Health Unit 6

Occupational safety has gotten more attention recently. Over 1.5 million disabling injuries, 10 thousand deaths, and 250,000 illnesses can be attributed to work. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) sets standards for a safe work environment.

1. Occupational Injury-- An occupational injury can be defined as an injury that occurs on the job or from hazards encountered on the job, such as toxic chemicals.

b. First aid--If someone suffers a heart attack, first aid may determine whether or not the victim survives. Remember the brain cannot survive without oxygen for more than 4-6 minutes. 1. Help the victim get comfortable. Often sitting up helps breathing. 2. Call for an ambulance. 3. Help the victim take any heart medication that he/she may have. 4. Monitor the victim's condition for need for rescue breathing or cardiopulmonary respiration (CPR). CPR combines chest compressions with rescue breathing. 5. If you are trained to perform CPR, administer CPR. However, if you are not trained in CPR, you can seriously injure the victim, so monitor the victim's condition and wait for the ambulance. CPR training is offered by many community organizations.

2. Stroke--A stroke occurs when an artery leading to the brain or in the brain ruptures, becomes blocked, or breaks. The signs of a stroke include: paralysis on one side of the body, dizziness, difficulty breathing, slurred speech, confusion, severe headache, and loss of consciousness. Care in the first few hours after a stroke often determines the extent of the brain damage. Therefore, it is important to get immediate medical attention, then provide aid to the victim by placing him/her on one side, covering him/her, and monitoring his/her condition until the ambulance arrives.

1. Causes of Drowning--Most drownings are a result of alcohol/drug use and/or carelessness. Small children can drown in only a few inches of water, so special attention needs to be paid to children when they are near water. Children can drown even in a bathroom sink or toilet, as well as the tub

2. Treatment for Drowning--Once the victim has been removed from the water, begin rescue breathing. If the chest does not inflate, that could be a sign of an obstruction in the airway. If there is an obstruction, use abdominal thrusts similar to the Heimlich Maneuver, and alternate abdominal thrusts and rescue breathing until the ambulance arrives.

2. Motorcycles-- Motorcycle crashes are more likely to result in serious injuries or death due to the lack of protection. a. Always wear a helmet and require all passengers to wear a helmet. b. Do not carry passengers unless you have a passenger seat with a separate foot rest. c. Obey all traffic regulations. d. Learn to ride competently before you ride in traffic. Never grab a moving vehicle. e. Never use alcohol or other drugs before riding a motorcycle. f. Avoid using or carrying anything that could distract you. Make sure that you secure any cargo so that it will not shift and create a balance problem. g. Make sure that all of your vehicle's equipment is in good working order. h. Wear heavy clothing when riding. Make sure that clothing cannot get caught in moving parts. If your motorcycle does not have a windscreen, wear protective goggles or other eye protection. i. Signal all changes--turns, lane shifts, and stops. Be alert for obstacles, such as open car doors, debris in the roadway, and substances that could make road surfaces slick (gravel, water, and ice).

3. Bicycles-- Most bicycle accidents with motor vehicles occur during the day (70%), with about half of them occurring at intersections. a. Make sure that the bicycle is the correct size for you (toes should touch the ground when seated on the bicycle) and has all of the necessary safety equipment. If riding after dark, use lights and reflectors. b. Be prepared for changes in weather conditions that could affect riding surfaces. c. Do not ride immediately after eating, and make sure that you have adequate water for your ride. Do not ride long distances on hot, humid days. d. Do not use anything that could distract you or make you less aware of your surroundings. Use a rear view mirror on either your helmet or bicycle. e. Obey all traffic laws that govern motor vehicles. Ride single file on the right side. Always signal your intentions--turns, lane changes, and stops. Use the crosswalk to walk your bike across a busy street. f. Never grab a moving vehicle. g. Use appropriate equipment. Always wear a bicycle safety helmet. h. Wear bright colored clothing in order to be seen. If riding at night, put reflective tape on your clothing. i. Avoid roadways with high traffic and motor vehicles traveling at high speeds. Use bike paths when possible. Get off roadways to make mechanical repairs. j. Be especially alert for obstacles, such as open car doors, debris in the roadway, substances that could make road surfaces slick (gravel, water, and ice). k. Never carry passengers on a bicycle.

2. Tornadoes-- Tornadoes are violent storms with rotating winds that can reach up to 500 miles per hour. a. Outdoors--If you are outdoors during a tornado, lie flat in a ditch or other low ground. If you are in a car, stop, get out, and seek shelter. Never try to outrun a tornado. If possible, move at a right angle to the approaching storm. b. Indoors--If you are indoors during a tornado, move to the lowest level of the building and away from glass. If possible, get under heavy items and protect your head with a pillow, blanket, or other soft material. Leave a mobile home, and find more stable shelter

3. Blizzards-- Blizzards are heavy snowstorms with winds in excess of 35 miles per hour, creating limited visibility, drifting snow, and dangerous wind chills. a. Stay indoors, if possible. b. Notify authorities if you have to leave home for an emergency, and allow them to send someone to evacuate you. c. Avoid going out in the storm alone. If you must go out, notify others of your destination and approximate time of arrival.

2. Suffocation-- Suffocation can occur from smothering or choking. a. Avoid allowing children to put small objects in their mouth, and cut their food small enough to prevent choking. b. Avoid allowing children to play with plastic bags or other items in which they could become entangled. c. Keep bed covers and pillows away from children and infant's breathing paths. d. Avoid allowing children to wrap scarves or ropes around their necks.

3. Drowning-- Drowning is a breathing obstruction caused by inhaling water into the lungs. a. Avoid allowing children to be alone in the bathroom, kitchen, or pool. b. Avoid allowing anyone from using alcohol or drugs and then entering a home pool. c. Stay with any children on floatation devices in a home pool.

2. Occupational Illness-- An occupational illness can be defined as an abnormal condition or disorder (not injury-related) that occurs due to exposure to substances in the work environment.

3. Occupational Safety Responsibility-- Standards set by OSHA finds that it is the employers' responsibility to keep the work environment free of hazardous materials and to avoid situations or duties that could endanger workers. The employees' responsibilities include: following procedures, remaining drug and alcohol-free on the job, wearing appropriate protective clothing, remaining alert to dangers on the job, and being responsible for their own and others' safety around them.

2. Physical Education and Sports-- Many students are injured during physical education classes and school sponsored athletics. Students should be required to wear appropriate protective equipment. Teachers, coaches, and officials should enforce strict rules and regulations for all physical activities. Students should concentrate on the activities so they are not injured, due to being hit by equipment or other participants. Special rules should apply in showers and locker rooms to avoid falls and "horseplay" that could result in injuries.

3. Science-- Students in science labs should be supervised closely. They should use equipment properly and wear protective clothing as instructed by their teachers. Special care should be taken in handling chemicals.

3. Hyperventilation--First aid for hyperventilation usually consists of remedying the lack of carbon dioxide. It usually does not require professional medical attention. Hyperventilation occurs when the victim's carbon dioxide level falls below normal. It usually is caused by anxiety or emotional distress that increases the breathing rate. a. When a person hyperventilates, he/she becomes dizzy and breathing becomes more rapid and shallower, increasing the problem further. b. To treat hyperventilation, calm the victim and "coach" his/her breathing. Try to get the victim to sit down and lower his/her head; then have the victim breathe into a bag or his/her cupped hands to increase the inhalation of carbon dioxide.

4. Fainting--First aid for fainting usually consists of trying to remedy the oxygen deficiency to the brain. Fainting is a temporary loss of consciousness usually caused by too little oxygen reaching the brain. It usually does not require professional medical attention. However, fainting is commonly a symptom of several serious medical problems, so if fainting persists, medical attention is necessary. a. Paleness, dizziness, cold perspiration, and weakness often precede fainting. b. If the victim feels faint, he/she should sit down and lower his/her head below the level of the heart to increase blood flow to the brain. If he/she faints, leave him/her lying down, loosen clothing, and raise his/her legs 8-12 inches. If the victim does not regain consciousness within five minutes, call an ambulance.

4. Floods-- Floods usually are predictable but not preventable. Flash floods, however, can occur quickly and without warning if sudden heavy rainfall occurs. Floods usually are caused by heavy rainfall or quick winter snow melts. a. Know where you are to go in case of a flood. b. Turn off utilities and move belongings to the highest point in the house if time allows. c. Discard all food items or liquids touched by the flood's contaminated water. Drink bottled water until public officials say that tap water is safe for drinking.

5. Earthquakes-- Earthquakes are huge ground shakings due to a release of power when stress on underground geological plates, called faults, move. Volcanic activity also can cause earthquakes. a. Indoors--If indoors during an earthquake, stand under reinforced structures, like doorways, or get under heavy furniture, like tables or desks. Avoid windows, interior glass items, furniture that can tip, and hanging objects. b. Outdoors--If outdoors during an earthquake, stay as much in the open as possible. Avoid buildings, glass, heavy items that could tip, and electrical wiring. If you are in a motor vehicle, pull off the roadway and stop in an area that is as open as possible. c. After the earthquake--After an earthquake, turn off all utilities to prevent gas leaks or shorted electrical wiring.

4. Firearms-- Over 1,000 people are killed accidentally in their homes with firearms each year. Most of those killed are between ages 15 and 24. a. Keep firearms unloaded and locked in a gun cabinet. b. Lock ammunition in a separate location from where firearms are stored. c. Keep firearms pointed away from people and animals when cleaning or showing them. d. Allow only people trained to use guns to handle firearms in the house.

5. Electrical Shock-- Most electrical shocks in the home occur because of the misuse of appliances and extension cords. a. Make sure that the house is wired properly and the wiring is in good repair. b. Make sure that all electrical appliances and electrical tools are in good repair, especially cords and plugs. c. Unplug all electrical appliances before attempting to repair them. d. Do not attempt to repair items with high voltage, such as TVs, unless you are trained to do so. e. Keep children away from electrical outlets. Use safety covers if necessary. f. Avoid using electrical appliances near water.

4. Traffic Markings-- When using major roadways, make certain that you know what the line markings mean. a. Solid white lines separate lanes of traffic moving in the same direction. Solid white lines should not be crossed. b. Broken white lines separate lanes of traffic moving in the same direction. Broken white lines can be crossed if the lane is clear. c. Solid yellow lines separate lanes of traffic moving in opposite directions. Solid yellow lines should not be crossed. d. Broken yellow lines separate lanes of traffic moving in opposite directions. Broken yellow lines can be crossed if the lane is clear.

5. Pedestrian safety-- Pedestrians are also an important element to be considered in traffic. a. Cross streets only at crosswalks. Never cross in the middle of the block or from between parked cars. b. Look both ways before crossing, even if you are given a "walk" signal. c. Wear brightly colored clothing. Use reflective tape on your clothing if you walk at night. Never assume that drivers see you. e. Walk facing oncoming traffic if there is not a sidewalk.

Safety

Accidents account for nearly one-half (45%) of deaths of people between the ages of 15 and 24. Acting safely involves becoming aware of risks so that you can avoid encountering needless risks.

1. Assessing the potential for an emergency-- Assessing the potential for an emergency provides rescuers with a plan of action. Generally, do not move a victim unless there is immediate danger, such as fire, explosion, further injury, etc.

Check for potential Dangers, consciousness, The ABC's of First Aid, the rest of the body

Peer Pressure- Chicken?

Concentration- Being careless when under stress

Fires and Burns-- Most household fires are caused by carelessness, faulty or overloaded wiring, incorrect use of electrical appliances or fireplaces, and improper storage of flammable substances. Fires require a fuel source, a heat source, and oxygen to burn. None of these can be eliminated from a home environment, but fuel sources and heat sources should be kept as far apart as possible. Click on the following pictures.

Fire prevention--Most household fires can be prevented by eliminating human carelessness and keeping flammable substances and heat sources as far apart as possible. • Keep wiring in good repair. • Keep matches and lighters out of the reach of children. • Never smoke in bed. Avoid smoking when you are very tired because you may fall asleep while smoking. Put cigarettes out before leaving a room. • Keep the stove clean and as grease-free as possible. • Make sure that cords from appliances are in good repair, and never overload extension cords. • Store flammable substances in flame-resistant containers and as far from heat sources as possible, including electrical heaters, pilot lights, and stoves. • Clear clutter from inside and outside of the house to avoid the rapid spread of fire if a small spark ignites flammable material.

Animal Bites--The major concerns with animals bites are the extent of the damage to the body, bleeding, and potential for infection and disease from the bite. Any animal bite that causes bleeding should be treated professionally because animal bites can cause serious infections and diseases, such as tetanus and rabies. Both tetanus and rabies are potentially fatal; tetanus is caused by bacteria and rabies by a virus. In addition, animal bites may cause severe bleeding and potential permanent tissue and nerve damage. If the animal bite causes severe bleeding, stop the bleeding first. If the bleeding is less serious, clean the wound and use a clean bandage, then seek medical attention.

First aid for convulsions focuses on preventing the victim from injuring him/herself during the convulsions.

Nosebleeds--First aid for nosebleeds usually consists of stopping the bleeding. It does not involve emergency medical personnel. Nosebleeds usually are caused by a blow to the nose or sinus problems, and they occur in only one nostril. However, nosebleeds can be a symptom of some serious medical problems, so frequent nosebleeds or nosebleeds that do not stop with basic first aid should be treated professionally. Most nosebleeds can be stopped by having the victim sit down, bend slightly forward, and pinch the nostrils together while breathing through the mouth. A cold, damp towel placed on the bridge of the nose can help stop the nosebleed.

First aid for insect bites, stings, and ticks usually can be completed without further medical attention. However, if there is a serious allergic reaction after a sting, if the head of the tick remains in the skin, or if the area around an insect bite takes on an unusual appearance after several days, medical attention may be needed.

Precautions for Rescue Breathing--If there is a potential for a serious head injury, move the head and neck as little as possible. Pull the jaw forward without tipping the head back in order to open the airway prior to administering rescue breathing.

First aid for objects in the eye consists of removing the objects from the eye without injuring the eye further. It is important that the object is removed without putting pressure on the object while it is contacting the surface of the eye; therefore, you should not rub the eye to remove a foreign object from it. If the object is under or in the eyelid, it usually does not require medical attention; however, if you cannot remove the object using the following simple steps, bandage the eye loosely and seek medical attention.

Chemical Burns--Chemical burns present different problems than burns that are the result of overheating the skin's surface. Chemical burns require professional medical attention because the burning may continue below the skin's surface even after the chemical has been washed off of the surface. All clothing contaminated with the chemical should be removed, the skin should be washed thoroughly with cool water for at least 15 minutes, and a poison control center should be contacted for specific advice concerning the burns. If a chemical burn occurs in the eye, the eye should be flushed with cool water for at least 15 minutes with the head turned so that the other eye does not contact the chemicals washed from the affected eye. The burned eye should be covered with a clean cloth until professional medical attention can be reached.

First aid for poisoning depends on the type of poison that the victim has encountered. Poisons are harmful substances that can damage or destroy cells, cause pain, disrupt bodily functions, and result in death. It is very important for any type of poisoning that you contact a poison control center and emergency medical personnel. Click on each of the following poisons.

6. Snowmobiles and all-terrain vehicles-- Snowmobiles and all-terrain vehicles have become popular recreational craft, especially for young people. a. Be very cautious about rough terrain because recreational vehicles turn over easily. Also rough terrain can have unexpected obstacles. b. Know your limitations, and do not speed. Follow the regulations established for recreational vehicles. c. Avoid roadways and ice covered water. e. Dress for the conditions. Avoid clothing that could get caught on the vehicle or objects around you as you drive. Always wear a safety helmet. f. Make sure that you have enough food, water, and supplies if you go into unfamiliar or especially rough conditions, in case you become stranded or lost.

First aid is the medical attention given to a victim who is injured or ill prior to the arrival of emergency medical personnel.

First aid for burns can decrease permanent scarring. Burns can occur with contact with certain liquids or chemicals, fire, electricity, heated materials, or the sun. Care for the burn depends on the type of burn

First-degree Burns--First-degree burns affect only the surface or outer layer of skin. They produce redness and pain. Most first-degree burns can be treated without professional medical attention by applying cool water until the pain decreases.

External bleeding refers to cuts or stab wounds that bleed outside of the body. a. Apply constant pressure to the wound with a clean cloth. If the blood soaks through the cloth, place another cloth on top and maintain the pressure. Do not replace the original cloth; continue to place the cloths on top of the previous cloth. b. Apply a pressure bandage by overlapping layers snugly over the wound. c. Elevate the injured area above the heart. Most bleeding will decrease with the combination of a pressure bandage and elevation. d. If bleeding does not decrease and the bleeding is coming from one of the extremities (arms or legs), put pressure on the pressure point associated with that extremity. The pressure point refers to the place in the upper portion of the arm or leg where the artery supplying that arm or leg is close to the surface as it passes over a bone.

Fractures--A fracture refers to a broken or cracked bone. Fractures can vary from a hairline fracture in which the bone breaks but does not separate, to an open fracture in which the bone breaks and protrudes through the skin, to a complete fracture in which the bone is broken completely or shattered.

Limitations- unwilling to admit limitations

Habits- not alert to changes routine so don't pay attention

-Protect the victim loosen clothing allow free movement turn the victim on the side

Head Injuries First aid for head injuries begins by determining the extent of potential brain damage. Most head injuries are minor, but you should never underestimate the seriousness because seemingly minor head trauma, especially if it results in a loss of consciousness, can be fatal. If there is any doubt about the seriousness of the head injury, seek medical attention immediately. If the victim is not breathing, take special precautions before administering rescue breathing.

2. Heat Exhaustion--Heat exhaustion is a result of overexertion in heat and high humidity. When the body overheats, it loses water and electrolytes. Victims of heat exhaustion should be moved to a cooler location where they can lie down with their feet slightly elevated. They should drink cool, not cold, fluids.

Heat Stroke--Heat stroke is a result of overexposure to high temperatures and high humidity. The body becomes so overheated that it cannot rid itself of heat because perspiration stops. Heat stroke can be fatal, so medical personnel should be summoned immediately. Victims of heat stroke should be moved to a cool area and sprayed with cool, not cold, water. Ice packs can be placed in the groin, under the arms, and along the sides of the neck to help cool the vital internal organs. Ice should be removed once the skin begins feeling cooler.

a. Frostbite's effects--When tissue freezes, normal cellular activities stop, circulation stops, and cells die. The extremities, such as fingers, toes, ear lobes, and the nose are the most common areas for frostbite. b. Treatment of frostbite--Warm the affected areas with blankets or other warm, dry covers. Immerse the area in warm, not hot, water. Apply a clean, dry cloth to the area and elevate the area unless the frostbite affects the feet. Do not walk on feet affected by frostbite.

Hypothermia-- Hypothermia occurs when the body loses significant amounts of heat. It is most common when temperatures are between 30-50 degrees Fahrenheit, and it is windy and rainy. Hypothermia is potentially fatal, so seek medical attention for all cases.

Oral Poisons--Oral poisons are substances that are swallowed. The treatment varies depending on the poisonous substance--increasing the urgent need to contact a poison control center. Signs of oral poisoning include: sudden and severe abdominal pain, severe nausea and vomiting, dilated or constricted pupils, drowsiness leading to unconsciousness, chemical burns on or in the mouth, and chemical odor on the breath. Many children suffer permanent physical damage and even die as a result of oral poisonings.

Inhalation Poisoning-- Inhalation poisoning refers to breathing poisonous gases or fumes. The most common inhalation poisonings come from carbon monoxide, chlorine, and chemicals from paint thinner or glue. Many poisonous gases are odorless, so when attempting to help someone who is a victim of inhalation poisoning, first make sure that you are safe from the gases/fumes. Remove the victim from the area that contained the poisonous gases/fumes and provide him/her with access to fresh air. Check for breathing and pulse. Loosen clothing and continue to monitor the victim's condition until the ambulance arrives.

First aid for severe bleeding can save many lives. If possible, do not make direct contact with the victim's blood in order to prevent transferring illnesses that are carried in blood. Call for emergency medical personnel at once. Severe bleeding can cause shock, which can be even more dangerous than the blood loss. Paleness, a rapid but weak pulse, clammy skin, nausea, and constant thirst can be early signs of shock. Click on both kinds of bleeding, internal and external.

Internal bleeding refers to bleeding that occurs inside the body cavity; therefore, it is not visible. Often it goes undetected until the victim begins to show signs of blood loss. If there is a risk of internal bleeding, place the victim on his/her side to prevent choking and monitor his/her condition until the ambulance arrives.

2. Choking--When people are choking, they tend to gasp for breath, make signals that they cannot breath, begin to turn blue, and eventually lose consciousness. The most effective means of dislodging an object responsible for choking is the Heimlich Maneuver.

Make a fist with one hand with the thumb side of the fist in the victim's abdomen between the navel and the lower rib cage. Grab the fist with your other hand and press forcefully up and inward. Continue the abdominal thrusts until the object becomes dislodged. If the victim loses consciousness, place him/her on his/her back and check for obstructions in his/her mouth. Then deliver five abdominal thrusts, followed by rescue breathing. Alternate the abdominal thrusts and rescue breathing until emergency medical personnel arrive. If you are the victim and you are alone, try the Heimlich Maneuver on yourself. If that fails, use a hard surface, like a chair, to provide the upward thrusts.

Object Under the Upper Lid--If a foreign object is under the upper lid, grasp the eyelashes and pull the eyelid away from the surface of the eye. This should cause tears to form and flow over the eye's surface. If the object is not washed away with the tears, remove it with a clean, damp cloth.

Object In the Upper Lid--If the foreign object is in the upper lid, grasp the eyelashes and pull the eyelid away from the surface of the eye. Then pull the lid back over a small soft object like a cotton swab so that you can inspect the underside of the lid, while the victim looks down.

Indoor falls--Indoor falls can be avoided by following a few simple steps. • Wipe up spills and water from sinks, toilets, or showers immediately to prevent slick floors in the kitchen and bathroom. • Clear floors of small objects, make sure that all carpets and rugs are fastened securely, and keep uncarpeted floors in good repair. • Clear stairs of small objects and make sure that railings are in good repair. • Use step ladders or step stools to reach hard-to-reach items, instead of furniture or countertops. • Keep stairways and hallways well lit. • Use nonslip mats or decals on showers and tubs.

Outdoor Falls-- Most outdoor falls can be prevented by keeping outdoor surfaces in good repair and free of substances that could make them slick. • Keep outdoor steps and sidewalks in good repair, uncluttered, and free of ice, snow, leaves, and grass. • Keep outdoor steps and sidewalks well lit. • Take special precautions when walking across uneven ground or around obstacles in the yard, such as trees, children's toys, and sidewalk and driveway edges.

4. Hallways-- Students should stay alert concerning the activities going on around them in school hallways. Students should be supervised to make sure that they move smoothly, without running, in the hallways.

Recreational safety includes learning and practicing rules and skills while taking part in recreational activities, such as swimming, boating, skating, skiing, sledding, camping, and hunting.

2. Know How to Call for Emergency Medical Care-- Everyone should know how to call for emergency medical care. The emergency number in most areas is 911. If there is not a 911 service, you can dial "0" or call the area's number for medical emergencies

Speak Slowly and Carefully, provide vital info, details of the accident, ask for advice, stay on the line until the dispatcher ends the call

2. Boating-- Everyone operating a boat should take a boating safety course, offered by several different boating and recreational groups. a. Check weather conditions before boating. b. Make sure the boat is in good repair. This includes all safety equipment, such as lights, signal lights, and a horn or other distress signal. Also make sure that you understand the limitations of the boat, such as weight and power capacities. c. Every person on board should have his/her own approved floatation device. All children and non-swimmers should wear their floatation devices at all times. d. Take special care when loading and unloading the boat and getting in and out of the boat because many boating accidents occur when the boat capsizes, turns over due to improper weight distribution. e. If someone falls overboard, stop the motor and throw him/her a floatation device and a rescue line. If someone needs to get into the water to help the person back in the boat, make sure that the rescuer uses his/her floatation device.

Sports Safety Sports safety includes many types of recreation involving physical activities associated with sports--skating, sledding, skiing, camping, and hunting.

Insect Bites--Most insect bites cause moderate itching. The area around the bite should be washed thoroughly and treated with an over-the-counter medication.

Stings--Most stings can be treated by scraping the stinger out of the skin with a fingernail or other stiff material and applying cold packs. The stinger should not be pulled out because it can cause more of the chemicals from the stinger to be released under the skin. Once the stinger is removed, the area should be treated with a cold pack to reduce swelling and pain. Some people have severe allergic reactions to stings that can even be fatal. So if there is significant swelling in the face or neck, a serious rash, or difficulty breathing, immediate medical attention is required.

Signs of fracture--The only sure diagnosis for a fracture is an x- ray, but external signs of a fracture include: crooked bone formation, swelling, serious bruising, instability, inability to move the affected body part, a grating sound with movement, and severe pain. b. Treatment of a fracture-- Treatment for any type of fracture centers on immobilizing and stabilizing the bone. Fractures of the fingers and toes often can be treated by taping the injured finger or toe to the adjoining fingers or toes. Immediate first aid for other types of fractures may require a splint, a rigid material to which the affected area is tied to stabilize and immobilize the bone. Almost any solid material can be used, including plastic, wood, or metal. Even soft but stiff materials, such as a pillow or the body itself can be used. When using a splint, make sure that the ties used to connect the injured area to the splint are tied on the splint side, not the injured area, and that the ties are tied tight enough to immobilize but do not cut circulation to the injured area. Never attempt to reset a bone, push the bone back through the skin in an open fracture, or put pressure on a broken bone to reduce bleeding.

Strains--Strains result from over stretching a muscle or tendon. They can cause pain, a slight swelling, and difficulty in movement. Generally rest and moist heat can be used for back strains, and rest and a cold pack can be used for other types of strains. Medical attention is not necessary unless the pain persists for several days.

General Disaster Rules: These rules apply to all disaster situations. a. Keep a family first-aid kit and evacuation plan. Know where to meet and how to notify others if separated during the disaster. b. Have flashlights and batteries prepared for evacuation. c. Keep a two-week supply of bottled water and ready-to-eat canned food. d. Keep a battery-powered radio available in case of a loss of electricity. e. Know how to turn off utilities for your home. f. Maintain adequate fuel in your vehicle in case of the need to evacuate. In areas where blizzards are common, keep the fuel level above one-half tank in case you become stranded.

There are many different places where safety is important. Some of these areas are at school, in your occupation, during times of recreation, sports safety, and traffic safety

Signs of hypothermia--People suffering from hypothermia exhibit such signs as: violent shivering, slurred speech, weakness and fatigue, slowed heart and respiration rates, hallucinations, and confusion.

Treatment for hypothermia--Warm the body slowly with blankets or other warm, dry covers. Do not put a heat source, such as an electric heater, directly in contact with the body. Attempt to get the victim to drink warm fluids that do not contain alcohol or caffeine to help warm the body's internal organs. Monitor breathing and pulse until emergency medical personnel arrive.

1. Signs and Causes of Convulsions--Convulsions are violent involuntary muscle spasms that can be accompanied by loss of bowel and bladder control, chewing motions, drooling, and incoherent vocalizations. They can be caused by brain injury, high fever, or diseases such as epilepsy.

Treatment of Convulsions--Many epilepsy sufferers and others who know that they may have seizures will inform those around them that they may have convulsions and instruct these people as to what to do in case of convulsions due to seizures. If you are not sure of the cause of the convulsions, you should seek medical attention as soon as possible.

Providing Care While Waiting for Help--You can also provide care while waiting for the ambulance. Most states have a Good Samaritan Law that protects people who attempt to help injured or ill victims from lawsuits dealing with problems that arise after care is given. However, do not perform procedures that you do not know.

a. Leave the injured person in the position in which you found him/her to avoid doing additional harm. b. Stay with the injured person and note any changes in condition so that you can tell the emergency personnel when they arrive. c. Keep the injured person as comfortable as possible, and try to calm them by assuring them that help is on the way. d. Keep the injured person's body temperature as normal as possible.

Therefore, it is important to recognize the signs of a heart attack and get medical attention immediately.

a. Signs of a heart attack--Heart attacks usually begin with a feeling of discomfort in the chest that is characterized as fullness, pressure, or aching. The pain may extend to the left arm, the neck and jaw, or around into the back.

2. Evidence of Emergency--You may be able to evaluate an emergency situation even if you did not witness it and there is an unconscious victim, if you come across the following situations:

a. you see fire, smoke, broken glass, and downed electrical lines b.you hear breaking glass, crashing metal, squealing tires or brakes, sudden loud or explosive noises, and distress calls. c. you smell smoke, unusual strong odors, and recognizable toxic odors

Second-degree Burns--Second-degree burns burn through the outer layer of skin and affect the tissue under the skin. They produce redness, blisters, and pain. Many second-degree burns can be treated without professional medical attention, but if signs of infection or severe blistering occur, you should seek medical attention at once. To treat second-degree burns, apply cool water, cover the burned area with a clean, dry cloth and elevate the burned area. Do not attempt to break the blisters.

hird-degree Burns--Third-degree burns burn all of the skin and the tissues below the skin. All third-degree burns require immediate professional medical attention. The skin appears gray and charred. For immediate treatment, cool the area with water, cover the burned area with a clean, dry cloth, and elevate the burned area. Do not remove anything stuck to the burned area, apply ointments of any kind, or break blisters. Monitor the victim's condition until the ambulance arrives because shock probably will occur.

Risk Recognition

not aware they are at risk

Over 50 thousand people die each year in motor vehicle crashes.

1. Automobiles-- The highest percentages of motor vehicle crashes involve automobiles. a. Young people between the ages of 15 and 24 are involved in more motor vehicle crashes than any other age group. Males in this age group are the highest risk group. b. Obey all traffic regulations. c. Alcohol is involved in over 50% of fatal motor vehicle crashes, and people between ages 20 and 24 have the highest rate of alcohol-related crashes and drunk driving convictions. Never drink alcohol or use other drugs before operating a motor vehicle. d. Defective automobiles also are responsible for a large number of crashes. Therefore, keep your automobile in good repair. e. Weather-related problems contribute to car crashes. When on slick roads, instead of using your brakes in stop-and-go driving (which can cause skids), shift to a lower gear to let the car help slow itself. f. Excessive speed and not wearing a seat belt properly increase the likelihood of serious injury in a car crash. Make sure that all children are fastened securely. (Young children are required to be in approved child safety seats.) If you are a passenger in the front seat, sit back in the seat to decrease your risk of injury. g. Always allow enough distance between you and the car in front of you, so that you can stop safely if the car in front of you stops suddenly. Drive defensively, always expecting the worst from other drivers and the road conditions. h. Do not ride or let others ride in the back of an open truck. i. Do not carry flammable substances in the trunk of the car. j. Eliminate distractions that may cause you to lose concentration with your driving, and do not distract the driver if you are a passenger.

Providing first aid for respiratory problems is necessary because lack of oxygen to the brain can cause permanent damage in as little as 4-6 minutes.

1. Breathing Problems--When people are experiencing breathing problems, they often take on a bluish appearance, especially in the areas of the body where the blood vessels are close to the surface, such as the tongue, lips, and fingernails. Rescue breathing may be necessary if someone loses consciousness due to breathing problems. However, before you use rescue breathing, remember to make sure that the victim does not have a head, neck, or back injury. Tip the victim's head back to open the airway. Look, listen, and feel for any breathing movements. Pinch the victim's nose to close his/her other airway. Make an airtight seal over the victim's mouth and force two slow breaths into the victim's mouth. Check for a pulse at the carotid arteries in the neck. If a pulse is present, give one breath every five seconds for an adult, every four seconds for a child, and every three seconds for an infant.

Household risks account for approximately one-third of all accidents.

1. Falls--Most household falls occur in the kitchen and bathroom, where floors are more likely to be wet; on stairs; and on slippery outdoor surfaces. Click on the following types of falls.

First aid for cold temperature emergencies should begin with slowly warming the body. If it appears that the tissue has frozen or if the body temperature has dropped

1. Frostbite--Frostbite occurs when tissue freezes.

Applying first aid for cardiovascular emergencies can make the difference between life and death

1. Heart Attack and Cardiac Arrest-- Heart attacks, an irregular heart rate, are the leading causes of cardiac arrest, a stoppage of the heart. A heart attack occurs when the coronary arteries are blocked, inhibiting oxygen flow to portions of the heart muscle. If a part of the heart does not get its supply of oxygen, that part of the heart dies.

Heat-Related Emergencies First aid for heat-related problems center on rehydrating and cooling the body slowly. Heat cramps generally do not require professional medical attention. Heat exhaustion victims should seek medical attention if they lose consciousness or show signs of becoming disoriented. Heat stroke requires immediate medical attention.

1. Heat cramps--Heat cramps are a result of a loss of water and electrolytes. They usually can be treated with fluids and massage on the affected muscles.

Natural disasters kill and injure thousands of people each year. Read the following to learn more about specific natural disasters and what you can do to prepare for them.

1. Hurricanes-- Hurricanes are powerful tropical storms with heavy rain and winds in excess of 70 miles per hour. a. Board windows and tape glass to prevent blowing debris from breaking the glass. b. Anchor or bring in furniture and other items that could cause damage or injury if blown. c. Avoid contact with downed power lines.

School safety means keeping students as safe as possible while in school and when participating in school-sponsored activities

1. Industrial Arts and Home Economics-- Many accidents occur during industrial arts and home economics classes because these classes require students to work with tools and appliances that can be dangerous. Students should always wear appropriate protective clothing or gear when using power tools or cooking appliances. Students should be especially careful with sharp tools or kitchen utensils. Teachers should supervise students and enforce strict regulations during class.

Fire safety--Some fires cannot be avoided, but lives can be saved if everyone in the house is aware of fire safety. • Have a fire/smoke detector on every level of the house, especially in areas near bedrooms. • Plan an escape route in case of fire ahead of time, and choose a place outside of the house for the whole family to meet. • Leave the house immediately. Do not worry about possessions, and do not return for any reason. Call the fire department from a neighbor's house or public phone nearby. • Stay close to the floor to avoid smoke as much as possible. • Feel the door to test the temperature outside of a closed door. Unless that door is the only route for escape, do not open a door that is hot. • If your clothes catch fire, drop to the ground and roll to smother the fire. • Do not attempt to fight a fire that is outside of a contained space. • Never attempt to extinguish a grease fire with water. Use a kitchen fire extinguisher, if possible, or something that will smother the flames.

1. Poisoning-- Most household poisoning victims are children under the age of 5, who drink or eat poisonous household chemicals. Most other household poisonings are the result of improper handling of poisonous substances. a. Place all household poisons and medications out of the reach of children, preferably in a locked cabinet. b. Prepare for poisonings by having the poison control center's number available because different poisons require different treatments. c. Avoid contact with houseplants that contain poisonous substances. d. Clearly label all poisonous substances, and avoid putting poisons in used food containers. e. Always follow directions for use of household products and medicines. f. Keep remedies for household poisons available, but do not use them until consulting poison control

Water Safety Drowning is the third leading cause of accidental death in the United States. Most people who drown while swimming and boating are between ages 15 and 24. Most drownings could be prevented if the victim could swim twenty yards.

1. Swimming-- If you do not know how to swim, at least learn survival techniques that can keep you alive until you can be rescued. Learn to float, using your body's natural buoyancy or a loose-fitting blouse, shirt, or jacket. a. Do not swim immediately after eating. Do not swim alone. b. Swim only in supervised areas or in water that you know to be safe. Often natural waterways have unexpected drops, obstacles, or undercurrents. c. Do not try to use equipment that you do not know how to use. d. Use appropriate and approved floatation equipment especially when boating. e. Do not swim or boat after using alcohol or other drugs. f. Do not panic because it wastes energy and decreases your ability to react logically. g. Do not dive into unknown water. Rocks or other obstacles may not be visible, or there may be places where the water is too shallow for diving. h. Do not walk on ice on ponds or lakes unless it has been declared safe by authorities. If the ice does begin to break, lie down and slide to the edge.

Check for signs of an emergency. In many cases, by using your senses wisely, you can make an accurate initial evaluation of emergency situations.

1. Victim's Condition--Once you have secured your own safety--your first consideration in an emergency--you need to determine if the victim's condition is life threatening. If you notice any one or combination of the following conditions, you should seek medical attention for the victim at once: a. unconsciousness lasting for more than 5 minutes. b. prolonged trouble breathing, persistent chest pains or pressure, choking, or unusual skin color. c. severe bleeding or vomiting. d. seizure or unexplained slurred speech. e. persistent severe headache (especially if he/she has numbness on one side of the body). f. signs of poisoning, back injury, neck injury, head injury, or paralysis. g. broken bones or dislocation of joints. h. prolonged blurred vision or unexplained sudden drowsiness.

1. In-line Skating/Roller-skating/Skateboarding-- Skating, of all types, includes some of the fastest growing recreational activities for young people. a. Skaters should wear protective clothing and equipment, including knee and elbow pads and a helmet. b. If possible, skaters should avoid high traffic areas in order to avoid contact with motor vehicles. c. Skaters should know their limitations--not trying to perform stunts or move at speeds that require skills above their ability. d. Skaters should avoid wearing headphones that detract from their ability to monitor their surroundings.

2. Camping/Hiking/Hunting-- Camping/Hiking/Hunting can be fun outdoor activities for all ages. a. Hunt, hike, and camp only in approved areas. b. Let someone know where you will be at all times, especially when you are leaving and when you are expecting to return. c. Always be prepared for any type of weather that you may encounter, including rain and wind, as well as temperature changes. d. Dress in layers with heavy shoes and socks. Wear bright colored clothing when hunting, camping, or hiking, especially in areas where others may be hunting, so that you will not be mistaken for a game animal. e. Know the area's hazards, such as animals, insects, snakes, and poisonous plants. f. Keep a basic first aid kit, and know proper first aid for any potential problems that you may face. g. Make sure that you have a compass and flashlight with extra batteries before camping, hiking, or hunting, especially in unfamiliar areas. h. Make sure that you have sufficient food and water in case you become stranded or lost. While camping and hiking, stow food and water and dispose of waste in a way that will not attract dangerous animals. i. Prepare foods so as not to create a risk of fire. Drown your campfire with water and/or dirt. If you use dirt, make sure that it does not contain flammable material like leaves or twigs. j. Keep the safety on your firearm when hunting and keep your finger outside the trigger guard until you are ready to shoot. Unload your gun as soon as you are finished hunting. Do not ride with a loaded gun or walk without the safety in place.

Sprains--Sprains occur when ligaments and tendons near a joint are torn or stretched. Ligaments are tissues that hold bones in joints, and tendons are tissues that connect muscle to bone. Both ligaments and tendons are necessary to maintain joint stability. Sprains usually are a result of a violent twisting stress placed on the joint. Sprains cause pain, significant swelling, and discoloration. Mild sprains can be treated without medical attention by applying cold packs, elevating the injured area, and resting the injured joint. However, if pain persists for several days or the joint remains unstable, you should seek medical attention.

Dislocation--A dislocation occurs when a bone comes out of a joint. It causes pain, deformity, and loss of joint function. Immediate medical attention is necessary for a dislocation because the nerves and tissue surrounding the joint are very sensitive. Until you can reach a medical facility, it is important to immobilize the joint and apply cold packs to reduce swelling.

Object Stuck in the Eye--If a foreign object is stuck in the eye itself, cover both eyes

Drowning First aid for drowning begins by getting the victim out of the water without endangering yourself. Reaching and throwing rescues are safer because they do not endanger the rescuer. Often drowning victims become frantic, injuring the people trying to rescue them. Always call for assistance when attempting to rescue a drowning victim. Professional medical attention is required for drowning because breathing problems can develop even after the victim regains consciousness.

Contact Poisoning-- Contact poisoning refers to poisons contacting the skin or mucous membranes. Some contact poisons affect only the area touched by the poisons, while others can affect whole bodily systems. They usually cause itching, burning, and/or swelling externally, but some disrupt internal bodily functions. Some minor contact poisonings do not require professional medical attention. The victim should remove all contaminated clothing and wash the contact area thoroughly with clean water. If the contact causes itching, calamine lotion or special over-the-counter medications may relieve the problem. If a rash becomes severe or the victim runs a fever, medical attention should be sought.

Electrical Shock--First aid for electrical shock varies depending on the severity of the shock. Electrical shock occurs when electrical current passes through the body. It can cause respiratory failure and cardiac arrest. When the victim loses consciousness or shows signs of severe burns, medical attention should be sought at once. The most common causes of electrical shock are lightning, downed power lines, and electrical appliances/tools which are being repaired or used in a wet area. Never touch someone who is still in contact with the electrical current. If possible, turn off the main switch for household electricity. If the victim is not breathing, use rescue breathing and cover any burns until the ambulance arrives.

Bleeding--Head injuries tend to cause significant bleeding because there are so many blood vessels close to the surface of the scalp. Once you can rule out brain damage from a head injury, the first priority should be to stop the bleeding. Elevate the head slightly and apply a bandage to the wound; if the bleeding does not stop, call for professional medical attention.

Signs of Serious Head Injury--The most obvious sign of a serious head injury is unconsciousness. In addition, if the victim vomits; shows signs of breathing problems, slurred speech, memory loss, or confusion; suffers convulsions; bleeds from the ears, nose, or mouth; or becomes paralyzed, you should seek medical attention immediately.

3. Ticks--Ticks are "blood-suckers" that burrow into the skin. They are the source of many serious medical problems, so they should be removed as soon as possible, and anyone who has had a tick removed should monitor his/her health for the next several months. To remove a tick, place a drop of some oily substance on the tick to smother it. Then use tweezers, placed as close as possible to the tick's entry point, and pull the tick out of the skin. If the head remains below the surface of the skin, medical attention is needed to remove the head to prevent infection. Clean the surrounding area thoroughly.

Snakebites--The first consideration should be to determine if the snake is poisonous. Coral snakes, rattlesnakes, copperheads, and water moccasins are the common poisonous snakes in the U.S. All poisonous snakebites require professional medical attention. a. Signs of problems from snake bites--Snake bites cause breathing problems, nausea, muscle spasms, convulsions, extreme fatigue, unconsciousness, and death. b. Treatment for snake bites--Attempt to keep the victim as calm as possible to decrease circulation. Wash the bite area thoroughly and keep it below the level of the heart if possible while you wait for medical assistance.