GVPT280 Midterm

UK Historical Development of State Early Development (3 Legacies)

(1) British Isles experienced repeated invasions over a period of 1500 years by Celts, Romans, Angles, Saxons, Danes, and finally Normans that left important legacy Germanic Angles and Saxons left language - except in Wales, Scotland, and other areas they could not conquer (Celtic Fringe) whose local languages remained dominant until 18th and 19th centuries (2) Emergence of common law (system based on local customs and precedent rather than formal legal codes which forms basis of modern legal systems in UK (with exception of Scotland), US, and former British colonies (3) Resolved early on conflicts that would plague other countries in modern era - Religious divide - During reign of Henry VIII (1509-47) major dispute between British monarch and Vatican - When Catholic Church failed to grant him a divorce, he used Parliament to pass laws that effectively took England out of the Catholic Church and replaced Catholicism with Protestant Church that could be controlled by English state instead of Rome

UK Historical Development of State Emergence of Modern British State (3 major developments in 17th/18th c that undermined British sovereigns) Why one of first nations to democratize

(1) Crowning of James I (a Scot) in 1603 united Scotland and England but created political crisis when he resisted limits on his power imposed by Parliament (raising taxes w/o asking Parliament), son Charles I (began 1625) continued this which led to English Civil War (1642-51) - Pitted defenders of Charles against supporters of Parliament who won bitter struggle and executed Charles I in 1649 - For 11 years (1649-60) England had no monarch and functioned as republic led by Oliver Cromwell whose rule became military dictatorship - Parliament restored monarch in 1660 with Charles II but Monarchs' power forever weakened**** (2) James II (brother of Charles II) ascended throne, Parliament feared a return to Catholicism/absolute rule bc James II Catholic - So removed him and sent him into exile, installed his Protestant daughter Mary and Dutch husband William, thus making monarchs owe position to Parliament !! (Glorious Revolution) - Same time enacted Bill of Rights 1689, institutionalizing political supremacy (3) 1714 Parliament installed the current dynastic family by crowning George I (of German royalty) - Bc he spoke little English, forced to rely on Cabinet (his top advisors, ministers) and specifically Prime Minister - From 1721-1742 Sir Robert Walpole fashioned position of PM into much of what office is today - And after loss of colonies in America, PMs and cabinets became appointed by Parliament instead of chosen by Monarch, so ended latter's power to select members of GVPT

UK Why Study? (3)

(1) Oldest democracy, transition to democracy gradual (beginning in 13th century) and democratization process continues today (reforming upper house, decentralization of power, Brexit) (2) One of few w/o written constitution, longevity/stability depends on traditional legitimacy and unique political culture of accommodation and moderation (3) Birthplace of Industrial Revolution and first industrialized country to experience extended economic decline - 1979 Margaret Thatcher was first leader of industrial democracies to experiment w/ neoliberal economic policies to prevent economic decline Controversial in UK (Thatcher resigned 1990)but emulated in other democracies

Germany Political Conflict and Competition Party System (significance, system, trends, recent changes)

- (like most parliamentary systems) political parties central actors in German politics, founders of Basic Law thought this would prevent authoritarian leadership that doomed Weimer, so envisioned rep of citizens through political parties instead of direct elections of executives or referenda - Bc of this, German State provides 1/3 of budget of major political parties (also free ad on public TV and radio during campaigns) Since 1949, remarkably stable system of political parties - 1957-1983 dominated by two large forces (CDU/CSU and SPD) and one smaller (FDP) where they won all the seats in Bundestag, early 1980s Greens broke in, reunification in 1990 led to fifth force composed of former EG communists (the Left) - CDU/CSU and SPD have provided every chancellor since 1949 and are therefore called catchall parties who broadly appeal to voters of all types (aided by Cold War, dramatic postwar economic recovery, and advent of television) Major recent changes - Shrinking of two major parties (94% of vote in 70s, not 54%), emergence of new parties (six party system?)& small upstart parties (Pirate Party), increasing number of Germans are splitting their ticket, voter turnout high but on decline, far right party gaining more seats Undergoing process of dealignment

Germany Historical Development of the State (compare to UK/US, effects)

- **In France and England, feudalism gave way to states centralized by absolute monarchies that established standardized legal and administrative systems and fostered coherent sense of nationalism** - But in Germany, national sovereignty and a centralized state eluded Germany until the 19th c, but once it did the central state had much power in rush to modernize and so idea of German national became institutionalized and the unity gained powerful force - Bc of tardiness, development of state preceded industrialization, fostered state-led mercantilist development and authoritarianism - Also bc behind in race for colonies and raw materials for industrialization and so fostered aggressive imperialism that led to Third Reich - Success of EU tempered fears that a reunified Germany would pursue military expansionism or unilateral political influence

Germany Elections

- 17 German federal elections since 1949 have had high voter turnout, but decreasing since 1970s, campaigns traditionally centered on parties sand their platforms but has recently Americanized to be more about personalities/slick advertising - Bc of balance between CDU and SPD, campaigns become about them and attacks (issues?)

UK Geographic/Demographic features

- 1801 United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland has been formal name (consists of three nations: England, Scotland, and Wales), separated from France by English Channel - Physical separation from European mainland ended in 1994 with establishment of Channel Tunnel linking France and Britain - Isolation provided protection from European conflicts/turmoil, explains historically small size of UK's standing army and importance of navy - Also may explain unwillingness to switch from Pound to Euro, and Brexit (2016) - Remainder of Ireland is Republic of Ireland - All consider selves British, but not English -Considered multiethnic state bc contains Scottish, Welsh, and English citizens who have distinct cultures and languages, but racially relatively homogeneous - Nonwhite population mainly immigrants (13% of total), 1/3 from Indian subcontinent and 1/4 from Caribbean - Size of Oregon, 2/3rds size of Japan (half population of Japan with 64 million residents)

Germany Historical Development of the State: Rise of Prussia and Second Reich, 1806-1918

- 18th & 19th c Prussia gradually acquired autonomy, capacity, and legitimacy that allowed it to emerge as viable core for modern German state - Series of monarchs established an authoritarian state administered by efficient/loyal bureaucracy, supported by wealthy/conservative landed aristocracy known as Junkers, defended by large/well trained army (monopoly on violence) - Mercantilist promotion of economic growth through development of national infrastructure, expansion of education among its subjects, and enhancement of trade - **Established a customs union with all neighboring states by 1834 except for Austria - Successfully competed with Austria for ascendency in unifying Germany - Unification did not come with liberalization bc of weakness of commercial and middle-class, similar to China, German intellectuals argued individual freedom was a luxury or weakness unsuitable for German national identity - By 1860s had forceful and capable leadership, powerful military, and growing industrial economy, victories over Denmark/Austria/France drew other states into cause to form 1871 establishment of national German empire, or Second Reich - Key figure in process of expansion and unification was Count Otto Van Bismarck PM or chancellor of Prussia (Junker), led revolution from above through alliance of "iron and rye" - industrialists and landed aristocracy (Iron Chancellor - dominated politics for two decades) - First national constitution established authoritarian monarchy (Prussian king emperor - kaiser) - Established federal structure where all states would have equal influence, but mandated that Prussian PM always become imperial chancellor - Granted universal male suffrage for elections to the Reichstag, but retained aristocratic privilege in Prussian state elections - Imperial chancellor, bureaucracy, and military answered only to emperor as head of state, not to constitution (so foreign policy not overseen?) - Bismarck bullied/circumvented Reichstag in those few areas where it did have some authority (budget) - Encouraged multi-party system and played the off against each other How remained popular? Promoted patriotism, German culture, expansion of national wealth and empire, core of his support was landed gentry, aristocracy, industrial elite Iron fist in velvet glove - use violence and granted social welfare benefits (health insurance, old-age pensions) to defeat groups opposing him (Catholics, liberals, Marxists) 1890 Bismarck ended rule, Emperor Kaiser Wilhelm II assumed personal control, continuing rapid industrialization and imperialist expansion, by early 20th leading industrial power (iron) - Society more complex with growing middle class and socialist movement (1/3 of votes 1912), traditional sectors embraced nationalism and anti-Semitism (but patriotism prevailed over social differences) -Feeling of unfulfilled destiny and suspicion about neighbors brought about WWI, with costs of war social differences rose again Catholics and liberals questioned authoritarian nature of their regime Workers angered over unequal vote in parliament German defeat 1919, urban uprisings led to the abdication of emperor and Germany becoming republic

Germany Historical Development of the State: Foreign Occupation and Division of German State (1945-49)

- 1945 industry, infrastructure, society, polity in complete ruins -> "zero hour" or Stunde Null (starting from scratch) and surrendered sovereignty to four allies who each occupied portion of country (Berlin in quarters), territories seized returned to neighboring countries and Poland annexed parts of Germany - Cold War inhibited plans for cooperation among allied forces to return German sovereignty, division between east (Soviet) and west (E3) parts - Latter took step towards creating separate West German state by making common currency among the three parts, so Soviets blocked land access from West German sector to West Berlin, Western allies responded with Berlin airlift and order West Germans to convene separate constitutional assembly (despite their reluctance) - Convention led to temporary Basic Law which established Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) 1949 as democratic and demilitarized state - Weakened institutions deemed reason for Nazi rise, dissolved power to federal regions and strengthened democratic institutions, reformed party system to create fewer, larger parties (ex. United Catholics and Protestants in separate but similar wings of Christian Democratic Union (CDU), healing political divide since 16th c - US sought to rebuild it as engine of economic revitalization for Western Europe, rapidly grew into one of wealthiest countries and strong democratic leaders - Konrad Adenauer (1949-63) joined Coal and Steel Community and NATO - Willy Brandt (1969-74) introduced policy of reconciliation with East Germany (Ostpolitik - eastern policy) - General consensus in politics: social welfare, state-regulated marketplace, foreign policy that promoted growing European integration/ eventual unification with EG ◊ Soviet responded by setting up German Democratic Republic (GDR) 1949 } Stalinist totalitarianism replaced fascist totalitarianism, eliminated EG's capitalist economy so had political/economic system almost identical to those of Soviet monitor - Economic rates over first two decades almost as impressive as FRG but ultimately could not keep pace } Use of stasi or secret police, Berlin Wall, and execution of those trying to flee (power retained through force and terror) } 1980s Gorbachev reforms threatened to undermine Stalinist foundation on which East Germany built, 1989 1% of population able to leave for west through Hungary now open border with Austria (weakened GDR legitimacy and control), public protests grew, economy ground to halt and party-state lost governing ability - November 9, 1989 East German leaders stepped down and opened border between East and West Germany Both exercised semi-sovereignty until 1990

Germany Parties: Greens (origins, role, platform, challenges, successes)

- 1970s some Germans became w/ three main parties (shared belief in promoting rapid industrial growth via market economy), initially became anti-party party that wouldn't compromise policies in pursuit of power - Policies: the Greens support environmental policies (opposition to nuclear policy), women's rights, gay rights, pacifism, grassroots democracy - Won first Bundestag seat 1983 (brought fresh style of policies - worker clothes worn and less hierarchal), party divided between moderates (realos) and radicals (fundis), electoral realities favored former who were willing to compromise (1994 & 1998, 2002 (junior partner SPD - three cabinet seats), with alliance of East and West Alliance 90/The Greens) - Gained respectability (under Joschka Fischer) but subject to new political pressures (pacifism contrasted with SPD), 2008 entered coalition with CDU (popular angst over nuclear disaster 2011), setback in 2013 with Merkel abandoning nuclear energy , focus on sustainability but keeps some traditions such as having female and male leader and special wealth taxes

Germany Historical Development of the State: Absence of Strong Central State during Holy Roman Empire 800-1806 (trends, why didn't unify)

- 800 CE Charlemagne founded in western and central Europe Holy Roman Empire, by middle of 9th century a collection of German, Austrian, and Czech princes acquired nominal control of this loosely constituted empire, or reich - Encompassed hundreds of various political entities but virtually no allegiance to center (feudal empire) - Took political form with office of a weak emperor, which rotated among princes, and the imperial Reichstag ("Congress" - precursor to German parliament) - Congress began as royal court of princes and dukes who met irregularly to elect emperor - 15th c more representative as lesser princes and free cities also seated (but dominant princes, lesser princes, and urban reps met in separate bodies - so weaker and more divided than in Britain) Why didn't unify? Indeterminate boundaries, centuries of entrenched localism, and mutual suspicions and prejudices among these localities - By 16th c, religion no longer unifying and became divisive force with Protestant Reformation - split Holy Roman Empire and German core which led to separate/competing state churches in German locales - Also started Thirty Years' War (1618-48) religious conflict between Catholics and Protestants fought on largely German soil - Peace of Westphalia 1648 affirmed sovereignty of local political entities and so preserved decentralized Germany and weakened HRE Persisted until Napoleon in 19th C

UK Society (trend, class divisions)

- Although sharp divisions appear, relatively benign and has demonstrated national unity and social/political stablity Class Divisions - Most salient of all differences, increased social mobility has not yet erased perception of two-tier society divided between upper and working class Legacies of class system - Education system, channels upper class into so called public schools (but actually private to train for public service), graduates go to Oxford or Cambridge (Cameron, May) - Shown in preferred tastes and leisure activities: sherry vs warm beer, cricket vs football, opera vs pub Some argue under neoliberal reforms differences have begun to break down (but still richer south and struggling north)

Germany Major Geographic and Demographic Features

- Area slightly smaller than Japan/Montana, but population (80 million), economy, and location have made it center of European affairs historically - Shares borders with 9 countries, no natural boundaries except for Alps and Baltic/Nordic seas so found itself externally vulnerable and internally divided (so much of Europe's conflicts carried out on German soil and could not remove self from surrounding conflicts like British) - When achieved political and military capacity in 19th c, changed from victim of foreign affairs to aggressive expansionism (to obtain resources, lack of natural resources - iron and farmland in disputed regions) - "scramble for Africa" and Lebenstraum ("living space" - Nazi) - Mistakes from above and continuous vulnerability led it to advocate for European integration - Absence of geographical barriers also encouraged migration of Germans and diffusion of German culture into surrounding regions, partly led to conflicts over disputed territory with France (Alsace-Lorraine), Denmark (Scleswig), Czechoslovakia (Sudetenland), Poland (Silesia) - Also means shared language, appearance, culture more important distinguishing features than elsewhere, still 90% ethnically German

France Political Regime Branches of GVPT: PM (system, powers, checks, potential power ended w/ what)

- Article 23 of French constitution prevents members of leg from serving as PM simultaneously, so ties PM more strongly to Pres - Constitution makes it seem like PM most powerful politician, but when Pres has majority in leg don't set policy themselves - Can be removed with motion of censure (vote of no confidence) but this requires absolute majority of 577 members of lower house, pres now also can remove them - When cohabitation happens, PM assumes greater degree of power as they do not feel bound to pres from another party - This creates a more parliamentary system with Pres more ceremonial*** But 2000 constitution amendment tried to end this as presidential and leg elections happen at same time, so not possible unless voters split ticket for leg and pres of different parties

France Political Regime The Judiciary (based on what kind of law, compare judges to other)

- Based on continental European code law in which laws are derived from detailed legal codes rather than from precedent, much of original code from Napolean's rule remains in place today - Judges interpret and apply code, but have less discretion and autonomy than those in common law systems Judges play much greater role (than in US or Canada) in determining whether charges should be brought, assume many of roles of prosecuting attorneys

Germany Political Regime The Electoral System (significance, system, implications)

- Basic Law created mixed electoral system that has been upheld by other democracies (Japan, Russia, Mexico), combines fairness of PR with voter-rep link feature of SMD (also avoid legislative fragmentation) - Using SMDs where seats allocate w first past post, 299 seats elected with remaining seats awarded to parties from part list in each state according to proportion of vote won by each party nationally (subject to 5% threshold nationally or 3 SMD seats) - When voting for Bundestag, Germans vote once for rep in district, once for list of party candidates - Confusing feature: if from SMDs produce Bundestag whose membership doesn't reflect party's national support (PR) then additional seats must be awarded to parties that are underrepresented (2017 ex), so number of seats can change from election to election (min 598) - Implications: Political parties strengthened bc national partly lists drawn up by party leaders, and are directly responsible for selecting at least half of lower house so enforce discipline, parties can have voice in leg bc of PR - Ex. Free Democrats only one SMD seat once since 1949, but one PR seats in every election until 2013 (so more influence than UK liberal democrats)!!! - Presence of more parties also means no party ever won legislative majority (pos/neg), political compromise built-in feature, turnout for elections consistently high, stable

Germany Political Regime (constitution (5 principles), how amended)

- Basic law founded on five principles: 1) system of cooperative federalism (national/states share power); 2) guaranteed elaborate set of basic political, social, and economic rights; 3) weak, indirectly elected head of state (bc of Weimer pres power); 4) political power concentrated in head of chancellor who is elected by/responsible to legislature; 5) powerful and independent judiciary to check power of gvpt Can be amended by 2/3rds majority in both houses, but some features like federal system and individual rights can't be altered

Germany Parties: Other Parties (significance, trends)

- Bc of Basic Law, Germany less tolerant than other European democracies of parties that are deemed to be anti-system (ex. Far right parties (NPD) tolerated and won seats in State legislature but until 2017 never surpassed at federal level) - Recent efforts to get Constitutional Court to ban NPD (like Communist and Nazi) unsuccessful - Pirate Party unsuccessful at national level but won seats in four state legislatures - Most alarming is AfD rise, founded 2011 right-wing populist that rode Euroskeptic and anti-immigrant wave, 2017 won over 12% and 94 lower house seats, rallies organized by (PEGIDA) and called for ban of all Islamic symbols, 2016 defeated Merkel in her home state, 2016 some leaders arrested for inciting attacks on refugees - Unlikely to enter into governing coalition as major parties refuse to work with far right

UK Historical Development of State The British Empire (effects, trend, legacy of Commonwealth)

- Began its overseas expansion in 16th century, by 19th became world's dominant military, commercial, and cultural - At zenith in 1870, UK controlled quarter of all world trade (navy opening new overseas markets) and controlled one-quarter of world's population and directly ruled almost 50 countries - Like process of democratization, erosion of empire also gradual, beginning with loss of American colonies and especially after WWII with local resistance in occupied countries - Last territories: Falkland Island Wars, Hong Kong returned to China 1997 - Today the Commonwealth includes the UK and 54 of its former colonies that serves to maintain some of economic and cultural ties established during imperial rule (Canada, New Zealand, etc)

France Political Regime Legislature (power against gvpt, limitations)

- But gvpt can also submit legislation as motions of confidence, so can muster motion of censure against the government, but needs absolute majority and could trigger new elections - Used a lot in 1980s, 1990s to pass legislation w/o legislative debate - Article 38 allows gvpt to legislate via decrees but this used sparingly Constitution limits number and power of legislative committees

Germany Parties: Christian Democrats (origins, key people)

- CDU/CSU emerged in 1945 as pro-business, antisocialist, Christian political party that for first time in German history appealed to both Catholics and Protestants; pro-West (ally of US) and pro-EU - Konrad Adenauer (1949-63, steered German right in modern, market-oriented, pro EU direction) and Helmut Kohl (1982-1998, responsible for Germany's rapid unification after fall of Berlin Wall) dominant chancellors - 1990s voters pushed back against draining economic/social policies, esp. Kohl accepting illegal campaign contributions - Even though pro-business supports welfare state - CDU/CSU led by Angela Merkel since 2005 (she won 4 elections, 2013 party won highest percentage of vote in 3 decades) - First woman to hold position, scientist, elected to Bundestag 1990, head of CDU 2000 (moved party to center on social issues like immigration and environment, also encouraged free-market policies like British conservatives and promoted tax cuts/reforms to health care, closer to US in foreign policy) - Germany's most popular politician, Germany's role in Eurozone debt crisis and refugee crisis damaged popularity but not her chancellorship (74% approval) bc of high profile in IR, economic reforms, and policies helping women

UK Historical Development of State Who do citizens owe allegiance to? Trend of development?

- Citizens owe allegiance to crown rather than to written constitution What does crown represent? - Ceremonial and symbolic trappings of British state - Rules governing British political life (regime) and the unhindered capacity (sovereignty) to enforce and administer these rules to secure country's borders - In comparison with rest of world, development of modern British state over last eight centuries relatively peaceful, piecemeal, and gradual

Germany Historical Development of the State: Political Polarization and Breakdown of Democracy during Weimer Republic 1919-1933

- Collapse of Second Reich proved to be infertile ground for establishment of Germany's first republic as divided between Communists and monarchists/militarists on right and had no historical experience with liberal democracy - seeds of cynicism and elitism in this era would lead to extremism in two decades - Elected assembly met in city of Weimer 1918 to draft constitution, Weimer Republic remarkably democratic constitution (universal suffrage for all *ahead of US and GB*, universal health insurance and pensions, right to employment or unemployment compensation) - Used GB parliamentary system as model (bicameral - Reichstag and Reichstrat (weak upper house representing states) but also used GB's monarch as reason to establish strong president so resulted in dual executive, semi-presidential system (current Russian/French systems) - Pres head of state directly and popularly elected, and who nominated chancellor as head of gvpt, and could rule through emergency decree under threatening circumstances - Adopted PR system, but specified no minimum threshold of votes and so fostered many small parties representing narrow interests, weak and short-lived coalitions became norm (had more than 20 gvpts between 1919 & 1933) - By mid-1920s gvpt achieved some stability as more moderate parties counterbalanced radical/reactionary fringes (1923 failed coup attempt by Hitler), but faced many challenges (billions of dollars of reparations, military demobilization, giving territory to France, loss of colonies (Treaty of Versailles), hyperinflation, unemployment (Great Depression, third of workers unemployed by 1932)) - Threatened middle class, defeated soldiers, unemployed workers all proved ripe for recruitment to Communist party, by 1930s moderates lost parliamentary majority - 1928 National Socialist (Nazi) Party led by Hitler, ran on platform of militarism and anti-Semitism, 1932 won 37% highest of any party in Weimer period - German state capacity weakened as violence replaced legislative policies, Communist/Nazi militias fought regularly in streets 1932 election conservative Paul von Hindenburg chose to make coalition with Hitler and Nazis to tame them instead of with moderates, 1933 Hitler used this to secure office of chancellor and then to gain passage of Enabling Act (yielded Reichstag's powers to chancellor - dissolved constitution and brought Weimer Republic to end)

UK Branches of GVPT The Judiciary (power compared to other democracies, how chosen, tasks, 2 reasons why tasks increased)

- Compared to US and other parliamentary democracies, judiciary plays small role - Until recently, no judicial review - Role of courts was to ensure that parliamentary statutes had been followed - All current Supreme Court justices are also law lords from House of Lords, selected from among distinguished jurists by Lord Chancellor (minister who heads Judiciary) and serve until retirement - Their replacements however will now be appointed by commission instead of being members of upper house - Role Over past couple decades has gradually increased political involvement, partly bc of (1) gvpts sought legal interpretations to support their policies and (2) bc of embrace of international laws which give courts new authority to strike down legislation as unconstitutional (ex after 1998 European Convention on Human Rights adopted)

UK Historical Development of State Postwar Politics and Debates on National Identity and State Sovereignty (Three trends between parties 70's, 90's, 00's)

- Conservative Party supported Labour's initiation of welfare state during much of postwar period (postwar collectivist consensus) - Ended in 1970s when British economy in crisis and new breed of Tories called neoliberals (limited state intervention) blamed decline on excesses of welfare state - Margaret Thatcher PM 1979 - lowered taxes, cut state spending on costly social services, replaces some state services (housing and mass transit) with private enterprise (full end of collectivist consensus) - Though new consensus emerged when Labour won 1997 and New Labour under Blair emerged, Third Way centrist program and held gvpt for 13 years - Balanced popular progressive social reforms with policies of devolution and continued limits on social expenditures - 2010 election resulted in hung parliament where no party obtained majority seats, PM David Cameron and Conservative party formed coalition gvpt with center-left Liberal Democrats - 2015 election outright majority for Tories, but Cameron struggled with issues regarding state sovereignty (2014 Scotland independence referendum, Brexit referendum - Cameron opposed both independence/leave sides) - Cameron resigned after Brexit leave won, Theresa May 2016 now leader of Tories and PM Tried to strengthen her gvpts Brexit bargaining position by calling snap election 2017 but instead Tories last seats so hung parliament and minority gvpt

UK Recent Developments (Conservative->Labor->Conservative)

- Conservatives (Tories) remained in power until 1997 when ousted by Labour Party led by Tony Blair who sought to soften harder edges of Thatcher's neoliberalism whilst retaining most of her policies (Third Way - political compromise and coalition between right and left 2010-2015) - 2015 election David Cameron and Conservatives won outright majority and pursued neoliberal policies, successor Theresa May continued -But domestic program stalled as with Brexit talks when her gvpt lost majority in parliament in 2017 election

France Political Regime Legislature (constitution given powers, origin location of legislation, how can it still wield influence, can't introduce bills that affect what?)

- Constitution gives legislature right to propose legislation, but most bills (80%) originate with executive, gvpt also controls agenda and schedule of workings of leg - One important way leg ability to amend legislation is limited is through blocked vote which forces leg to accept bills in entirety and allows amendments only if approved by gvpt - Can't introduce bills or legislation that affect public spending, only gvpt can introduce that - If NA doesn't approve finance bills and annual budget within 70 days it automatically becomes law

France Political Regime Political Institutions: The Constitution (response to what, goal, what system and legacy, left response, changes?)

- Current regime is codified in 1958 constitution (16th constitution since French Revolution) and was the product of de Gualle's reaction to the perceived instability of previous two regimes (fractured legislatures disagreed with gvpt policies, gvpt collapsed) - Goal was to eliminate parliamentary system and enhance the power of the executive in relation to the legislature - Developed semi-presidential system (novel) that was adopted in over 20 countries (Ukraine, Portugal, Taiwan, Russia) - But French left saw it as favoring right, wanted to return to parliamentary until election of first socialist president 1981 (Francois Mitterrand) - Relatively few significant changes to it - 1962 constitution modified to allow direct election of pres 2000 pres term limited from7 to 5 years to limit divided gvpt

France Historical Development of the State The Recovery of State Power and Democratic Stability under the Fifth Republic (De Gaulle Legacy, trends this past decade)

- De Gaulle agreed to rule if French people authorized and accepted new constitution that established strong executive and addressed ills of previous gvpts, new constitution accepted in referendum, became first president of new Fifth Republic 1959 - From 1959 to 1968 had significant impact on empire as granted Algeria independence, established France as an independent nuclear power, withdrew it from NATO, promoted European integration, nationalized a number of key industries and private firms, and established substantial welfare state, revitalized economy - But was criticized by left as authoritarian demagogue, failed to appeal to younger generations and in 1968 the Events of May occurred where young Parisians demanded educational changes and workers seized factories and called for sweeping reforms - Put forward referendum 1969 for constitutional reforms to galvanize support and when lost, he resigned but republic remained intact - Over past decade though sentiment is that country is in crisis bc of low economic growth but increasing and marginalized immigrant population (seen in 2007 election of Nicholas Sarkozy, 2012 election of Francois Hollande, and finally 2017 Emmanuel Macron's surprising victory)

France Party System & Elections (historical influence, 60s, since 80s what kind of system)

- De Gaulle blamed political parties for much of political turmoil of 3rd and 4th republics, SMD helped narrow field of parties to produce stable majority gvpts - 1960s multiparty system of bipolar alterations of coalitions - Center Right: Rally for the Republic (RPR), Union for a Popular Movement (UMP) - Center Left: French Communist Party (PCF) and the French Socialist Party (PS) Blocs won over 90% of vote by late 70s and election systems helped to ensure its domination as coalition building necessary in SMD second round of voting -Since 1980s, the four party, two-bloc system has been in transition - Demise of PCF and rise of National Front (NF) - Effects: changing prospects for electoral coalitions, and constitutional changes to end cohabitation transformed power to check (pre) - 2017 elections when neither of major four parties succeeded well with Macron's new party REM and NF

France Political Regime Legislature: Senat (how elected, power, seen as?, compare to UK house of lords)

- Elected indirectly by electoral college of local gvpt officials and members of lower house, deprives it of popular legitimacy - Legislative powers limited to delaying legislation passed by lower house, still passed over its objection (1981-1986 conservative senate against leftist gvpt legislation) - Main power is rejecting constitutional amendments, needs consent of both houses - Ex 2016 rejected ca that would have stripped French citizenship from dual nationals convicted of committing terrorist acts -Seen as obsolete and unrepresentative, composed of elderly conservatives - Unlike in UK has undergone few constitutional changes Biggest shift 2011 when left won majority in it, reflects discontent that local gvot reform but many council members out of jobs

UK Main Parties: Conservative Party (history/trend)

- Emerged late 18th c, identified with democratization and emergence of welfare state after WWII, have broad cross-class appeal - 1970s also had ideological divisions between advocates of traditional conservative pragmatism of limited welfare state and of radical or neoliberal free-market reforms (Thatcher showed latter won and abandoned support for collective consensus), party later further split over EU membership - After 2005 elections chose Cameron as party leader, like under Blair, forged more coherent and centrist ideological position (ex. Cameron's "big society" where supported gay rights and abortion) 2010 formed coalition with LD and 2015 majority - Still struggle with divides though like after 2008 financial crisis, party torn over austerity measures, EU (some Conservative MPs campaigned for leave, some defected to UKIP)

UK Branches of GVPT The Cabinet (history, number/how chosen, power checks, roles/ministries, unwritten rule)

- Evolved out of group of experts who originally advised Britain's monarchs - Now usually have 20 members (ministers) who must all be MPs, occasionally from upper house - Appoints leading party officials to top cabinet positions - Have few checks on power - Like most democracies, cabinet ministers preside over their individual gvpt departments and are responsible for answer to Parliament (during q time) about actions of bureaucracies they oversee - Most important ministries: Foreign Office (conducts foreign policy), Home Office (oversees the judiciary), Exchequer (minister, called chancellor, overseas financial policy) - One unwritten rule of cabinet behavior is collective responsibility - Def: even when individual cabinet ministers oppose a given policy, must appear unified and take responsibility for the policy - If cannot support decision than must resign and return to legislature Ex. Three members of Blair's cabinet when 2003 Iraq War approved Ex. Member of Cameron's gvpt after cuts to disability benefits

Germany Historical Development of the State: Fascist Totalitarianism under Third Reich (1933-45)

- Fascism describes the corporatist (rejecting individual freedom), hierarchal (rejecting social equality), and hyper nationalist values driving Nazi party - Employed state terror and state-supervised market economy to achieve regime's ideological goals of restoring German national power, expanding empire, and destroying threatening political ideologies/ethnic groups to his Aryan vision - For many Germans, the stability, order, and national wealth and pride Hitler promised were far more important values than either freedom or equality, he identified scapegoats and resurrected economy/united country -> Nazi propaganda - Rearmed Germany, annexed Austria, occupied Czechoslovakia, 1939 invaded Poland starting WWII - But when invaded Russia 1941 his rhetoric reached limit for Germans too - By 1945 massacred 6 million Jews and millions of other civilians on ethnic/racial grounds Killed self 1 week before Russia, America, GB, France defeated Germany

Germany Political Regime The Judicial System (significance, court, made up of, how elected, role)

- Federal Constitutional Court serves as ultimate guardian of Basic Law (to prevent Weimar), settles disputes between states and between federal gvpt and states, adjudicates disputes about elections and cases where citizens argue constitutional rights violated - Acts only when cases brought by either house of leg, lower courts, or citizens - Has power of abstract review on request of 1/3 of members of either leg house - Divided into two chambers (Senates) with 16 members each - Each house selects half of members of each chamber, judges approved with 2/3rds majority (single 12 year term and must retire by 68) - Important and highly respected - upheld ban on Communist and Nazi parties, restricted legalized abortion, rejected ban on Neo-Nazi National Democratic Party - Entirely independent from gvpt and rest of legal system - For no constitutional issues, Germany employs code law (!) instead of precedent, Federal Court of Justice of Germany highest ordinary and appeals court

Germany Political Regime Head of State (how elected, role)

- Federal president separate from head of gvpt (like most parliamentary systems), indirectly elected and ceremonial figure who performs symbolic tasks (formally signs bills into laws, signs treaties, can pardon convicted criminals - but usually only at behest of Chancellor) - Can refuse to sign laws believe unconstitutional (Horst Kohler did twice in 2006) - Formally nominate candidates to become chancellor but expected to select head of major party or coalition, must receive majority of voted in lower house (if badly fragmented could have significant power in choice but unlikely) - Decide whether to dissolve legislature and call new elections when no majority Elected for max two 5-year terms by special Federal Convention - includes members of lower house and equal number of individuals elected by Germany's state legislatures - Usually consensus choices who are respected elder statesman, nonpartisan Ex. Horst Kohler former IMF head, Christian Wulff (ally of Merkel, youngest, Catholic) - both resigned bc of scandals, Joachim Guak, 2017 Frank-Walter Steinmeier (Social Democrat , former minister of foreign affairs - had support of both major parties)

Germany Political Regime Local Gvpt (significance, system, implications, referenda)

- Federalism provided for in Basic Law that is rare among Western Europe's unitary states (mainly), though fewer powers than in US - Share powers with Fed Gov: Fed Gov controls defense and foreign policy, states have exclusive power over education, administration of state level justice, culture, law enforcement (also areas not covered by Basic Law) - States implement vast majority of legislation passed by fed gvpt, have direct check on fed gov bc upper house - Don't have power to raise taxes and revenues allocated by fed gov, responsible for 2/3rds of gvpt spending - Each German state has own unicameral legislature (4 year terms) who select minister-president (governor) who are powerful and can go on to be Chancellor later in career Can have referenda (not allowed at national level), can also experiment with other forms of direct democracy (some states have eliminated 5% threshold or directly elect mayors instead of being selected by council and some states allow for recall of their elected officials)

France Political Regime The Judiciary (Constitutional Courts - who, term limit, power, seen as?, trend)

- Fifth Republic also created Constitutional Council to settle constitutional disputes, 9 members appointed for single 9 year term by pres and heads of NA and Senat - Former presidents also serve as lifetime members of council -Can rule on any constitutional matter as long as there is request from gvpt, pres, or 60 members of either house of leg - Recent years, w high approval ratings, it has shown more independence - 2008 rejected legislation that would've allowed for indefinite imprisonment of dangerous criminals even after time had been served Citizens have right to directly appeal to it, but most of appeals come from groups of legislators Does not serve as court of last appeals (Council of State - top administrative court, 2016 struck don burkini ban)

UK Historical Development of State The Industrial Revolution (significance, pos/neg)

- First industrial nation (began in late 18th), which helped support the expansion of its empire, and had dominance in textiles, machinery, and iron - Did not experience the same political upheaval and instability as late-developing countries, as faced no initial competition so could amass a lot of wealth BUT this early industrialization led to economic decline (spending on empire and leading Allied forces in world wars) and found difficult to reform economy from "first-mover" industrialization problems after WWII

Germany Historical Development of the State: Reunification of German State, 1990-present

- Floods of Germans migrating from East to West prompted hurried negotiations leading to full reunification 1990, it meant incorporation of East Germany into FRG and adoption of Basic Law as new constitution of unified country, switch to capitalist economy - Huge inequality in living standards, infrastructure, and income between two parts have been tempered but even with huge transfers of wealth, these inequalities not resolved ($2 million spent to modernize infrastructure/stabilize economy) - After reunification, state-owned enterprises collapsed in EG leading to massive layoffs, unemployment remains higher than WG and in WG 30% wealthier on average But reunification still seen as favorable

UK Main Parties: Labour Party (history/trend)

- Formed 1900 out of trade unions to give British working class a voice in Parliament, After WWI and expansion of suffrage 1918 Labour party was able to make progress at polls (1/4 of vote), landslide victory 1945 was turning point - Considered socialism its dominant ideological characteristic, but also influenced by Fabianism (so wanted to work within system) - Wanted strong welfare state and some state ownership of victory, party's moderate politics never threatened to replace capitalism - Originally won support of 2/3rds of UK's working class, then in 1970s fewer Brits in working class jobs and faced individual division over become more left or centrist so led to defeat of party in every election from 1979 to 1997 - 1980s and 1990s began ideological and organizational moderation (weakened ability of trade unions to control party policy, advocated cross-class appeal, abandoned socialism -> Tony Blair party leader 1994 Third Way free market policies -> New Labour 1997, 2001, 2005 (last marked first time party elected three consecutive times) - 2010 loss support under Gordon Brown, still lost under Ed Miliband, 2015 Jeremy Corbyn became party leader and led party strong in 2017 election denying conservatives majority

UK Main Parties: The Liberal Democrats (history/trend)

- Formed in 1988 through merger of the Liberal Party (whigs) and defectors from Labour - Ideology mixture of classical liberalism's emphasis on both individual freedom and a weak state, and social democracy's emphasis on collective equality - Constant supporters of European immigration and opponents of war in Iraq, have called New Labour's policies timid and want more social spending and taxation - 2007 Nick Clegg elected leader, youngest party leader in UK, 2010 got highest ever share of popular vote at 23% but lost seats in Parliament bc of SMD spending - Both proposals as part of coalition with Conservatives - introducing AV and reforming House of Lords - failed, weakened bc of coalition and lost popular vote compared to prior elections in years following Clegg stepped down after 2015 election and successor did same in 2017

France Major Geographic and Demographic Features (size, natural resources, natural defenses, advantages, demographic, regional differences)

- France size of Texas, third largest country in Europe (Russia and Ukraine), shares borders with six countries and is at once an Atlantic, a continental, and a Mediterranean country (all led to vulnerability - no natural borders to north and northeast with Belgium and Germany where many invasions have come through) so need for defense led to strong central state - Abundant mineral resources (Saar region) and productive farmland (Alsace-Lorraine) have raised stakes and aggravated conflicts - After WWI, solution to geographic vulnerability was construction of Maginot Line, series of concrete fortifications along Franco-German border to prevent next war (Nazis skirted these defenses and invaded through Belgium) - No obstacles to transportation or communication, number of navigable rivers, and this ease allowed formation of (1) strong national identity and (2) facilitated France's economic and political integration (Paris) - Paris has linguistic and religious homogeneity (Catholic), practices in Paris have been imposed on all regions of country for centuries (home to 1/6 of France's 60 million citizens) - Idealization of "provisional" life and cultural symbol of farmers has led to a disproportionate amount of power and influence that farmers have on domestic and EU level (ex. Over issues like agricultural subsidies and globalization) Regional differences between north and south in politics, secularism, etc.

Germany Parties: Free Democrats (origins, role, platform, challenges, successes)

- Free Democratic Party (FDP) has been Germany's most successful party in sense that it has always a part of more post-WWII gvpts than any other German party but in other sense failure as has never led German gvpt nor has seats in Bundestag - Crucial hinge party that could determine nature of coalition party - Has found support w/ conservatives bc of economic policies, Social Democrats over social reforms/foreign policy - Supports free-market and civil liberties, and draws support from professionals/upper-middle-class Germans - Less socially conservative than CDU/CSU but less supportive of welfare state than SPD - Challenges: internal divisions, rise of Greens stole supporters (both have platform of supporting civil liberties and less cumbersome bureaucracy) - Successes: 2009 election won 15% of vote, coalition of CDU/CSU, party leader Guido Westerwelle became Germany's foreign minister, but under 5% threshold for Bundestag for first time in history 2013 elections, revival under new leader Christian Lindner 10% 2017 elections

France Why study this case? 3 Important qs from historical trends

- French case offers fascinating study of regimes (rules and norms that govern politics) - In two centuries, has been governed three monarchies, two empires, five republics, a fascist regime, and two provisional gvpts and has promogulated 15 separate constitutions - Can claim title to birthplace of modern democracy in Europe (Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, redefined French subjects as citizens) - Although revolution is no longer politics as usual and today's French citizens are more centrist, political life far from mundane - French often cynical about politics and deeply divided on issues (proper role of state), unique in willingness to write and rewrite rules of the political game Important qs from it - Is France's statist political-economic model compatible with its role in an increasingly globalized society, and can the French gvpt reform that model to protect France's economic competitiveness? - Can France protect its commitment to a secular and multiethnic state while integrating a growing Muslim minority? - France has always been committed to a politically and economically unified EU, but recently public support of EU has plummeted more than any other country as with lagging economy, so is France able to still play leading role in EU?

UK Political Regime The Constitution (3 qualities (third reason why UK has no what?), opposition, advantages)

- Generally understood to include a number of documents and unwritten rules that most British citizens view as inviolable - Which documents? 1215 Magna Carta (precedent for limits on monarchial power), 1689 Bill of Rights, 1707 Act of Union (united Scotland and England) - Unusual as also consists of various acts of Parliament, Judicial decisions, customs, traditions (Law of Precedence) - Since Parliament viewed as sovereign, lower house can amend any part of Constitution with simple majority vote ***So UK has no constitutional court, as any law passed by Parliament is considered constitutional*** Opposition - Since 1973 (UK joined EU) citizens have appealed to European laws to protect their right, as concerns over no written constitution - In response, 1998 gvpt incorporated European Convention on Human Rights which now serves as basic set of constitutional liberties - 2007 signatories to EU's Lisbon Treaty agreed to make this bill of rights legally binding - But UK negotiated which judicial matters would be under EU courts vs UK courts - Statue led to debate between parties about whether to have written constitution Advantages - Political scientists point to its flexibility and responsiveness to majority, led to political stability Ex. Blair's gvpt carrying out constitutional reforms that had significance comparable to Great Reform Act of 1832, concessions offered to Scotland to persuade voters to reject independence, Brexit (all would have been much harder with constitution, takes long time to change)

Germany Civil Society - Labor Unions and Business Orgs

- German citizens did not greet return of democracy with much civic enthusiasm as defeat in WWII rendered most apathetic about politics and still some support for authoritarianism in Bonn Republic (democracy in Weimer republic unsuccessful and traumatic) - But after 1949 remarkably high voter turnout and rejection of extremist parties, with economic recovery grew to support democracy, now has second-highest level of protest activity in Western Europe - Labor Unions and Business Orgs - Compared to most advanced democracies, trade unions in postwar Germany have been strong & influential Federation of German Labor (DGB) represents most of Germany's trade unions, during postwar period 2/3rds of workers unionized (now 1/4) Has close relationship with SPD and played key role in German policy making Over half of workers presently covered by collective bargaining agreements between unions and employers - But experienced rapid decline since 1990s as reunification flooded labor, unemployment soared, and economic growth rates declined - German business also highly organized, Federal Association of German Employers (BDA) & Federation of German Industry (BDI) powerful groups with close ties to CDU - BDI powerful interest group, often weighs in on major political-economic issues (opposed phasing out nuclear energy)

Germany Parties: Social Democrats (origins, trends, key people)

- Germany's Oldest political party (founded 1863), major actor during Weimar Republic (originally had a Marxist orientation, party of working class, won less than 30% in first two elections of new democracy) - Decided to broaden appeal, 1959 party convention renounced Marxism and became catchall party, popularity grew and in 1966 enough support to make coalition with CDU/CSU, 1969 first coalition gvpt of left under Willy Brandt (increased worker participation in management of private enterprise, better relations with Communists), continued success under Helmut Schmidt 1974, 1982 - Hurt by ambivalent support for reunification, out of power until Gerhard Schroeder 1998, formed coalition with Greens and backed controversial environmental policies (carbon tax) but also reforms to welfare state/foreign policy more conservative and alienated left (Oskar Lafontaine - eventually created separate party called the Left), gamble of calling early elections 2005 backfired 2013 SPD coalition with CDU (promised first national minimum age, reduction in retirement age, reform citizenship policy for immigrants), 2017 under former EU pres Martin Schultz had worst electoral result and returned to opposition, left coalition

UK Main Parties: Other Parties

- Green Party (elected its first MP in 2010 after decades of political activity) - Regionally based parties (SNP, Welsh Plaid Cymru, Sinn Fein) have been most successful in concentrating enough votes in some districts to win seats in legislature - UKIP (gained 1 seat 2015, lost it 2017) garnered significant support for its anti-EU, anti-immigration platform which was particularly pronounced in local elections and elections to EU Parliament (2014 majority UK party in EU parliament - uses PR for British members to European Parliament) Party capitalized on increased Europhobia and rising unease with immigration in general, and bc of Nigel Farage

France Political Regime Legislature (type, number of members in each house, term limits, significance)

- Has bicameral legislature, known as parlement, composed of 577 member Assemblee nationale (National Assembly) and 348 member upper house the Senat (Senate) - Deputies in NA elected for 5 year renewable terms and senators elected for 6 year terms Weaker than its counterparts in most advanced democracies, but still plays important role

Germany Why study?

- Has prominent position in world and pivotal position in Europe (Europe's largest and world's third largest exporting nation, Europe's biggest economy, EU's most populous country, integral member of European orgs) -Typifies Europe - social-democratic political and economic values, champions postmaterialist concerns for the environment, pursuit of leisure, human rights, vigorously promotes EU bc wants competitive economy/national security - But different from western/northern Europe as German state is federal -Even though 1648 Peace of Westphalia (established nation-state) signed on German soil, would take another 220 years before a German nation-state was established, and once it was it became violent and powerful under Nazis (consequences of hypernationalism - also led to division of Germany) - Bc of history, many Germans today hesitant to promote nationalism and are some of the strongest advocates of EU and European integration -Like Japan, latecomer to modern capitalism and democracy (both imposed externally) Challenges: globalization (to welfare state), immigration (raises qs about identity), end of Cold War (no longer linchpin of East-West relations), expansion of EU (has weakened its role) Still troubled by past and uncertain about future role

UK Historical Development of State Gradual Democratization (parliament represented what?, Two factors that gradually democratized Parliament and further weakened Monarch)

- Important to note that even though Parliament weakened power of Monarch, it originally represented the interest of the elite as only wealthy could vote - Class divisions represented in House of Lords vs House of Commons (1) Rise of Political Parties, first emerged as cliques of nobles but then reached out to larger society - First Parties: Conservatives (Tories) who supported the Monarch, and the Liberals (Whigs) who opposed policies of Monarch and cultivated support among commercial class of which most still excluded from the political system (2) Expansion of Suffrage: 1832 (doubled but still excluded 90% of population), 1928, 1969 (voting age reduced to 18) - Expansion of vote led to demand for expansion of services (health care, education, housing, etc) that state should provide - Labour Party formed in 1900 as outgrowth of trade union movement and by end of WWI was main rep of working class and largest center-left party in UK - Pushed for policies that would lead to welfare state - Elected to gvpt in 1945 where implemented welfare state and nationalized coal, utilities, rail, and health care

Germany Civil Society - Other Groups

- Like rest of West, experienced growth of a variety of political groups in 1960s-70s in criticism of model of economic growth including nuclear energy, pollution, status of women, dominance of major political parties - Women's movement particularly influential, since beginning of Bonn Republic women have organized (equal pay, access to abortion), 1980s Greens established quota for female candidates - Churches also important interest group since 1949 (catholic church more outspoken on social issues/ closer relationship to CDU/CSU) Protestant church was important in East Germany bc one of few autonomous orgs permitted there Influence is likely to decline as religiosity declines, weakened by secular East Germans Churches, mosques, synagogues funded by portion of income tax collected/allocated by gvpt

France Electoral System (type, resembles what, ensures what, encourages what)

- Majoritarian, resembles US, Canada, UK more than rest of Europe but different in that uses two-round runoff between candidates (bad experience with PR 4th republic) - Ensures that winning candidates do have majority of vote in each district, but still delivers disproportionate outcomes common in SMD elections - Ex. 2017 Macron's party won 53% of lower house seats with only 43% of nationwide vote - By using this, it encourages more parties and candidates than do SMD systems, but 12.5% threshold for second round severely limits number of parties that actually win - Ex. 2007 National Front won 5% of first round vote but not a single seat - Leads to complex political landscape as parties and individuals compete for seats knowing will not win probably but as way to have leverage against more powerful parties if make good show - But can bad consequences if support within party fragments, 2002 election for left Produces legislative majorities and political stability Separates candidates from party

France Electoral System (how NA elections work)

- NA elections: SMD voting (favors centrist candidates overall, esp in second round, can be extremist candidate in first) -First round: Candidates in each district with >12.5% of vote advance to second round Second round: first candidate to reach >50% of votes wins seats

France Historical Development of the State The Return to Absolutism in Postrevolutionary France (end of Napoleon regime, replaced by what, third revolution, what two systems after, which two ideas did France contribute to?)

- Napoleon's state became stronger when he was proclaimed emperor for life in 1804 national referendum (citizens preferred his stability), but he began to resemble a tyrannical monarch, ruled for another 10 years until abdicated throne after military defeats - returned a year later but then defeated by British 1815 Battle of Waterloo (seen as many French as national hero) - Replaced by absolute monarchy (other European powers supported this), Church and aristocracy reestablished their privileges until popular revolt in 1830 brought about constitutional monarchy - Third revolution 1848 ended monarchial rule, established universal male suffrage, and constitute short-lived Second Republic (had directly elected president - Napoleon's nephew Louis-Napoleon - first such office in Europe and reflects France's preference for strong executive) - But he (now Napoleon III) used a national referendum to make himself emperor 1852, Second Empire - Ruled for two decades, presiding over peace and rapid industrial growth, but this ended with defeat in Franco-Prussian war (1870-71), with no central authority Paris Commune (inspired communists and anarchists) was established until French troops crushed it But legacy was that France contributed to the emergence of not only liberal-democratic ideas but also Communist ones

UK Foreign Relations and World

- No longer superpower but retains relatively large army, nuclear weapons, and one of largest economies - Major player but struggles to define place post imperialism and Cold War - Since end of WWI counted US as ally but post wars on terror US viewed less favorably, still willing to defend interests militarily (Falklands) Finds self in greater agreement with EU on Israel-Palestine, Libya Rejected intervening in Syria with US

Germany Political Regime Branches of Gvpt & Cabinet (how elected, role)

- Often referred to as chancellor democracy bc federal chancellor, or PM, most powerful political figure/chief authority in Germany in order to create stronger, more stable/democratic regime than Weimer republic - Bundestag (lower) elects head of gvpt, leader of largest party in legislature so see most of gvpt's policy proposals approved by legislature (like most parliamentary systems) - Appoint/oversee cabinet (group of 15 ministers who head gvpt departments - don't need to be part of leg! But most are), can create/eliminate cabinet posts at will and fire cabinet ministers (but risky if minister part of party of coalition partner) - All German cabinets since 1949 have been coalitions of at least 2 parties, and partners choose who will be minister for posts allotted to them - Power varied over time - Helmet Kohl (oversaw reunification) and Gerhard Schroeder both came to dominate coalitions and partners - Have considerable resources including chief of chancellery, a chief of staff w broad powers over gvpt - Also make numerous political appointments to gvpt posts

France Bureaucracy (significance, ENA, Pantoflauge, size)

- One of world's earliest and most efficient, retains high profile and often go from here to elected office - Gateway to it through Ecole Nationale d'Administration (ENA), state educational institution that wants to train civil servants, few barriers between civil service and politics - In 5th Republic, four presidents and seven PMs graduates from it - Blurry line between states and politics extends to economy, subject to state guidance and partial state control - Pantoflauge - career bureaucrats moving from civil service to business common Over half of population works for it, increasingly costly as pop ages

France Referenda

- Referenda Since De Gaulle (used 5 times) referenda have been used less frequently though often regarding changes to the EU 2005 President Chirac submitted proposed European constitution to a referendum, voters delivered resounding rejection, and since then (as defeat weakened Chirac), the gvpt has not been willing to submit further EU treaty reforms to a national vote (not required by constitution) Proposal to submit referendum about Turkish membership? Effects of suggestion

UK Branches of GVPT The Legislature (significance, house of commons - limitations, how chosen, tasks)

- Parliament is most powerful legislature on Earth, due to lack of constitutional restraints - Concentration of power shown in how House of Commons is only chamber out of two with real power - Despite enormous power, individual legislators are far less powerful than counterparts in US - Receive paltry salaries and have very small staffs and few resources - As in parliamentary systems in general, PM elected from largest party so political parties not individual MPs are what matters and party cohesion v important unlike in US - Certain MPs selected as whips to enforce party line Typically more accessible than American legislators and often frequent "clinics" or face-to-face meetings with individual constituents to hear their concerns** Tasks - Actively debate issues, participate in legislative committees (though less powerful in US), vote on legislation proposed by gvpt, and have power to remove PM with vote of no confidence - Also individuals members can propose legislation from time to time So mostly UK deliberates, ratifies, and scrutinizes policies proposed by executive MPs traditionally voted with their parties more than 90% of time though since 2010 predictable less disciplined*** as weaker gvpts can embolden backbenchers to defy party whips

France Local gvpt (type of state, how many/what levels, local elections serve as what?)

- Prototypical unitary state - all power is concentrated in Paris, capital and largest city - Has experienced relatively few demands for regional autonomy (except for Corisca) BUT still history of it and three levels of local gvpt - region, department, and commune - have enjoyed increasing power over time - 18 regions (5 overseas), primary responsibilities are regional planning and economic development, led by council elected every six years - 96 departments (5 overseas territories), primary responsibilities for areas like health services and infrastructure - Two centuries power resided w prefect appointed by central gvpt but reforms 1982 transferred lots of power to directly elected departmental councils representing 2000 cantons - Cantons elect pair of representatives to department councils and must be male and female - Municipal level, communes made up of directly elected councils and mayors, handle tasks of communities 1982 reforms led them to have some control over taxes and revenues so powers have grown, but budgetary share small and 2010 reforms will reduce layers and size of local gvpt, protests byt costly Local elections often serve as a midterm bellweather of sitting gvpts (2015 rebuke to socialist Hollande presidency)

UK Branches of GVPT PM (significance, how chosen, comparison to other heads in other countries, roles)

- Real power concentrated in PM and cabinet which together constitute gvpt (PM head of gvpt) - Must be elected member of legislature and is head of largest party in House of Commons (selection of leader of party handled in party convention before general election) - Selects cabinet after monarch ceremonially names them PM - One of most powerful heads of contemporary democracies as can expect parliament to approve all legislation, party discipline in UK strong, and few checks of power - Wield less power though if parties hold slim majority or when depending on coalition of parties - Like other MPs, elected to max of five year term, until passage of 2011 Fixed-term Parliament Acts could choose to call elections before term expired if politically favorable to do so and extend term, now have to have elections every five years beginning in 2015 and need 2/3rds supermajority to override Act and call elections early - Subject to vote of no confidence - Occurs when chamber rejects a measure deemed of high importance to the gvpt, either entire cabinet must resign and be replaced or new elections called (rarely used, in last half century only two gvpts have been toppled by it - Often face this vote as way to rally support (2003 Blair authorizing use of force in Iraq, could authorize w/o lower house support but said would resign if didn't pass) - Roles - Must maintain support of fellow MPs (hard for every PM since Thatcher), must appear in legislature weekly for televised q period (have to defend gvpt policies and answer qs from MPs, display strong oratorical skills), direct activity of and manage disputes in cabinet, guide party to victory in general elections, provide national leadership through diplomacy - Usually have more than two decades of experience in House of Commons, seasoned so usually outstanding debaters, effective communicators, and skilled negotiators Political outsider has no chance of winning

France Political Regime Branches of GVPT: Presidency (system type, powers (come from what?), cabinet type, checks, criticism)

- Semi-presidential system includes dual executive: pres head of state (more power than UK, less than US), PM head of gvpt - But constitution ambiguous in differentiating their powers - Pres has acquired powers somewhat beyond those specified by the constitution as from 1958 to 1981 De Gualle and successors controlled both legislature and executive, precedent, and bc pres is only directly elected political figure with a national mandate, long terms (2008 limited to two) - Constitution & precedent led to current roles: directs armed forces, can't veto legislation but can ask lower house to reconsider it, submit referenda directly to people, must sign all laws and decrees, can dissolve leg and call new elections (happened 5 times to obtain/reinforce leg majority), powerful staff who work with PM, dismiss PM and cabinet - Ex. Power shown in May 2016 when Hollande used constitutional decree powers to impose reform of French labor laws, avoiding vote in legislature despite widespread opposition - Pres does not directly govern - PM's job - PM selects Council of Minister and presides over day-to-day affairs, has become chief aide whose job is to carry out the president's political agenda (shown as pres chairs weekly meetings of Council of Ministers - If pres enjoys a majority in legislature they can select/dismiss PM and members of cabinet - Potential conflict between pres and legislature if from different parties, as leg. Has to confirm pres. Choice of PM - But hasn't been a problem bc same party has usually ruled both, and even when not pres can appease leg by choosing PM from opposing party ("cohabitation"), no stalemate yet Been accused of becoming republican monarchy bc of power of pres, but exs like when Francois Mitterrand and Jacques Chirac were limited in power bc opposition controlled leg and PM shows not true

France French Left

- Since 1970s PS dominant, but challenged by 2017 elections - 1905 founded, 1930s in power, 1969 reestablished with Fancois Mitterrand - moderate social democratic ideology and 1981(-95) he became pres - But allegations of corruption against him, party loss of leg majority 1986, had to cohabit with conservative PM for most of two terms - Support for 1992 Maastricht Treaty, which enhanced European integration, alienated much of Socialist electorate, 1997 brief win ◊ 2012 won briefly with Fancois Hollande, lost 2017 } Had campaigned on traditionally leftist platform that included major tax increase on the rich, stricter financial sector regulations, reduction of retirement age, and legalization of gay marriage } Difficult presidency as rising unemployment at time, growing budget deficit, corruption allegations against cabinet - Replaced PM with Manuel Valls who was a hardline on immigration, ban of face veil, and economic reform that was supported generally but not by left □ Terrorist attacks in 2015/16 strengthened conservative opposition to Socialists, March 2016 Hollande had lowest approval rating ever (17%), Valls lost 2017 □ PCF another influential party, played major role in French resistance to Nazi occupation, loyal to Soviet Union ® Historically had strong base of support among French workers and in France's trade union movement ® During post-WWII period won about 20% of vote and also had largest membership of any political parties - but didn't translate to national success ◊ By entering coalitions and cabinet positions with Socialists, tarnished image as opposition party along with collapse of Soviet Union } By 2017 polled only 3% of vote in first round, usually can't find own pres candidate - backed Jean-Luc Melenchon Other Parties: Europe Ecology - The Greens (EELV), Radical Party of the Left (PRG) - center left ally of PS and heir to tradition of non-Marxist French radicalism (opposed monarchy nad all but strongly supported private property and free market)

France Political Regime Legislature (6 ways overcome limitations in recent years)

- Since 1970s has weekly governing of gvpt ministers, but not pres - NA regularly amends leg and pres doesn't reject all of them - 1995 leg session extended from 6 to 9 months, extended special sessions common - Leg committees more important in proposing and amending legislation - Motions of censure used by opposition to bring controversial issues to floor for deviate - 2008 over sending more troops to Afghanistan, way for socialists to criticize Sarkozy's increase of ties to US and NATO Major constitutional reform passed in 2008 and strengthened NA, easier to introduce legislation and set legislative agenda, and strengthened NA's gvpt oversight power

UK Branches of GVPT PM (History of Thatcher and Blair, domestic/foreign policy, similar trends)

- Since end of WWII Thatcher and Blair most important and controversial PMs, both changed traditions of party (former Conservative party's ties to aristocracy, latter Labour party's hostility to free markets) and reinvigorated parties that had been out of power for long time - Both implemented important domestic reforms - In addition to above, Thatcher defeated trade unions during strikes to her policies and instituted unpopular poll-tax - Blair implemented ambitious set of constitutional reforms, devolved power to regional and local gvpts (some of which had lost power under Thatcher), created new legislatures in Wales and Scotland, reform House of Lords, established Supreme Court, made central bank (Bank of London) independent of GVPT In terms of foreign policy, both favored very close relationships to US at expense of European allies and both took country to controversial wars (1982 Falkland Wars, 2003 Iraq Wars) Both unpopular by end of term in office, both resigned without having lost an election Esp as refused to budge on issues public abhorred (poll tax and Iraq War) Both handed power to competent but less charismatic party leaders who were both less controversial and less successful

Germany Parties: The Left (origins, role, platform, challenges, successes)

- The Left (Die Linke) founded 2007 as heirs of East German Communists (PDS after reunification) and some leftists who abandoned SPD, with merger of two under charismatic Oskar Lafontaine political fortunes and appeal in West Germany increased, since 2005 consistently won 10% of vote - Opposes policies of privatization and tax cuts and foreign policy that recent German gvpts have pursued, opposes NATO membership (US hegemony) - Considers itself as Germany's only real opposition party "party of no" and won't enter coalitions (only those with SPD at state level)

France Historical Development of the State The French Revolution, Destruction of the Aristocracy, and Extension of State Power (established what kind of rule, what rights given and what established as legacy, why fail?)

- Third Estate established the National Assembly which issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, destroyed ancien regime - Sovereignty was to rest with people and elected reps, church and state maintain strict separation, and all male citizens could claim the natural and universal rights of freedom and equality before law* - Unlike Americans, French embraced strong, central state - Embraced technocratic form of rule - drew from Enlightenment and early stages of scientific revolution, became catalyst for standardization and reform to progress trade/development (ex. Metric system 1795), introduced idea of state part of technological and scientific revolution (still important idea in France today) - 1791 French moderates wrote new constitution limiting monarchy and setting up constitutional monarchy, undermined by extremists on both sides - Jacobins seized power and launched class war (Reign of Terror - executed those who didn't agree with radical vision of republic), violence devoured all including Jacobin's leader Robespierre 1794 - Violence ceased by cultural and ideological divisions between conservative, Catholic, and rural vs progressive, secular, and urban - Briefly after, moderates established weak and inefficient gvpt that lasted 5 years and had 2 constitutions - 1799 General Napoleon Bonaparte seized power in coup d'etat, unlike a revolution as simply codified key elements of revolutionary order (same demands as *) Also established meritocratic civil service that was open to all citizens and a system of elite schools to train these functionaries (open to all?)

France Historical Development of the State Democratization and the Weak Regimes of Third and Fourth Republics (third republic, Vichy, fourth republic - republics weakened by what?)

- Third Republic lasted for 70 years until outbreak of WWII, but was weakened by ideological divisions between factions ranging from monarchists to anarchists (successive gvpts lasted less than a year usually), but still had powerful bureaucracy and economic development - Further polarized ideological divisions by WWI, more than 1.5 million French died and economic depression followed, fertile ground for fascism and communism - Debate preempted by France's swift defeat by Nazis in opening weeks of WWII - Nazi victors collaborated with the French right in setting up the puppet Vichy regime (name of town where gvpt based) - Many French moderates ended up supporting this fascist gvpt, as preferred to communist gvpt - General Charles De Gaulle came to embody the France anti-Nazi movement (though resistance effort diverse and loosely linked), led French forces in England following his retreat from France 1940 - Leadership and role in France's provisional gvpt led him to play important role in Fourth Republic, but disagreed with majority about role of president and withdrew from politics - Fourth Republic was based on an electoral system of proportional representation and parliamentary gvpt with weak PM and was frequently as paralyzed as third republic had been (20 gvpts in 12 years) - In global context: EU was created and independence movements in colonies grew esp Algeria - 1958 French generals in Algeria responded to protests by creating provisional gvpt and threatened military action in France itself if Algeria did not remain French, so gvpt called on de Gaulle to return to politics and solve crisis

UK Society (trends, identity/political culture)

- UK outlawed capital punishment and legalized abortion and homosexuality in 1960s, handguns outlawed 1998, far less emphasis on religion and traditional family values, political culture pragmatic and tolerant less subscribed to overall ideology and political radicalism rare (bc of no defining revolutionary moments?, ad hoc) - Simmering tensions in subcultures have boiled over due to economic recession, growing social inequality, and increased immigration

UK The Electoral System (type, effects (exs))

- Uses SMD or first-past-the-post, - Electoral constituencies are based mostly on population, and they average about 68,000 voters, they are revised every five to seven years by a gvpt commission Implications of SMD system - Help maintain dominance of two-party system, and constantly penalizes smaller parties (ex. Liberal Democrats, UKIP, and SNP) that have a lot of support locally (1/5 of seats in district but only 1 seat in parliament bc support widely dispersed) or in Scotland SNP won 54 seats bc of regional concentration though less than 5% of vote - British electoral system generally produced clear majorities in the House of Commons, even when there was no clear majority in the electorate (minority of vote can win majority of seats when more than two parties contest seat so votes are not counted towards winning party)**?*** Since WWII, more than 60% of seats have been won with a minority of votes

UK Elections (turnout, length of campaign, focus on candidates or party?)

- Usually 60-70% turnout, below European but above US average - British campaigns are usually shorter than a month as simple choice of which party should govern, parties are well disciplined and have clear, published policy manifestos so unlike in US, clear how parties differ - Candidates have less attention, and them not residing in district that representing is much less of concern

France Historical Development of the State Absolutism and the Consolidation of the Modern French State (how created, absolute monarchy, duties of monarch, estates, 15th c, 18th c)

-By carving out the Holy Roman Empire 9th c, Charlemagne unified area of present day France but with death, reduced to assortment of Feudal kingdoms which unlike the UK, led to absolute monarch - Absolute monarchy centralized authority and developed bureaucracies capable of taxing subjects and administering affairs of state, contributions to modern state include allying itself with and ultimately employing each relevant class or "estate" in carrying out its duties (step to welfare?) - 3 primary duties of Monarchs (1) Making + executing laws (executive and legislature) (2) Waging wars + defending the state (3)Raising income for state through taxes Made easier to wage wars, but expensive - The Catholic clergy, or First Estate administered legal system; landed aristocracy or Second Estate prosecuted king's wars; and financiers from the commoners made up Third Estate which gathered taxies - 14th c monarch established an assembly known as Estates General which included reps from three estates to co-opt them - By 15th c Louis XI centralized authority enough to double size of France to current size and weakened power of nobility and ignored Estates General, successors for next three centuries continued this (Louis XIV, Sun King and "I am the state", never convened Estates General) - High administrative efficiency, envy of Europe - However by 18th c drains on royal coffers combined with system of taxation reduced French commoners to famine and bankrupted state, to build support and find funding Louis XVI (Sun King's grandson) convened Estates General 1789 - Third Estate wanted to meet as one assembly instead of each estate being granted one vote (allowing first and second to override it), king refused Commoners angry, raising bread prices prompted them to storm Bastille (July 14, 1789) and launched French Revolution

Germany Historical Development of the State: Unification of German State

-Napoleon's invasion of Germany 1806 destroyed the empire and inadvertently began process of German unification which unleashed forces of German nationalism that led to Nazi fascism - Wiped out many principalities and caused others to merge with larger neighbors for protection - Only Prussia to east and Austria to south strong enough to resist Napoleon's onslaught and avoid inclusion in confederation of defeated territories that he formed - After his defeat in 1815, German allies under Prussian leadership set up loose confederation of 40 sovereign mini states that created for first time kind of German state

UK Political Regime Why is political regime in UK notable among the world's democracies? (reason, exs) So what has prevented Central gvpt from abusing its power?

Bc of its highly majoritarian features that are unlike other democracies - The major party in the UK can enact policies with few checks from other branches of gvpt - No formal constitutional limits on central gvpt, few judicial restraints, and no constitutionally sanctioned local authorities to dilute power of central gvpt So what has prevented Central gvpt from abusing its power? Historic traditions of political culture and EU membership (restrictions are imposed by that body)

UK Political Regime What are 5 main branches of gov?

Can think of the Crown, the legislature, PM, cabinet, and judiciary as main branches of gvpt

UK Political Regime The Crown (role, why survived, powers (2), today, when could influence?, how monarch chosen)

Crown is head of state - symbolic representative of the continuity of the British state, purely ceremonial, at behest of cabinet -Has survived for centuries bc agreed to act constitutionally, since 19th meant must always follow orders of elected reps - Ex technically chooses head of gvpt, but choice must always be leader of majority party in the lower house of parliament - Ex Monarch commander of British armed forces, but PM has power to declare wars and sign treaties Today monarch (Queen Elizabeth II) is essentially a paid civil servant (gvpt allocates budget to cover royal family expenses and she signs papers, dedicates public works, and performs diplomatic functions) When could technically have political influence? - If legislature found itself deadlocked and unable to form gvpt, even then choice extremely constrained Hereditary institution that until recently followed rule of primogeniture (oldest son (or daughter if no sons) inherited throne) but Cameron secured passage of bill in 2011 that abolished male precedence in royal succession - **16 countries in Commonwealth who recognize British monarch as their head of state approved** - But cardinal constitutional principle of parliamentary supremacy means that they may actually choose Monarch (1701 Hanovers to replace Stuarts) Institution remains popular, movements to abolish monarchy have failed to garner support (3/4ths in favour of retaining it)

UK Political Conflict and Competition (current system called what, why?)

Current system called two-and-a-half party system as after 1974 multiparty system emerged (included birth of Liberal Democratic party and nationalist parties) Differs regionally due to regional, nationalist parties

France Historical Development of the State Significance

Development of the French state offers an archetype for the emergence of a powerful state, modern nation-state that exists alongside a society that uses mass demonstrations for political change

UK Historical Development of State Early Development (3rd Legacy 2 unintended consequences)

First Unintended Consequence: Creation of state-controlled Anglican Church led to a religious institution that was weaker and less autonomous than its counterparts in other European countries - Conflict between religions still plagues Ireland with split between Catholics and Protestants, bloody exception to rule Second Unintended Consequence: Henry VIII's reliance on Parliament to sanction the changes strengthened and legitimized Parliament's power

UK Branches of GVPT The Legislature (house of lords - number (2 types of peers), how chosen, tasks, why not directly elected)

Has over 800 peers appointed in different ways: -Life peers appointed by crown upon recommendation of PM - dozen top officials of Church of England, dozen law lords who are top legal experts and played important role in legal appeals until recent reforms - Hereditary Peers are most controversial and members of aristocracy, have title who until recently were able to bequeath seats to offspring 1999 Labour reformed by eliminating all but 92 of hereditary peerages Power - Has no actual veto but can delay legislation for up to year, can persuade gvpts to amend legislation, most important role was as court of last appeal and judicial review but ended with creation of Supreme Court 2009 - Call for direct election of house of lords and term limits of 12 to 15 years, but both chambers oppose esp bc House of Commons doesn't want to increase their power at own expense

France Political Economy

Has strong state role in the political economy - partly bc of modern social democratic policies, but other elements can be traced over the course of several centuries (monarch levying heavy taxes on populace to support large bureaucracy, highly mercantilist economy) - By 20th c was lagging behind many of its neighbors in terms of economic development (large agricultural sector, low level urbanization), 1948 electrical services and major consumer goods were little known - After WWII French gvpt set out to rapidly transform the economy in form of dirigisme (emphasis on state authority in economic development - combination of both social democratic and mercantilist ideas) - Involved nationalization of several sectors of the economy (ex. utilities), promotion of a limited number of "national champion" industries to compete internationally (Airbus), creation of national planning ministry, establishment of ENA - Succeeded, economic wealth grew rapidly, increased urbanization, agricultural sector now had large farms, within 20 years GDP surpasses Germany and UK Costs: large public sector, expansive welfare system, heavy tax burden -But by mid 1980s unemployment had risen (esp among young), economic growth fell to lowest in EU, aging population ◊ Hard to handle these challenges bc of political culture, pop views globalization as risky (call it Anglo-Saxon model - meaning UK and US) - don't want to Americanize France } Sarkozy won bc he said radical change was needed, but faced protests during presidency bc wanted to expand work week, raise retirement age, deregulating business, cutting gvpt payrolls (2010 massive strikes) ○ Signs that reform may come § Growing consensus that reform is necessary § French economy still highly competitive and thus amendable to reform (US only has higher GDP bc Americans work longer hours, but French workers produce more per hour) ○ Struggle over agriculture § Has shrunk but still part of identity, locally or nationally produced food is central to the French self-image and to international prestige (French wine and cheeses), but also sustained by EU subsidies (CAP!!!) § But cost of CAP, combined with pressure from non-EU countries, has intensified this conflict in recent years, but French gvpt has resisted restructuring it Return of Socialist Party to gvpt under Francois Hollande 2012 raised concerns about reforms, campaigned to increase taxes on wealthy, rein in excesses of financial sector, and increase social spending but during first two years economy performing poorly so then appointed Valls and Macron who implemented spending cuts and rolled back tax increases, protests

Germany Political Regime (significance)

Its political regime since 1949 (called Bonn Republic bc Bonn was WG capital) fascinating ex of constitutional engineering as wanted to prevent breakdown like Weimer Republic (sought to seek better balance in all aspects (local/national, political stability/rep. democracy, state/individual rights) with more checks and balances so less efficient/decisive than GB but remarkably stable/effective)

UK Historical Development of State Early Development (Last wave of invasions, legacy)

Last wave of invasions by Normans (Danish Vikings who occupied northern France) 1066 replaced Germanic ruling class in Britain, imposed central rule, and ****introduced institution of feudalism from European continent**** -Feudalism created a system of mutual obligation between lord and peasant on one level, and between monarch and lord on another - Foundation for eventual limits on royal power - Magna Carta which British nobles obliged King John to sign in 1215 (subjected British monarchs to rule of law and limited their power - lecture notes) **Bc of it, never experienced royal absolutism that was common in other countries (ex. Russia), and this helped pave way for public control over gvpt and state

France Electoral System (how pres elections work)

Presidential elections: top two candidates from first round advance to the second round, in which the candidate with >50% of the vote wins presidency - But, if candidate earns >50% of the votes in the first round, he/she automatically wins the election and no second round is held - Held between one or two week period usually (to counteract changing public opinion) Last presidential election 2017 - First round April 23 (11 candidates), second and final round: 7 May (Emmanuel Marcon vs Marine Le Pen) w Won with 66.__% of vote, Le Pen 33.6%, clear majority Elections held on Sunday when most people are off

French Civil Society Private enterprise and organized religion

Private Enterprise ◊ Well organized - large firms represented by MEDEF and smaller by CGPME, want lower taxes, easier to fire/hire workers, and reduced role of gvpt in economy though latter less enthusiastic about economic reforms that will remove barriers that protect them from competition Organized Religion ◊ Have less of role, over half nominally Catholics, anticlerical society (bc church seen as tool of monarchial power) ◊ Church and state formally separate since 1905 under laicite (no religion can receive state support and religious education restricted) } So church mainly plays role in social rituals (funerals) ◊ Though can rally to defend self (ex1980s to prevent stricter gvpt control over religious schools) ◊ As Catholic church has waned, other religions have grown in power (Islam) (ex, Union of Islamic Orgs) 2002 gvpt created French Council of the Muslim Faith to act as intermediary between gvpt and Muslim leaders, but limited success

UK Society (trends, ethnic/national identity)

Religious, culture, and linguistic divisions do exist and are becoming increasingly more volatile (ex 2005 London bombings, racially charged riots 2011) - Scots mainly Catholic or Presbyterian, English Church of England , Religion still source of conflict in Northern Ireland Religious divide was compounded by both national and class differences, Catholics discriminated against in employment and education, 1960s IRA turned to violence against British state in order to unify with Republic of Ireland, illegal protestant paramilitary orgs fought back - known as -The Troubles three-decades-long period of conflict claimed nearly 4000 casualties on both sides mainly civilians, 1998 Good Friday Agreement - IRA renounced arm struggle and Catholic population would have greater say in local gvpts through reforms ◊ But legislature created suspended in 2002 as IRA refused to give up arsenal, 2007 restored and first leader against agreement (Ian Paisley), still occasional violence (2009) New divisions with former colonial subjects beginning to immigrate in 1960s (Africa, West Indies, India, Pakistan), not coped with influx - Not having PR limits both nonwhite and far right party Parliament sought to limit nonwhite population by imposing quotas that restrict entrance of nonwhite dependents of persons already residing in UK, lack of integration of Muslim population

UK Main Parties: Party Politics Today

Two near-consecutive hung parliaments in last elections point to challenges facing two leading parties as well as LD demonstrating difficulties of third party seeking influence, challenge conventions of tradition 2015 support for regional and single-issue parties surged at expense of major two, but democracy /party politics live and well

UK Local Gvpt (what kind of state, local autonomy, regional level)

Unitary state as no formal powers are constitutionally reserved for regional or local gvpt/councils (ex. Under Thatcher their power sharply curtailed bc believed were taxing and spending beyond means and changed property to poll tax to cripple local gvpts, 1997 Labour restored some of power with allowing London to elect mayor, Conservatives have continued this with giving local citizens more decision-making power regarding local taxation and public services) Also upper house unelected and so no accountable to states or other regional bodies - Since 2012 16 additional major municipalities have been granted authority to hold mayoral elections Representation at regional level has been historically very limited, of four nations only Northern Ireland had its own legislature until political violence caused it to disband 1972 (1998 reestablished with Good Friday Agreement) - Each of four nations has a cabinet minister in central gvpt called secretary of state who is responsible for setting policies in each region □ Scotland's Parliament is much more powerful and autonomous than Wales' assembly □ England on nation in UK w/o own regional gvpt Central gvpt also retain power to limit (or even eliminate) local gvpt if and when it chooses

Germany Political Regime The Legislature (significance Bundestrat, how elected, role)

} Bundestrat has 69 members who are delegates of governments of Germany's Lander ("states"), each state appoints 3-6 members depending on pop, and minister-president (state PM or governor) usually head of state delegation - Delegations of representatives cast ballots as a bloc, following instructions of state gvpt - All legislation submitted to upper house before being sent to lower house, must approve all laws affecting states giving it effective veto power over 1/3 of all legislation (for other leg, can be overruled by lower house), approve all constitutional amendments w When two houses disagree, joint committees form to negotiate - Traditionally served as important check on federal gvpt bc usually controlled by opposition !! As state elections don't coincide with federal ones (ex. 2003 Social Democratic Party (SPD) Agenda 2010 legislative program, conservative Bundestrat) 2006 limited its right in blocking legislation tho

UK Civil Society (lobbying prevalence, labor groups, business groups)

§ British interest groups influence public policy and public opinion, but interest-group lobbying of MPs is far less prevalent than such lobbying in US bc British parties highly disciplined, so focus on party leadership and bureaucracies (who interpret and apply policies) § Greatest influence comes through participation in quangos (policy advisor boards or other entities approved by gvpt or appointed that bring gvpt officials and affected interest groups together to help develop policy □ First developed in 1960s and 1970s, conservative gvpt has attacked them and trimmed their numbers, but over 1000 remain in different policy areas § Trades Union Congress (TUC) confederation of UK's largest trade union is most important special interest group, dominated by Labour in post-war period but weakened in past two decades (1/2 to 1/4 of British workers being union members (three reasons - first loss of members, second Thatcher, third Labour party reforms) § Counterweight to TUC and largest business special interest group is Confederation of British Industry (CBI), has no direct link to Tories but usually favor conservative policy and top business leaders have influence in past Conservative gvpts Recent decades Labour began to cultivate good relations with them

French Society Ideology and Political Culture (historical legacy)

§ Divisive historical events, the weakness of civil society, the importance of the state, de Gaulle's hostility towards political parties have all played part in creating system in which individual political leaders, rather than ideological groupings, have been central □ So ideological divisions are much more diverse and reflect a range of experiences, many values fall under populism, or set of ideas including faith in common man and suspicion or organized power ® Has helped keep civil society and ideology weak by fostering ongoing mistrust of such institutions as political parties ◊ Also explains tendency towards mass protests (more than 1000 worker strikes a year) Combined with strong national and patriotic identity and belief it is exceptional to other states (leads to conflict with US)

French Civil Society Significance, trade unions

§ French interest groups and associations remain weaker than those in most advanced democracies, bc of powerful state and emphasis on mass action over organized lobbying □ Trade unions and orgs representing enterprise are two important elements of civil society ® Labor Unions ◊ Bc of numerous strikes outsiders think labor unions are strong but actually they have long history of being weak and fractious (More than one union can represent workers in French firms so pits trade unions against each other - can't efficiently engage in productive bargaining with employers so need strikes) } Less than 8% of workforce belongs to labor union, one of lowest in Europe, plummeted among young workers, also unlike other places usually divided along party lines ◊ General Confederation of Labor (CGT) is among most powerful, linked to PCF but power and membership have dwindled with PCF loss of power, represent quarter of unionized work force ◊ French Democratic Labor Confederation (CFDT) and Force Ouvrire (FO) have more centrist or anticommunist sentiments, former is roughly equal to size of CGT ◊ Outside of these have smaller, independent ones like teachers trade unions ◊ Play key role in society and management of welfare sectors } Unions have right to represent all workers in firms that employ over 50 employees whether or not union members Strongly represented in public-sector workforce, can influence gvpt when its attempting to reform welfare benefits

French Society Ethnic/National Identity

§ Today French see selves as ethnically homogenous, but not the case historically □ Historically, many parts of France maintained distinct ethnic identities that included own languages and cultures: Gascon, Savoyard, Occitan, Basque, Breton, etc ® Over time assimilated though some (Basque and Coriscans) retained strong linguistic and cultural ties ® Form of republicanism in French Revolution different from American as did not emphasize individualism and federalism/weak state ◊ Rivals for state loyalty (nationalism) eradicated or brought under control of state □ However now challenged by changes in religious and ethnic identities ® In past decades seen influx of people from Africa, ME, Southeast Asia (1/5 to 1/4 of pop today), often find selves marginalized bc of lack of representation, language barriers, and lack of education ® Most concentrated in housing projects with poor social services, limited employment opportunities, little access to transport (sense of disconnect from French leife and violence - 2005 heavy rioting) ® Centers around Muslim community, has largest Muslim population in Europe, conflict with idea of separation of church and state (ex. Head scarf in public schools - 2004 law forbidding, 2011 banned full face veils in public as promote separatism (?) though not been enforced) ◊ French point of that UK's multicultural approach hasn't worked as Muslim community there much more radicalized ® How is gvpt handling? ◊ Under Sarkozy more restrictions on immigration, integrating immigrant pops, subtle racism with law and order (2009 proposed national debate on what it means to be French, but outpouring of anti-immigrant sentiment) ◊ Socialist pres Hollande supported ban on head scarves and proposed other anti-immigration measures 2015 and 2016 terrorist attacks heightened tensions, millions of French took to streets to protest Islamic terrorism

France French Center

□ By 2017 both Socialists and mainstream conservatives had been discredited, election of Macron could show emergence of new political center and realignment of French politics ® Macron was investment banker, advisor to Hollande and economics minister under him - passed labor reforms opposed by trade unions, 2016 quit gvpt and founded REM as centrist (free-market, socially progressive, pro EU) ◊ Attacked by left as unsympathetic to workers and beholden to corporate world and attacked by right, so gained support from more centrist Socialists and conservatives, core of young supporters (half of REM candidates inexperienced and half were women - blow to political establishment) } Cabinet members from center left and center right, half women Edouard Philippe member of RP and his PM

France French Right

□ Guallists or Neo-Guallists were most important force on right from 1959-1981, but since de Gualle never associated himself with any party, his heirs created various competing parties of the right divided by personality and presidential ambitions ® Two most important were Rally for the Republic (Jacques Chirac) and Union for French Democracy (UDF) (Valery Giscard d'Estaing - five center right party alliance), over time differences (role of state and EU) disappeared ® 2002 President Chirac encouraged most of right to cohere as single party Union for a Popular Movement (UMP), UDF still runs but importance declined ◊ Compared to de Gaulle, UMP behaves a lot more like classical conservative party ◊ During Sarkozy presidency continued to move in direction of the free market but still had role for state } Ex. Eliminated inheritance tax and reduced taxes on businesses } Reforms to health care, retirement age, and invasion of Afghanistan controversial, also ruined by corruption scandals (nepotism - son gvpt position) and economic crisis and courting to far right on immigration } Dramatic loss in 2012 as no pres had been turned out after one term before - But returned to politics 2014, renamed UMP, won majority of regional offices in 2015 ® 2016 Republican Francois Filon (PM under Sarkozy) won but candidacy in first round damaged by allegations of nepotism and corruption, lost second round - still remained largest opposition force in 2017 legislative elections ◊ Unity among two main conservative parties spurred by emergence of NF, until 1980s never attracted more than 1% of vote, 1986 10% bc of immigration stance, 2002 Le Pen run off with Chirac bc of divided left (second round less than 20% of vote) } Main impact of NF is that it forced parties to its left to take a harder line on immigration and law and order (ex Sarkozy) - Marine Le Pen emphasized antiglobalization and Euroskeptism, and distanced party from xenophobic statements of her father (expelled him from party 2015), has had more success and won 18% of vote in first round (campaigned on lowering retirement age, abandon euro, referendum on introducing death penalty, deport foreigners convicts), third largest force in legislature after PS and UMP, May 2014 won 25% of vote beating other too (domestic frustration with EU) base includes, left, right, manual workers The French Center

Germany Political Regime The Legislature (significance Bundestag, how elected, role)

◊ Usually in parliamentary systems it is center of power, but in Germany its power is weakened vis-a-vis the Chancellor to avoid Weimer Republic situation ◊ Lower house Bundestag (Federal Diet) represents pop, upper house Bundestrat (Federal Council) reps 16 states } Bundestag more powerful, 709 deputies, only directly elected public officials at federal level, elected for max of 4 years though elections can be called before then - Main power is electing Chancellor, select one who can form a majority coalition (no party ever outright wins) w Angela Merkel was first elected 2005 (conservatives-Social Democrats), 2009 elections (conservative-Free Democrats centrist), 2013 (back to Social Democrats) w Can remove Chancellor, but only through "constructive" vote of no confidence, so can only happen if majority of its members can approve a replacement (to prevent constant removal by extremists parties Weimer) w Only been two since 1949, and only one (1982) successful w Chancellor can call for motion of confidence, and if fails legislature can be dissolved and new elections (2005) - Approves all federal laws, but the gvpt initiates most of legislation, so lower hosue can amend and debate legislation submitted by gvpt, question members of gvpt during weekly q hours (like UK, but submit qs ahead of time and can as follow ups) Much of work done by powerful committees in lower house who can question gvpt ministers, investigate gvpt activities, and challenge bills submitted by gvpt with expertise

France Foreign Relations & World

○ France has seen itself as having a special mission in international system, to export revolution's core ideas (legitimized French empire in 18th c), modern nationalism today came from France § Persisted to present and role brought into sharp focus with rise of two rivals to universal authority; US and Soviet Union, saw itself between two superpowers and two ideologies □ Played important role in EU and NATO, saw EU as potential to extend its authority as counterweight to above two (bipolar -> multipolar), so viewed it differently than other member states, even NATO viewed in these terms but prevented by US domination of NATO (withdrew 1966?) ○ Even before 2001 French worried about US domination as "hyperpower" as no longer SU to counter, military hyperpower would be further enhanced by globalization, was undermining France's place in world order, tensions strained with Iraq invasion (France has friendly relation w Arab States, strongly opposed) ○ Sarkozy mended tensions, helped when intervened in Libya, Hollande continued this foreign policy in Syria ○ Eurozone economic crisis created new tensions in the Franco-German relationship and has damaged enthusiasm for the EU § Vision of a Federal EU? □ Look over EU has developed more clearly pronounced differences between those who use the EU and those who don't (newer states like UK) (two-tier EU)

UK Political Economy

○ Noteworthy for contribution to liberal economic model, John Locke ○ Common theme in UK economy following WWII is decline, 2016 GDP ranked 38th in world even if one of largest 10 economies § Bc of early industrialization, burden of empire, collectivist consensus blocked needed economic reforms ○ Postindustrial economy, nearly 3/4ths of country's wealth from service sector (financial and tourism) ○ Neoliberal policies helped overall economy (Thatcher) but deepened financial inequality Economic place in world - half of trade goes to EU states but never accepted Euro