for power: Kleisthenes was on the losing side of a political rivalry with Isagoras in the fight of aristocratic factions. Seeing he was losing, he appeals to the Athenian demos directly and makes an alliance with the common people rather than an alliance of other aristocratic chiefs. He proposes a reform of the Athenian electoral and tribal system, recognizing that the people are eager to participate in political life.

Greek Orientalizing Period

~7th century BCE. As the Greeks were exposed to other people and cultures around the Med, especially to the East, they absorbed their stories / poems and technologies to which they were exposed. Eastern Med motifs enter Greek culture, particularly visible in Proto-Corinthian vases which often show exotic animals like lions and anthers + strange hybrid animals (e.g., sphinxes) from Near East: reflecting wider world of cultural interaction. Also absorbed poems, stories, tech from East Med: E.g., Hesiod's poetry is full of Near Eastern motifs. Kronos castrating Ouranos mirrors Hittite and Hurrian cosmological poems wherein the god Kumarbi bites off the father Anu's genitals. Also adopt Eastern alphabet around ~720 BCE from NW Semitic