Heimler's History AP World History U4 Review

What were the two different types of resistance to imperial expansion?

General resistance that any empire faces when it conquers other people or resistance that came from enslaved people.

What food was transferred from the west to the east?

Meso Americans introduced cacao, corn, potatoes, sweet potatoes, and cassava (used to make tapioca) which expanded the diet and led to massive population growth. And tobacco. -corn helped feed animals -Potatoes led to Irish population doubling. -sweet potatoes made its way to china where it was popular among the masses, including the poor -cassava shipped to Africa where it became prevalent

What new maritime technology came from the Portuguese?

-Caravel: small, highly maneuverable ships. Good for recon. Ex: Nina and Pinta, Columbus's ships. They could also carry tons of cargo for trade. You could also combine square sails and lateen sails to create fast ships.

Why did states find exploration for Gold?

-Mercantilism's ideology of there only being a fixed amount of wealth, so rulers were motivated to establish as many trading posts as they could which in turn meant more wealth

What type of and where did Europeans get knowledge for Maritime expansion?

-sailing from the Greeks and Asians and Muslims, who at this point were advanced far beyond on the Europeans -Europeans inherited increasingly accurate records of wind patterns and detailed astronomical charts reaching back to Mesopotamia and ancient China

Dutch East India Company (VOC)

A joint stock company, like an overseas branch of the Dutch government. Control all Dutch trade in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Also known by its Dutch initials VOC. -they were the most successful and wealthy company of all time -lasted nearly 2 centuries -domination of Indonesia and access to spice islands made them filthy rich -Dutch Fluyts were doing heavy-lifting in Indian Ocean Trade -The Japanese love the dutch so much that they built a special island for trading off the coast of Nagasaki called deshima

How did this expansion lead to the development of trade monopolies?

A monopoly is one entity that has total domination over a market. In this case, it meant certain governments or merchants had trading rights at given ports. For instance, the Spanish had a monopoly over the tobacco grown in their New World America. They grew very wealthy over this.

What was an economic affects of the linking of the hemispheres?

A new global economy.

What was the Stono rebellion of 1739?

African slaves have been growing in numbers for years in the British colonies. The general attitude of the enslavers were because enslaved people are lower than human beings, they're content with their servitude. However, this was not the case as shown in the Stono rebellion of 1739. 20 enslaved people gather at Stono River in South Carolina fed up with the conditions of slavery and raided the warehouse where are they killed white workers and put heads on the steps outside. They moved through the towns killing white people as they went chanting "liberty". The crowd grew to 100 and fought with the British for a week. Ultimately the British won and made life much harder for the enslaved workforce.

How did the British establish power in India?

After driving the French out of India in the seven years war, the British gained significant influence in India, establishing the typical trading posts. These posts were run by the British East India Company, but they didn't manage to establish many due to the restrictions of the Mughal Empire. To combat this, Growing tensions in India between the Muslims and Hindus led to the British playing each faction against itself and consolidating lots of power for itself.

What consequences did Atlantic slave trade have in African societies?

As Europeans grew wealthy from agriculture in America, the demand for enslaved workers spiked and this disrupted family organization. More men than women were taken from African societies, which led to arise in polygamy. Once Africans arrived on plantations they were separated from networks of families and communities. As compared to the fate of enslaved Africans in the Mediterranean in and Indian Ocean trade, there was contrast in fate. In these trade networks, African slaves were more likely to work in seaports or as household servants or even as sailors. As they were often placed in highly populated areas, they had more occasions to develop communities with other dislocated Africans. However, Africans working in America were in complete isolation.

Who is Christopher Columbus and what did he cause?

As Europeans took routes to the west they ran into the Americas. Christopher Columbus was the first to make the discovery of new land unknown to the Europeans. He landed in the Caribbean islands and caused a massive global change in the Columbian exchange. This was the biological exchange of animals, people, food, and diseases between eastern and western hemisphere.

What general resistance did Portugal face? (Queen Ana Nzinga)

As Portugal expanded their empire into Africa, they experienced some resistance from their allies. One was the ruler of the Ndongo (in central Africa), Queen Ana Nzinga. This kingdom was plagued by slave raids from Portugal and attacks from neighboring tribes, so she entered into an agreement with Portugal in which the Portuguese agreed to ease slave raids and offer protection against neighboring tribes. Her defiance was so notable that during a meeting with the Portuguese, they gave her a mat to sit on while they sat on chairs to communicate social superiority. In response, she had one of her servants act as a makeshift chair for her so that she could speak eye to eye, as an equal, with the Portuguese. After the agreement, the Portuguese still took land from her kingdom, so she allied with the Dutch and incited rebellion against the Portuguese and resistance influence for the next few decades. She was so formidable that she was able to save the majority of the people of Ndongo from slavery. She even forced the king of Portugal to renounce his claims to Ndongo in 1657.

How did the portuguese affect the native africans there? (The natives were open)

As part of this cooperation, the Portuguese often traded with the local rulers, giving them gunpowder guns in exchange for slaves. For the native Africans, resulted in a significant advantage for those tribes with gunpowder weapons in comparison with those without them, so they won battles. So advantage in state building. Economic growth- Some African states grew exceedingly wealthy by trading these enslaved people. So much so, that African tribes would raid other African tribes (with their gunpowder guns) to get more slaves to trade the Europeans. cultural borrowing from the Europeans. In the kingdom of the Congo, king Alfonso I converted to Christianity, and there was Christian influence in art coming out of the kingdom of Congo as well.

Social tensions in France?

At the top of the hierarchy was royalty and then the landed aristocracy/nobility. The rise of absolutist thinking led to the nobility and royalty to a power struggle. Louis the 14th won absolutism in France by draining the power of the nobility and forcing them to relocate to his palace at Versailles so he could keep an eye on their behavior.

What did the Spanish eventually do after Columbus discovered the Americas?

Because of Disease, the Incan and Aztec empires fell. By 1521 the colony of new Spain was established on the ashes of the Aztec empire, and by 1572 they conquered the Incans as well.

What initial accomplishments to Portugal make in the beginning of this period?

Because the Portuguese were geographically located on the west coast of Spain, this meant they only had one way to expand- towards the sea. Bartolomeu Dias in 1488 sailed to the southern tip of Africa and returned. Vasco da Gama 10 years later sailed around the southern tip of Africa and continue to India, claiming territory as part of the Portugal empire. In 1514 the Portuguese traders arrived in China.

Why did Europeans target Africans for the coerced labor systems?

Because the natives didn't suffice. For one, there wasn't enough due to European diseases, and also natives knew their own land far better than the colonizers did and often were able to escape. So the attempt to enslave natives was a large scale failure.

Why did states fund exploration for glory?

By controlling a large empire, glory was on display. States began to claim territory over the sea, which led to fierce competition growing between different states to claim certain lands before the others did.

What was chattel slavery?

Chattel means property, so this kind of slavery was where people owned other people as property. Some African states had long provided people as slaves for sale in the Indian Ocean trade. However, it was the Atlantic slave trade that really devastated Africa.

What was the main labor system that kept imperial expansion running?

Coerced labor supported the expansion of empires, although it was forced labor.

How did Russia experience (internal) resistance? (Pugachev Rebellion)

Cossacks (skilled fighters) who were fed up with serf life and wanted to live like the Mongols challenged the Romanov Czars, led by Pugachev. They revolted against Catherine the Great's serfdom, because they argued she was a Usurper (someone who takes power unfairly). This was understandable, as she was a german lady who married the Tsar, moved to Russia, had him killed, then ruled out of that. And Pugachev claimed to be the reincarnation of the dead Tsar. But the rebellion was eventually squashed when Russian army returned from fighting the Ottomans and focused attention directly on Pugachev and the Cossacks.

As empires grew where did they experience resistance?

Either from the inside of the empires from their own people or from colonies they set.

Who was the leading player in this time period?

Europe. Up to this point, Europe was kind of behind everybody else in terms of economics and empire building. During this time though, Europe took the primary place as an imperial power.

What were the ultimate result of the Columbian exchange?

Europeans brought smallpox with them which spread among the natives of the Americas, wiping out 50 to 90% of the native population. The Europeans brought syphilis back to Europe. Europe introduced sugar and horses to the Americas, while the Americas and potatoes, maize, and guinea pigs to Europe.

Who established sea based empires primarily during this time? Why?

Europeans did -wanted to get find another way to asia, since going to asia in what was the conventional way meant passing through the Muslim-controlled land, which made establishing trade on their own terms difficult

How was disease spread from the east to the west?

Europeans had built up some immunity to many diseases, but these diseases were deadly to people who had never encountered it before, and it was responsible for the large-scale deaths that occurred in America. Smallpox: -was an airborne disease that Europeans had been exposed to for many centuries -About 50% of the native population and in some places, even more, were killed. -killed lots of Aztec & Incan rulers, causing disputes and power struggles. Spread through hand-to-hand combat As more Europeans arrived, they brought even more diseases like malaria, measles, and flu, which brought even more disaster to the native people. This could be compared to the devastation of the black death in the former period.

What food and animals did the east introduced to the west?

Europeans introduced pigs, cows, wheat, grapes to the Americas, which eventually became staples of the American diet. Horses -hunting buffalo for greater efficiency & more food -competitive advantage against other tribes who didn't have horses -B4 europeans, the only hope for transporting goods across long distances was the Llama, which often times resulted in Incans just carrying goods themselves. -made people nomadic Pigs -also contributed to the abundance of food (they breed fast)

What did the Atlantic slave trade consist of?

Europeans realized that the climate in the Americas made it great for agriculture, so they began systems of labor that ultimately failed and turned to the importation of enslaved people from Africa. Chattel slavery or property slavery seemed to be the best solution for European aims in the Americas. When they tried to enslaved the natives the natives either died from diseases or knew the land too well and escaped.

What trends in population occurred during this time at the beginning of the Atlantic slave trade in Africa?

Even though African population was being largely deprived of its men, the African population in general rose significantly. Because of the Columbian exchange, while people were being transferred from the east to the west, foods like yam and cassava were being transferred from places like Brazil into Africa, which led to massive population growth spike there.

How was exploration funded? For what reasons?

Exploration was funded by the state. In general, states sponsored exploration for gold, God, and glory.

What maritime technology innovations came from the Dutch?

Fluyts: different because most merchant ships before were made so that they could be easily converted into warships, thus they were expensive. However, fluyts were made just for trade. They could hold larger amounts of cargo and were relatively large. They were also half the cost as the older war-designed ships. This was one of the reasons why the Dutch East India Company, and the Dutch in general, were so prosperous.

What did Christopher Columbus end up doing?

He came into contact with the Aztec and Inca empires and found a bunch of gold sought by the Spanish. Because of this, it made it worth the expense to keep traveling. Eventually, the Spanish discovered that if they enslaved the native peoples and later Africans and force them into agriculture that they could become very wealthy. Once Columbus had contact with these people it caused massive changes, the Columbian exchange.

How was mercantilism and colonial establishments connected?

If a country wanted gold and silver coming in, it had to have exports going out. If they're going to export goods to other places, they have to have lots of raw materials to make things to export. They got raw materials through colonies.

What accomplishments did England make in Maritime expansion during this time?

In 1497 the English sponsored explorer John Cabot with an aim to find a Northwest passage to Asia, so they didn't have to sail around South America. They didn't find a passage, but claimed all the land from Newfoundland down to Chesapeake Bay for the English. In 1607 established the first colony Jamestown and Chesapeake Bay.

What accomplishments did the dutch make during this time in maritime exploration?

In 1609 the Dutch states and Henry Hudson to seek a Northwest passage to Asia, and he found the Hudson river. Although it didn't lead him to Asia, he claimed the Hudson river valley for the Dutch and established new Amsterdam.

What was indentured servitude?

In North America, the British use the system. Servants were only bound to work for seven years and then they were free to go. The importation of people from Africa solve these problems, since Africans were properties for life and weren't as susceptible to European diseases.

How did Japan deal with the intrusion of Europeans?

In contrast to some African states being open, Japan completely closed off when the Europeans arrived. Dutch and Portuguese showed up with merchants and missionaries, and at first the Japanese were relatively tolerant of their influence. But as more Japanese started to converting to Christianity, The shogun implemented a system known as Sakoku (locked country). From then on, everything the Japanese learned from the outside world was through the Dutch, who they still traded with (due to the advantage of trading with the Dutch East India Company, and the Dutch were arguably the least invasive of the Europeans). They also still traded with the Chinese and Koreans.

How was expansion funded?

In general, it was the states. But, British and dutch innovated on this and created a new way to fund these ventures through joint stock companies. This was a way to fund exploration among private investors who shared financial burden among themselves. They took a risk because if the mission succeeded, they would share in the wealth of the colony.

How did Europeans deal with the cultural and religious beliefs of the natives they conquered? Give an example.

In general, when Europeans were in the business of empire expansion, they did the opposite of the Mughal and Mongol Empire. Disease thanks to the Europeans wiped out much of the Native American culture, even with those that survived. For example, Hernan Cortes, upon conquering native people, had all their books burned. Once their history was gone, the Spanish transported their language into these places, further diminishing native culture.

How did exploration and expansion upset social hierarchies?

In the Americas, with the introduction of Europeans, There was a new social hierarchy called the casta system based on ancestry and race. At the top where the peninsulares, those born in Europe. Then were the criollos, the Europeans born in the Americas. And then the castas, the natives and Africans. In the castas, at the top where the mestizos, the euro and indigenous people. Then the mulattoes, the European and African mixed people. Then there was the zambos, the mixed indigenous and African. And at the bottom were the indigenous and the African.

What resistance uprising occurred in the Americas? (pueblo revolt & Metacom's war)

In the Spanish colonies of North America, the Pueblo and Apache Indians fought against the Spanish in the Pueblo revolt. Indians had grown tired of Spanish trying to force conversions to Christianity, so they killed hundreds of Spanish colonizers and burned their churches. However, 10 years later the Spanish came back and re-conquer the territory. In the British colonies, resistance called Metacom's war took place. This was the final large scale event of natives in North America to rid the lands of the British. However the British won victory, and subjugated most of the remaining people.

How was the Indian Ocean trade affected?

Indian Ocean trade was still going strong, although states were vying over dominance over those routes. A rivalry between the Europeans and Muslim to control Indian ocean routes began. In 1509 Portuguese defeated the Muslim forces in a battle over trade rights. This was because they had good ships; however, once they tried to defeat the Moroccan Muslims on land, but they suffered defeat.

What did Portuguese do in China?

Initially with the merchants, not much. But after came the missionaries, who tried to convert the Chinese to Christianity. The Franciscans aimed to convert the mass of the Chinese people. Jesuits aimed to convert the elite. They had some success, but mainly were rejected as barbarians, so their impact was pretty minimal.

In general what changes occurred with the connection of the eastern and western hemispheres?

It meant disaster for natives of the Americas, but extraordinary wealth and profitability for the Europeans. In the long run, it connected the old world and the new world in a way never before.

How did the triangular trade change world economy?

It was a New and massive system of trade that sprang up in the Atlantic ocean. Manufactured goods were traded from Europe to west Africa, enslaved people were transported to the Americas, and in exchange for them, raw materials like sugar, molasses, and lumber were traded back to Europe. This was new during this period.

Manchu rule in Qing dynasty?

It was established in 1644 by the Manchu people, who are not Chinese. In establishing the dynasty, they did retain a few distinctively Chinese institutions like the civil service exam and bureaucracy. Partially, this was to legitimize their power on the side of Chinese population they ruled over. They ruled in conjunction though- as a dyarchy, with each major government position having one Han and one Manchu.

What was the new social hierarchy in the Americas? (Casta system)

It was occasioned by the introduction of Europeans and based on ancestry and race. It was the casta system. At the top where the peninsulares, those born on the Iberian Peninsula/Europe. Then where the creoles, Europeans born in the Americas. Then there were the castas, mixed ancestry. There was further hierarchy within the castas. First was mestizos, mixed European and indigenous. Then mulattoes, mixed European and African. Then zambos, mixed indigenous and African. Then the indigenous and then the Africans.

What was the encomienda system and how did it work?

It wasn't so much a land grant like the Hacienda; this was more a system of labor. Granted responsibility over a certain number of natives. Nobles then offered those natives protection and education and Christianity, and in return, those natives were to give tribute, most likely in the form of their labor. This was similar to feudal Europe. In this way, they were a type of slave.

What was the status of Jews in the ottoman empire during this time?

Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492 and found sanctuary in the ottoman empire, especially in Istanbul. Even so, they still had to pay jizya, a tax on non-Muslims, and were confined to certain parts of the city.

What were joint-stock companies

Joint-stock companies were formed to finance colonial expansion. Exploration for empire-building was financed not by a government but by joint investors who pulled their money together. Once they did, they would share in both the profits and losses of the company. One example was the British East India Company and the Dutch East India Company. Not everyone followed those guidelines though. For instance in Spain and Portugal, it was the kings and queens who were sponsors.

In what ways did the Spanish state also sponsor lots of sea-based exploration?

King Charles I of Spain sponsored Ferdinand Magellan (even though Magellan was Portuguese) -was the first to circumnavigate the globe by going west and then south around the tip of South America. He landed in the Philippines where Spain annexed a network of the islands and set up trading posts that attracted many Asian merchants. Christopher Columbus was also sponsored by the Spanish state, in this case, Ferdinand and Isabella, to seek a new route to Asia and to look for gold and silver.

How did the new social hierarchy of the Americas compare to the Hindu caste system?

Like the Hindu caste system, whatever caste you were born into was your caste for life. This was true for the casta system, as ancestry was determined by birth. One difference was in the casta system, you could marry up into different levels, although this didn't happen often.

What were the goals of European nations?

Manny wanted to find a sea route to Asia because Muslims controlled most of the land based trade routes which made it impossible for Europeans to establish trade on their own terms.

What economic system dominated in Europe at this time?

Mercantilism. In mercantilist mindset, there was only a fixed amount of wealth in the world and that wealth was measured in gold and silver. The problem was that no one wants a smaller amount, and everyone wants all of it. This led to intense rivalries among European powers.

What resistance occurred in the Mughal empire? (Marathas)

Mughal rulers were Muslim, while the majority of India was Hindu. Eventually a group of Hindu warriors called maratha Rose up to resist what they felt was an invasion of their beliefs. The uprising was successful and they brought mughal empire to an end and established the Maratha empire (1674). --- later, the British defeated the marathas and took over in the next period

What environmental impact did the Columbian exchange have?

Natives in the Americas have been farming for many centuries and have developed ways to live with their land sustainably. When European colonists arrived and grew wealthy through agriculture, they started using the land much more aggressively, which caused large-scale deforestation and depletion of soil. The Europeans tend to live in more densely populated settlements, which put greater strain on the water supply and introduced lots of pollution.

What was the middle passage?

Once they were sold to Europeans, slaves had to endure the brutal middle passage across the Atlantic ocean. They were stuffed so tightly into ships that many died from disease or suffocation.

How did this new maritime exploration differ from old maritime exploration?

People from all the world had always explored seas; but what's new here is the large scale state sponsorship of such exploration.

What were the major effects of African slave trade?

Some African states were severely weakened by slave trade like the kingdom of Congo. But because it was so profitable, the trade continued, which led to significant demographic changes in Africa. Those who were captured were majority males, which led to an increase in polygamy/polygyny. Africa experienced a decline in population; however, because of the Columbian exchange and the intro of American foods like maize in manioc, African populations begin to increase in spite of its depletion.

What was the encomienda system?

Spanish conquistadors were tasked with protecting a group of natives. in exchange for protection, they could force them to work on their land.

What rivalries did the Spanish face and how did they deal with them?

Spanish had to deal with rivalries of their own, mainly the Portuguese, as they both wanted to gain control of the Americas. The Treaty of Tordesillas settled these differences in 1494. This stated that the Portuguese control the land east of the Meriden line, Brazil, and the Spanish controlled land west of the Meriden line. There were other rivalries like the British, Dutch, and North America colonies, and the French, British, and Canadian rivalries.

What was the hacienda system?

Spanish landowners turned encomiendas or land grants into huge plantations.

How did syncretism emerge as religion spread?

Syncretism is the blending of two beliefs into one. Africans sometimes melded their traditional, indigenous religions with Christianity of the Europeans. They combined Christianity's major doctrines with the beliefs about the African spirit world and the importance of dance and movement. In the Americas, many of the indigenous people embraced Christianity and combined it with the celebration of their own holidays. Example: Vodou. It was a blend of Catholic saints and African slaves' religion. It came about because the Africans, now in the new world, were forbidden from practicing their religion.

What were two major trends as a religion spread into new territories during this time?

Syncretism or conflict.

How was disease spread from the west to the east?

Syphilis -spread to Europe by sailors from America -numerous family members of the Tudor and Valois died as a result, resulting in power struggle (like what happened to Aztecs and Incans)

What was indentured servitude and where was it used? How did Chattel slavery change this?

The British tried indentured servitude in North America, where people had to work for a certain number of years and then could go free. However, they had trouble with that because then the natives would go free. Chattel slavery solved these problems for Europeans. Africans who arrived as slaves knew the land even less than the Europeans and there was no end to their servitude, so there was no danger of them going free.

What did Portuguese do after attempting to enslave the natives in their brazillian colony?

The Portuguese dealt with this in their Brazilian colony. As they started growing sugarcane, they made lots of money. As they got tired of runaways, they began to important enslaved laborers from Africa. In Portugal's case they did so especially from the Congo kingdom. The demand for sugarcane and in other regions tobacco spiked, and so did the demand for enslaved laborers from Africa. Because of this, millions of Africans were removed from their homes and forced to participate in transatlantic slave trade.

Who were the first to establish an empire for the sake of trade? What did they do?

The Portuguese were the first, but they did it differently than those after them. Instead of claiming huge portions of land, they set up a trading post empire along the African coast. The Portuguese soon became a major player in the Indian Ocean trade network and eventually established more than trading posts. They had a colony in Brazil. French, British, Dutch, and Spanish all rushed to establish empires in the Americas and these colonies existed to serve the mother country.

What was the Hacienda system and how did it work?

The Spanish government granted haciendas, or land holdings, to any Spanish nobles or conquistadors who were willing to make the journey across the sea. Once in possession, they could sell and farm their land to those of lower class. People of lower classes begin working on these lands, and it was very unlikely that they would stop working because of low wages and huge amounts of debt that they were racking up and that they owned to the landowners. Many lords grew wealthy on the backs of their workers, especially when it came to the cultivation of sugar cane in Brazil.

How did Europe gain this power?

The advancement of technology, especially in maritime technology and also in navigational technologies.

What was the conflict between the boyars and the czar?

The boyars opposed the expansionist policies of Ivan the fourth (Ivan the terrible) who summarily entered into armed conflict with these nobles and won. Ivan confiscated their land and force them to relocate to Moscow where they lived under Ivan's eye.

What economic affects did European expansion have during this time?

The commercial revolution, a change in the economy through triangular trade, and the development of trade monopolies.

What were some of the examples of the advancement of maritime technology?

The creation of new kinds of chips, like the fluyt, caravel, and carrick. These were smaller, faster, and much cheaper to produce. They were nimbler on the seas and strictly merchant ships. A general practice up to this time was to build merchant ships so that they could be converted into warships if needed. But starting with the Portuguese, innovation was to make the ships trading ships only, so they were cheaper. The lateen sale made the ships faster and more nimble with a triangular sale that allowed sailors to harness the wind on both sides of the boat. This was not a European invention, because the Arab and Chinese have been using them already.

What economic system to these empires use to increase their power?

The dominant economic system of most in Europe was mercantilism, which assumed there was a fixed amount of wealth in the world like a pie. The main operating principles included that a state's wealth was measured by gold and silver, a state's main economic goal was to create a favorable balance of trade with an aim to have more exports and imports, and colonies existed to serve the mother country especially with raw materials.

What coerced labor systems did the Europeans try on the natives?

The encomienda system, the hacienda system, the mita system, and indentured servitude.

What third labor system did the Spanish take advantage of?

The existing labor system from the Incas- The Mita system, where conquered people were required to provide (often skilled) labor service (and in return, the state provided elaborate feasts). The Spanish came to the Americas to look for gold. They found some, but not enough to quench their desire. So they kept looking and eventually found a lot of silver, using the mita-system to compel native villages to send over their men to do the work of silver mining.. little or no wages.

How did slavery come about in the Americas?

The first European explorers were in search of gold and silver for the most part, and they found that if they devoted these colonies to agriculture, they could get rich. Instead of doing this large-scale agriculture themselves, they enslaved the natives and made them do it, which worked to an extent. because the natives knew the land better than the Europeans did, they often escaped slavery and could not be found. The Portuguese enslaved the natives too, and as a result they became tremendously rich off of sugarcane. However, many natives still escaped, either that or they died due to the great dying. This now shortage of labor necessitated the need to get African slaves.

What two coerced labor systems came from the Spanish?

The hacienda system and the encomienda system.

What was the commercial revolution?

The huge infusion of gold and silver into the world economy from the Americas had a profound effect. The commercial revolution was when goods in large part were now being traded not for other goods, but for gold and silver. The Chinese especially wanted silver and got silver by trading luxury goods like silk.

Quene Hairstyle and social troubles

The majority of the Chinese people were han Chinese; however, the qing weren't into tolerating han culture. If you didn't work for the government, you could wear anything; however, if you worked for the government, men were required to wear their hair in a traditional braided queues of the Manchurians. If han men refused to do this, they were executed by government. Resistance: Hairstyles were a part of their culture and the Han didn't willingly give it up to the people who ruled them. This caused the qing to kill hundreds of thousand of han Chinese.

How did the Portuguese establish their first empire in Africa?

The portuguese strategically established trading posts along the west African cost, often in cooperation with the local rulers. As a result, the Portuguese became very rich from controlling the trade.

How did the expansion of sea based empires change social hierarchies in the ottoman empire?

The social structure was built around a warrior aristocracy. They began competing for power with ulama, Islamic scholars, who held the power. An elite squad of soldiers in the military called janissaries began to yearn for power too, and in some cases, they staged coups to overthrow the Sultan. Unrest during this time period, due to a string of very incapable sultans led to a rise of power shift from sultans to viziers, advisers to the Sultan. Viziers began to consolidate power for themselves.

How did religion create conflict?

There was a Sunni Shia divide among Muslims. The split was pretty old, but intensified by the Ottoman conflict with the Safavids. The protestant reformation was a split in the Christian church that separated Roman Catholics from the newly formed protestants. This occurred for many reasons, such as a different interpretation on the doctrine of salvation.

What was the social structure in Russia?

There were also tensions in the social hierarchy. At the top were the Boyars (the landed aristocracy) under the czar. Under them were the merchants and then the peasants. Much of the peasantry sank into poverty and debt during this time and became serfs who work the land of the nobles without much hope of leaving that land because of their debts.

What accomplishments did the French make during this time in maritime exploration? How does this differ from Britain?

They also wanted to find a Northwest passage through the Americas to Asia. They couldn't, but they claimed part of the land that is now Canada, and found out it was rich in natural resources. Because of this, they gave up on trying to find Asia. Just one year after the establishment of Jamestown, the French established Quebec. In general, they did not establish permanent settlements like the English did; instead, they were more interested in using new territories as trading post with the natives, and they had better relations with the Native Americans.

What type of technology did the Europeans inherit and innovate?

They inherited technologies like the astrolabe, magnetic compass, and lateen sale. The astrolabe showed how far north or south they were from the equator. The compass had gave sailors the ability to know which direction they were headed thanks to the north south magnetic field that runs across the earth. The lateen sail was a triangular sale that could catch wind on both sides of the ship, as opposed to all the old square sales that could only catch wind from One Direction. Ships that successfully combined square sails and lateen sails, could travel farther into the ocean, leading to the expansion of trade routes. -astrolabe: showed their distance relative to the equator -magnetic compass: sailors could know which direction they were headed by using the magnetic field of earth as guide -lateen sail: triangular sail that could catch wind on both sides

What were some navigational technologies and what did they do?

They made it possible to sail greater distances. Improved astronomical charts enabled sailors to reckon their positions on seas. The astrolabe and magnetic compass made it possible to pinpoint the ships exact location. Europeans didn't invent these, but harnest power for their own purposes during this time.

What did Portugal turn to after accomplishing such maritime achievements? What were their goals?

They turned their attention to empire building through trading post empires. Trading post empires: they claimed small amounts of land at strategic locations around the African coast and throughout the Indian Ocean. Their goal was to possess a monopoly over the spice trade and charge all other ships passing through the ports they control.

How did the Mongols deal with the belief system of the natives they conquered? What is this similar to?

They were very tolerant of the people's religious beliefs, as well as Akbar in the mughal empire.

How did the Europeans impact the Indian Ocean trade network?

Trade along the Indian Ocean had always been maintained by ethnic and religious ties; but, when the Portuguese showed up with cannons they use military might to make trade favorable for themselves. Even so, with huge infusions of European merchants, the Indian Ocean network pretty much absorbed these changes and continued going strong.

Despite these economic changes, what continued?

Traditional regional markets continued. Trade of peasant and artisan goods flourished as well. For instance silk from China, cotton from India, and wool and linens from West Europe was still traded often.

What was the mita system?

When both the Hacienda and encomienda system failed, the Europeans borrowed the Incan's system. Under Incan rulers, the mita system was used to coerced labor for public projects which only occurred for a certain amount of days per year. The Spanish coerced men to laboer for them for a certain amount of time. The difference was that the Incan system was done for the sake of public works, but the Spanish was done for the sake of private game.

How did the growth of sea-based empires differ from that of land-based empires?

While gunpowder was the main catalyst of land-based empire building, technology was the main catalyst of sea-based empire building. Although, these maritime empires definitely still did use gunpowder.

women in the ottoman empire at this time?

Women didn't have much direct power. However, many of the sultans wives and concubines (subordinate wives) competed to promote their sons into positions of power. This is what was known as harem politics. Ottoman law ensured them many rights though. For ex: although turkic women lost pastoralist freedoms as Ottomans became urbanized, elite women had great influence on men thanks to ottoman law.

Why did states fund exploration for God?

duty for Christian missions to convert people

What was the Columbian exchange?

the transfer of people, animals, plants, and diseases from the east to the west and from the west to the east.